MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

“WATER ABSTRACTION FROM AIR

USING HYDROGEL DERIVED-MATRIX”

PROJECT GUIDE- Mrs. SAVITA SHARMA

SUBMITTED BY:-
SHIVAM KUMAR- (10216210030)

SRIKANT GIRI-(10216210032)

VANSH BALEJA-(10216210037)

MAYANK PAL-(10216210044)

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DECLARATION
We hereby declare that results embodied in the dissertation entitled “Water
Abstraction from Air using hydrogel derived matrix” is carried out by us
during the year 2019 in partial fulfilment of the award of B.Tech (Mechanical
Engineering) from “ SRM University Haryana” .
We have not submitted the same to any other university or organisation for the
award of any other degree.

External Examiner Project Guide

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Acknowledgment

This is an acknowledgment of the intensive drive and technical competence of

many individuals who have contributed to the success of our project.

We are grateful to “ Dr.Ajit -CHEMISTRY department” granting us

permission for the experiments and development of this project in “Chemistry
Lab”.

A special note thanks to

“Dr.Vijay Bhadhur”(Ass.Professor) for his valuable suggestions and
guidance in all aspects.

We are highly obliged and grateful to

“Mr. Suresh- Mechanical Department (Ass. Professor)” and “Mrs. Savita
(Ass.Professor)” for being our mentor.

At last we would like to mention our “HEAD OF PROJECT” who gave us

opportunity to indulge in “innovation and creative activity” which is important
in today’s changing world “DR.ASHOK KUMAR MISHRA”

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ABSTRACT

The extraction of water from air is a promising way to supply fresh water,
especially in remote, arid regions. This process can be supported by desiccant
materials such as zeolites, metal−organic frameworks, or hygroscopic salts.

Here we present a composite material that is able to absorb 660 kg of water per
cubic meter of bulk material from air at 10 mbar water vapour pressure and
28 °C.
The material consists of calcium chloride incorporated into an alginate-derived
matrix.

A simple synthesis route leads to spherical beads of the composite with a

diameter of approximately 2 mm.
This macroscopic structure allows for good vapour permeability through packed
beds.
The collected water can be released at 100 °C, potentially enabling a solar-
driven application.

In addition, the synthetic route uses cheap, non-toxic, and easily accessible
materials allowing for widespread application.

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List of figures
S.NO Figure Details Page Number
1.) Fig-1.1 ( Shows the water scarcity 8
data)
2.) Fig-1.2 (Water Scarcity in Arid 9
Regions)
3.) Fig-1.3 ( Water scarcity in India 10
over the years)
4.) Fig-2.1 ( water extraction 11
generator)
5.) Fig-2.2 ( MOF arrangement water 12
extraction)

6.) Fig – 2.3 (Detailed construction of 13

MOF’s water extractor)

7.) Fig-2.4 (Composite Matrix 14

fabrication)

8.) Fig-3.1 ( Sodium Alginate) 15

9.) Fig-3.2 ( Calcium chloride) 15

10.) Fig-3.3 (Test Tube) 15
11.) Fig-3.4 (Beaker) 15
12.) Fig- 3.5 (Burette) 16
13.) Fig-3.5 (Weighing Machine) 16
14.) Fig-3.6 (Stirrer) 16
15.) Fig-3.7 (Distilled water) 16
16.) Fig- 3.8 (Nozzle) 17
17.) Fig-3.9 ( Wooden box and 17
Tools)
18.) Fig-3.10 (3-bulbs with holders) 17
19.) Fig-3.11 (Processor Fan) 17
20.) Fig-3.12 ( Thermometer) 18

21.) Fig-3.13(Water sprinkler) 18

22.) Fig-3.14 (9v battery with wires) 18

23.) Fig-3.15 (Tape) 18

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24.) Fig-4.1 (Formation of hydrogels 19

beads)
25.) Fig-4.2 (Beaker and Calcium 20
chloride)
26.) Fig-4.3 Beaker and Sodium 20
Alginate
27.) Fig-4.4 (Nozzle fitted with burette) 21

28.) Fig-4.5 (Hydrogel Spherical 21

Beads)

29.) Fig-4.6 (Figure shows the Oven 22

and corresponding beads)
30.) Fig-4.7 (Figure shows 22
Corresponding beads)
31.) Fig-4.8 (Day and night 23
Environment boxes)
32.) Fig-5.1 (Flattened beads) 25

