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Heart Murmurs Topic Review
Describing Murmurs | Systolic Murmurs | Diastolic Murmurs | Dynamic Auscultation
Introduction
Disease of the cardiac valves and other cardiac structures frequently results in abnormal,
turbulent blood flow within the heart, causing murmurs. Careful auscultation of heart murmurs
is an extremely valuable tool in the diagnosis of many cardiac conditions. Heart murmurs are
discussed here. Heart sounds are discussed elsewhere.
When normal laminar blood flow within the heart is disrupted, an audible sound is created by
turbulent blood flow. Outside of the heart, audible turbulence is referred to as a bruit, whereas
inside the heart it is called a murmur. A pictorial representation of systolic and diastolic
murmurs is below.
1. Valvular stenosis: If blood is forced through a tight area, turbulent blood flow ensues, as is
the case in valvular stenosis. Generally, the worse the stenosis, the louder the murmur;
however, if heart failure develops, adequate pressures to create turbulent blood flow may
not be able to be achieved, and the murmur may lessen or even disappear. Thus, the
intensity of a murmur is not used to indicated severity of disease.
3. Congenital anomaly: If blood is forced through a congenital anomaly from one chamber to
another, as in an atrial septal defect or ventricular septal defect, a murmur is produced —
again due to turbulence.
4. Increased blood flow: Yet another cause of cardiac murmurs is increased flow of blood
through a normal valve. In high-output states such as anemia, thyrotoxicosis or sepsis, a
large volume passes through the cardiac valves, and the normal laminar blood flow may
be disturbed. Still’s murmur is a normal aortic flow murmur frequently heard in childhood
that frequently disappears over time.
Murmurs are described by their timing in the cardiac cycle, intensity, shape, pitch, location,
radiation and response to dynamic maneuvers. Using the above, clinicians can accurately
characterize the nature of a murmur and communicate their findings in a precise manner.
With the knowledge of the possible cardiovascular conditions that cause systolic or diastolic
murmurs, the clinician can narrow their differential diagnosis. Thus, it is important to remember
which lesions result in systolic murmurs and which result in diastolic murmurs.
Stenosis of the aortic or pulmonic valves will result in a systolic murmur as blood is ejected
through the narrowed orifice. Conversely, regurgitation of the same valves will result in a
diastolic murmur as blood flows backward through the diseased valve when ventricular
pressures drop during relaxation. Regarding the mitral and tricuspid valves, stenosis would
result in a diastolic murmur and regurgitation a systolic murmur.
Other murmurs will be discussed in their respective sections below. More in-depth discussion of
valvular heart disease can be found elsewhere.
Once it is determined if the murmur is systolic or diastolic, the timing within systole or diastole
also becomes important when characterizing the murmur. Systolic murmurs can be classified as
either midsystolic (systolic ejection murmurs, or SEM), holosystolic (pansystolic) or late systolic.
A midsystolic murmur begins just after the S1 heart sound and terminates just before the P2
heart sound; thus, S1 and S2 will be distinctly audible. Conversely, a holosystolic murmur begins
with or immediately after the S1 heart sound and extends up to the S2, making them difficult —
if not impossible — to hear. A mid-late systolic murmur begins significantly after S1 and may or
may not extend up to the S2.
Grading
Systolic murmurs are graded on a scale of 6. This grading is, for the most part, subjective. Grade
I murmurs may not be audible to the inexperienced examiner; however, grade 6 murmurs are
heard even without the stethoscope on the chest and may actually be visible.
Diastolic murmurs are graded on a scale of 4. This a completely subjective grading scale. Once
again, grade I murmurs may not be audible to some, whereas grade IV murmurs are audible very
easily.
Shape
The shape of a murmur describes the change of intensity throughout the cardiac cycle. Murmurs
are either crescendo, decrescendo, crescendo-decrescendo or uniform.
Pitch
A murmur will be high pitched if there is a large pressure gradient across the pathologic lesion
and low pitched if the pressure gradient is low. For example, the murmur of aortic stenosis is
high pitched because there is usually a large pressure gradient between the left ventricle and
the aorta. Conversely, the murmur of mitral stenosis is low pitched because there is a lower
pressure gradient between the left atrium and the left ventricle during diastole. Remember high-
pitched sounds are heard with the diaphragm of the stethoscope, whereas low-pitched sounds
are heard with the bell.
Location
The anatomic location where the murmur is best heard is an important factor in determining the
etiology of the lesion. The four main “listening posts” on the chest are described below.
A = aortic valve post (right upper sternal border or RUSB)
P = pulmonic valve post (left upper sternal border or LUSB)
T = tricuspid valve post (left lower sternal border or LLSB)
M = mitral valve post (apex)
E = “Erb’s point”
Note that both the aortic and pulmonic listening posts are considered to be near the “base” of
the heart.
In general, a murmur will be the most intense over the listening post that corresponds to the
diseased valve. Many murmurs will radiate to more than one listening post. For example, the
murmur of aortic stenosis is best heard at the LUSB, but it may radiate to the apex. This
radiation of the aortic stenosis murmur is called the “Gallavardin dissociation.”
Radiation
While murmurs are usually most intense at one specific listening post, they often radiate to
other listening posts or areas of the body. For example, the murmur of aortic stenosis frequently
radiates to the carotid arteries and the murmur of mitral regurgitation radiates to the left
axillary region. It is often difficult to distinguish if one murmur is radiating to multiple sites or if
there are multiple murmurs present from many different causes. Dynamic auscultation and
echocardiography are helpful in determining the exact lesion present.