33.) Fig-5.2 (Spherical Beads) 26

34.) Fig-5.3 (Graph shows the 26

variations of Diameter beads)

35.) Fig-5.4 (Grads designated beads 27

36.) Fig-5.5 Graph shows the variations 29

between Volumes Vs Time in
hours)

37.) Fig-5.6 (Temperature Vs Time 30

Curve)

38.) Fig-5.7 (Experimental Heating 30

Apparatus)

39.) Fig-5.8 (Water abstracted and 31

weighing machine shown here)

40.) Fig-5.9 (Graph shows the 31

Variations between Diameters of
beads vs. Water extracted from
beads in grams)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.no Particulars Page number
1.) Chapter-1
(Introduction)------------------------------------ (8)

2.) Chapter-2
(Literature survey)----------------------(11)

3.) Chapter-3
(Materials Required)--------------------(15)

4.) Chapter-4
(Experimental Work) -------------------(19)
5.) Chapter-5
(Analysis and Results)------------------(25)
6.) Chapter-6
(Discussions and Conclusion) --------(32)
7.) References------------------------------(33)

8.) Budget-----------------------------------(34)

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CHAPTER-1 (INTRODUCTION)
It is estimated that around four billion people on the globe suffer from water
scarcity.

Distribution and production of fresh water and the control over water sources
are a potential cause for conflicts. Therefore, new ways of fresh water
production and improvement of existing techniques are the focus of current
project.

The utilization of water from lakes and rivers, the exploitation of rainfall runoff
and the desalination of salt water are being used extensively to cover the
demand of fresh water. Particularly, the desalination of seawater requires high
initial investment cost and is mainly feasible on large scale in coastal areas,
making it inaccessible for remote regions and decentralized allocation.

(Fig-1.1 Shows the water scarcity data)

The use of atmospheric water as source of fresh water has been investigated
extensively, but is still underdeveloped .With a diverse population that is three
times the size of the United States but one-third the physical size, India has the
second largest population in the world.

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According to the World Bank, India has taken significant steps to reduce
poverty but the number of people who live in poverty is still highly
disproportionate to the number of people who are middle-income, with a
combined rate of over 52% of both rural and urban poor.

(Fig-1.2 Water Scarcity in Arid Regions)

Although India has made improvements over the past decades to both
the availability and quality of municipal drinking water systems, its large
population has stressed planned water resources and rural areas are left out. In
addition, rapid growth in India's urban areas has stretched government solutions,
which have been compromised by over-privatization.Regardless of
improvements to drinking water, many other water sources are contaminated
with both bio and chemical pollutants, and over 21% of the country's diseases
are water-related. Furthermore, only 33% of the country has access to
traditional sanitation.

One concern is that India may lack overall long-term availability of

replenishable water resources. While India's aquifers are currently associated
with replenishing sources, the country is also a major grain producer with a
great need for water to support the commodity. As with all countries with large
agricultural output, excess water consumption for food production depletes the
overall water table.Many rural communities in India who are situated on the
outskirts of urban sprawl also have little choice but to drill wells to access
groundwater sources. However, any water system adds to the overall depletion
of water. There is no easy answer for India which must tap into water sources
for food and human sustenance, but India's overall water availability is running
dry.

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India's water crisis is often attributed to lack of government planning, increased

corporate privatization, industrial and human waste and government corruption.
In addition, water scarcity in India is expected to worsen as the overall
population is expected to increase to 1.6 billion by year 2050. To that end,
global water scarcity is expected to become a leading cause of national political
conflict in the future, and the prognosis for India is no different.

(Fig-1.3 Water scarcity in India over the years)

On a positive note, some areas of India are fortunate to have a relatively wet
climate, even in the most arid regions. However, with no rain catchment
programs in place, most of the water is displaced or dried up instead of used. In
these areas, rain harvesting could be one solution for water collection. Collected
water can be immediately used for agriculture, and with improved filtration
practices to reduce water-borne pathogens, also quickly available for human
consumption.Whatever the means, India needs solutions now. Children in 100
million homes in the country lack water, and one out of every two children are
malnourished. Environmental justice needs to be restored to India so that
families can raise their children with dignity, and providing water to
communities is one such way to best ensure that chance.

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CHAPTER-2 (Literature Survey)

There are two general options for water harvesting from air:

1) Ambient air can be cooled below its dew point and the condensed liquid
water can be collected. Large volumes of air and low temperatures at the
condenser are required, especially in regions of low relative humidity (r.h.)
The cooling of the heat sink for the condensation can be energy
consumptive, since a difference in temperature between the condensation
unit and the ambience has to be maintained. Additionally, the heat of
condensation of the collected water has to be discharged.

(Fig-2.1 water extraction generator)

2) Humidity can be adsorbed or absorbed (taken up) by desiccant materials, and

in a second step desorbed at elevated temperatures followed by condensation
of the hot water vapour at ambient conditions. Usually water is taken up
during the colder night-time when the relative humidity is higher and
desorbed during daytime

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The necessary heat for desorption is ideally provided by solar radiation. The
resulting heated water vapour can be brought below its dew point and
condensed at ambient temperatures, making an energy expansive auxiliary heat
sink redundant. When the ambient air is used as coolant, a sufficient airstream
has to be maintained to reject the heat of condensation.

Applications for dew point water collection and fog capturing have been
presented, but they require high relative humidity’s, usually above 50%. Those
conditions are usually found in regions that offer other possibilities for fresh
water production such as water extraction from lakes, rivers or oceans.

Only a few applications have been presented that are able to harvest water from
air at relative humidity below 30%. These conditions are especially interesting
because regions where the relative humidity is low usually offer no efficient
ways for fresh water production. Hygroscopic salts, zeolites, porous silica-
based materials like MCM-41, carbon based composites1 or metal-organic
frameworks, such as MOF-801, are capable of taking up water at
relative humidities below 25%.

( Fig-2.2 MOF’s arrangement water extraction)

The adsorption of water on zeolite surfaces at low humidities is accompanied

by high adsorption enthalpies of more than 70 kJ mol−1, requiring temperatures
above 150 °C for the desorption, making this process energy consumptive.
MOFs, such as MOF-801, can readily absorb water from air at around 10%
relative humidity and are able to release it at temperatures below 100 °C. The
major problem of materials that harvest water through adsorption on the
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material surface is the low gravimetric water uptake of around 25 wt.%.

However, there are exceptions such as a MOF based on cobalt ions and a
bis(1H-1,2,3-triazolo[4,5-b],[4’,5’-i])dibenzo[1,4]dioxin) (BTDD) linker that,
shows a water uptake of around 80 wt.% at 25 °C and 30% relative humidity.
Up untill now, it has been proven difficult to synthesize most of the suitable
MOFs on a scale that allows for significant, cost-efficient water production.

(Fig – 2.3 Detailed construction of MOF’s water extractor)

Apart from water harvesting through adsorption on the surface, it is possible to

harvest water through absorption, e.g., hydration of salts. One of the most
promising salts is calcium chloride because of its excellent water sorption
properties in combination with a natural and industrial abundance

The salt is able to absorb more than 95% of its own weight in water for the
reaction of the anhydrous salt to the hexahydrate. However, hygroscopic salts
face the problem of particle agglomeration during hydration, which reduces the
gas permeability. Additionally, passivation layers can be formed on the surface
of the salt particles, which reduces the absorption capability.

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Composites of matrix materials that can adsorb water on their surface and
hygroscopic salts that absorb water through hydration reactions have shown
promising results. The salt is distributed within the matrix to prevent
agglomeration while at the same time increasing the amount of water that can
be taken up by the composite. A general problem for pristine, as well as
composite materials is the macroscopic structuring. Ideally, a material should be
prepared, which can be packed in beds or columns that are penetrable by air
with a low pressure loss and high volumetric, as well as gravimetric water
sorption capacity.

(Fig-2.4 Composite Matrix fabrication)

Here, we present an approach for the encapsulation of CaCl2 into a polymer-

based matrix for water harvesting purposes. A facile ionotropic gelation method
is used to synthesize composite beads in the size of around 2 mm. Sodium
alginic acid is chosen as basis for the matrix because of the excellent features of
alginate-based hydrogels in terms of macroscopic shaping. In addition, alginates
are a cheap, as well as non-toxic biomaterial that has been utilized in various
applications.