The intensity of the murmur of AS is not a good indicator as to the severity of disease. As AS
worsens, the LV begins to fail, and the ejection fraction declines to the point where sufficient
force to create turbulent flow is no longer produced, resulting in a decrease in the intensity of
the murmur.
While the intensity of the murmur may not be an accurate determinant of aortic stenosis
severity, the shape of the murmur can be very helpful. As aortic stenosis worsens, it takes longer
for blood to eject through the valve, so the peak of the crescendo-decrescendo murmur moves
to later in systole. Therefore, mild aortic stenosis would have a murmur that peaks early in
systole, whereas the murmur of severe aortic stenosis would peak later.
Remember from the Heart Sounds Topic Review that the delay in aortic valve closure can cause
a paradoxically split S2 heart sound and, as the aortic valve becomes more heavily calcified, the
intensity of the S2 heart sound declines. Also, in patients with bicuspid aortic valves, an ejection
click may be heard just before the murmur begins.
Early Diastolic
Aortic regurgitation (AR)
The murmur of aortic regurgitation is a soft, high-pitched, early diastolic, decrescendo murmur
usually heard best at the third intercostal space on the left (Erb’s point) at end expiration with
the patient sitting up and leaning forward. However, if the aortic regurgitation is due to aortic
root disease, the murmur will be best heard at the right upper sternal border — not at Erb’s
point. As AR worsens in severity, the pressure between the LV and the aorta equalize much
faster, and the murmur becomes significantly shorter.
In patients with AR, an early diastolic rumble may also be heard at the apex due to the
regurgitant jet striking the anterior leaflet of the mitral valve and causing it to vibrate. This
murmur is termed the Austin-Flint murmur.
In addition to the above two murmurs, a systolic ejection murmur may be present in patients
with severe aortic regurgitation at the right upper sternal border simply due to the large stroke
volume passing through the aortic valve with each systolic contraction of the LV.
Mid- to Late-diastolic
Mitral stenosis
Mitral stenosis results in a uniquely-shaped, low-pitched, diastolic murmur best heard at the
cardiac apex. The opening of the mitral valve produces an “opening snap” due to the high left
atrial pressures, immediately followed by a decrescendo murmur as blood flows passively from
the left atrium to the left ventricle through the stenosed mitral valve, creating turbulence.
Immediately before the S1 sound, active left ventricular filling occurs when the LA contracts and
forces more blood through the stenosed mitral valve, creating a late diastolic, crescendo
murmur. In the presence of atrial fibrillation, the active left ventricular filling phase does not
take place, and the latter part of the mitral stenosis murmur disappears.
As mitral stenosis worsens, left atrial pressure increases, forcing the mitral valve open earlier in
diastole. Thus, in severe mitral stenosis, the opening snap occurs earlier — as does the initial
decrescendo part of the murmur. The opening snap and murmur of mitral stenosis also respond
to dynamic auscultation.
Continuous Murmurs
The murmur of a patent ductus arteriosus, or PDA, is continuous throughout systole and
diastole. Often, the S2 heart sound is difficult to detect. The murmur begins just after S1 and
crescendos, peaking at S2, then decrescendos to S1.
The most important use of the Valsalva maneuver is to distinguish the murmur of aortic stenosis
from hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy — or simply to bring forth the murmur of HOCM.
Aortic stenosis will soften or not change, whereas the murmur of HOCM becomes quite loud with
Valsalva.
The Valsalva maneuver is also performed during routine echocardiographic examinations to see
if a patient with grade II or worse diastolic function can decrease his or her left ventricular filling
pressures adequately. If the Valsalva maneuver fails to reduce the left ventricular pressure in the
setting of diastolic heart failure, then grade IV diastolic dysfunction is said to be present —
indicating a poor prognosis.
This maneuver will decrease the murmur of HOCM, as the increased left ventricular volume
helps displace the hypertrophied interventricular septum, causing less outflow tract
obstruction.
This maneuver will increase the murmur of HOCM and decrease that of aortic stenosis.
Leg Raising
Passive leg raising is done simply by raising the legs high in a patient lying supine. This results in
blood that was pooled in the legs returning to the heart, increasing left ventricular filling and
preload — similar to the effect seen with squatting from a standing position.
This maneuver will decrease the murmur of HOCM, as the increased left ventricular volume
helps displace the hypertrophied interventricular septum, causing less outflow tract
obstruction.
Handgrip Exercise
Isometric handgrip exercises are performed by having a patient squeeze hard repetitively. This
results in increased blood pressure, similar to exercise, and thus increased afterload. Elderly
individuals may have a hard time with this maneuver, and transient arterial occlusion (described
below) can be used instead.
This maneuver will increase the intensity of left-sided regurgitant murmurs including MR and AR.
However, handgrip exercises will have no effect on the murmur of AS, which helps distinguish
the presence of coexistent MR from Galliverdin phenomenon.
When the afterload is decreased, there is less resistance to blood flow from the LV through the
aortic valve; this means less blood regurgitates through the mitral valve, thereby decreasing the
intensity of the murmur.
Amyl nitrate can be given via inhalation to reduce afterload for diagnostic purposes in the
cardiac catheterization laboratory (to invoke a LV outflow tract gradient in patients with HOCM)
or as a diagnostic tool during cardiac physical examination. Due to the advancement of
echocardiography, it is not commonly used any longer.