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CHAPTER-3 (MATERIALS REQUIRED)

In order to start the experiment we need following material:-

1) Sodium alginate (4-20g):-

Fig-3.1
2) Calcium chloride (200-400g):-

Fig-3.2
3) Test tube:-

Fig-3.3

4) Beaker:-

Fig-3.4

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5) Burette:-

Fig-3.5

6) Weighing machine:-

Fig-3.6

7) Stirrer:-

Fig-3.7
8) Distilled water:-

Fig-3.8

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9) Nozzle or Encapsulator:-

Fig-3.9

10) Wooden box with glassx (32×32×25 ) and tool kit :-

Fig-3.10
10.) 3 Bulbs with holders:-

Fig-3.11
11.) Processor fan:-

Fig-3.12

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12.) Thermometer:-

Fig-3.13

13.) Water sprinkler

Fig-3.14

14.) 9v battery with wires:-

Fig-3.15

15.) Tape:-

Fig-3.16

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Chapter-4 (Experimental Work)

Formation of composite Matrix:-
In the present approach, a CaCl2 solution is used as a Ca2+ source for the
ionotropic gelation of a sodium alginic acid solution.Droplets of the alginate
solution form spherical hydrogel beads upon contact with the gelation solution
that contains Ca2+ ions.

After the initial hydrogel formation, Ca2+ and Cl− ions from the gelation
solution diffuse into the hydrogel spheres until an equilibrium of the salt
concentration between the CaCl2 solution and the hydrogel is reached. Upon
drying of the hydrogel, CaCl2 precipitates within the alginate-derived matrix
and a composite is formed.

The spherical shape of the hydrogel can be maintained throughout the drying
process leading to the generation of spherical beads of an alginate-derived
matrix with incorporated CaCl2. The size of the composite beads can be altered
by the droplet size. The amount of incorporated salt can be adjusted by the
concentration of the CaCl2 solution.

Here we used beads in the size of around 3-5 mm in diameter to obtain a

balance between high packing density, easy vapor transport through the packed
bed, and limited diffusion length within the individual beads. The final
composite, referred to as Alg-CaCl2, contains 76 wt.% of salt. This is higher
than the amount of salt that can be incorporated through conventional
impregnation of matrices, which usually ranges from 30 to 58 wt.-% in the case
of silica-based materials, and can reach up to 68 wt.% in the case of MOFs.

(Fig-4.1 Formation of hydrogels beads)

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Synthesis of the composites:- Alg-CaCl 2 was synthesized using a

solution of sodium alginic acid (2.00 g in00 mL of water) that was
added to a solution of CaCl 2 (145g in 200 mL water) drop wise The
hydrogel spheres were left in the CaCl 2 solution for 12 h, filtered,
washed with water and dried at 140 °C for 20 h to obtain the final
composite Alg-CaCl 2 .

STEP WISE PREPARATION FOR BEADS:-

1.) Clean the Beakers and add Calcium chloride in Distilled water(
145g in 200mL)

(Fig-4.2 Beaker and Calcium chloride)

2.) Take the beaker again and prepare the sodium alginic solution (
2g in 100mL).

(Fig-4.2 Beaker and Sodium Alginate)

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3.) Stir both the solution properly for 10-20 minutes:-

(Fig-4.3 Magnetic Stirrer)

4.) Add the Alginic solution into the burette and adjust nozzle with it
and add drop by drop alginate into calcium chloride:-

(Fig-4.4 Nozzle fitted with burette)

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5.) Spherical beads will form and leave the solution for 12 hour:-

(Fig-4.5 Hydrogel Spherical Beads)

6.) Separate the beads from the solution carefully and wash it with
distilled water and put the beads in Oven for 20hrs set the
temperature for 140℃.

(Fig-4.7 Figure shows the Oven and corresponding beads)

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7.) After drying process take out the beads from the oven and move
to the analyses.

(Fig-4.7 Figure shows Corresponding beads)

Preparation for the Testing Apparatus:-

After preparing the composites matrix we need to prepare the two rectangular
box in order to extract the water from beads. Purpose of preparing the two
boxes is that one box will provide the night environment and another box will
provide the heating source as shown below by the images below:-

(Fig-4.8 Day and night Environment boxes)

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(Fig-4.9 Heating Source day time)

LINE DIAGRAM FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL APPARTUS

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Chapter-5 (Analysis and Results)

After preparing the composites matrix and apparatus we move onto the analysis
and experimentation. First we need to assess the factors affecting the beads
shapes because beads shapes plays very important role for absorption of water
from atmosphere and condensation of water from the beads.

Factors affecting the beads shape

1.) Wet beads were all spherical regardless of the studied processing
parameters. However, the shape of wet bead was influenced by the
distance between the top of a needle, through which the dispersion was
dropped, and hardening solution as well as the stirring speed of the
hardening solution. Namely, the beads flattened on contact with the
hardening medium if the alginate dispersion was dropped from the height
higher than 6 cm. As shown below:-

(Fig-5.1 Flattened beads)

So we were supposed to decrease the height of nozzle to the 6cm range and we
get the shape of the beads spherical in nature as shown below:-

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(Fig-5.2 Spherical Beads)

Furthermore, elongation of the beads during hardening was observed at stirring

speed higher than 600 rpm. Therefore, in the present work the stirring speed and
the distance between the top of a needle and the hardening solution were fixed
at 600 rpm and 6 cm, respectively.

(Fig-5.3 Graph shows the variations of Diameter beads Vs Nozzle distance)

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2.) Drying may influence bead size and shape. During drying, the beads
shrank significantly and their shape changed. Dry beads had a typical
shape with following characteristics: they resembled to flattened,
ellipsoid spheres, some of them were completely flattened, some had a
hollow in the center and some had regular spherical shape. Therefore, the
method for their shape characterization was adapted to their
characteristics. So we divide our beads into the grades.

(Fig-5.4 Grads designated beads)

Criteria to designate beads into the grades:-

S.no Diameter reading M.S.R PSR×LC TOTAL READINGS

in (mm)

1.) 4.5 0.01×12 4.62

2.) 4.5 0.01×32 4.82

3.) 4.0 0.01×45 4.45

4.) 2.5 0.01×27 2.77

5.) 2.5 0.01×13 2.63

6.) 2.5 0.01×18 2.68

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7.) 2.0 0.01×43 2.43

8.) 2.5 0.01×46 2.96

9.) 3 0.01×2 3.02

10.) 3.0 0.01×0 3.0

11.) 3.5 0.01×25 3.75

12.) 3.5 0.01×37 3.84

13.) 4.5 0.01×34 4.84

14.) 2 0.01×22 2.22

15.) 2 0.01×37 2.37

From the readings the remarkable points are 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5(mm).For the
criteria of grading all the beads having size less than 3mm are under Grade-C
category.

Beads which are having size between ranges of 3mm to 4mm will fall under the
Grade-B category. Whereas the beads having size greater than 4.2mm will fall
under Grade-A.

For the purpose of application, Grade- A beads will be the top most criteria for
better abstraction of water.

ANALYSIS OF TESTING THE EXPERIMENTS

After dividing the beads into grades we placed our beads grade wise into the
boxes.

Firstly we placed the beads into the box that give the atmospheric conditions
nearly to the arid region environment for that we estimated the sprinkler volume
and box volume

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1 stroke of sprinkler gives=0.071mL of water=0.07×10-6 m3

Volume of box = (32×32×25)= 25,600cm3=0.0256m3

Therefore Ratio of volumes comes out to be = 2.734×10-6

Each grade was placed and ratio was increased with time to time after that beads
were placed into the heating source for extraction of water.

(Fig-5.5 Graph shows the variations between Volumes Vs Time in hours)

After placing the beads into the heating source corresponding temperature rise
with time was noted and the graph was plotted:-

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(Fig-5.6 Temperature Vs Time Curve)

In heating source 3 bulbs were attached and the beads grade by grade were
placed at the focus of the bulbs so that beads can condense the absorbed water
molecules into the sponge arrangement and sponge can be compressed to
abstract the required water.

(Fig-5.7 Experimental Heating Apparatus)

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We took each grade and weighed the amount of water abstracted on chemical
weighing machine.

(Fig-5.8 Water abstracted and weighing machine shown here)

Later on we plotted the graph between “Diameter of Beads Vs.Water

abstracted in grams”

(Fig-5.9 Graph shows the Variations between Diameters of beads vs. Water extracted from
beads in grams)

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Chapter-6 (Discussions and conclusion)

A composite material for water harvesting consisting of an alginate-derived
matrix and large amounts of incorporated CaCl2 was presented, which can be
obtained as spherical beads through a facile synthesis route. The spherical
structure promotes good gas permeability of packed beds. The presented
material is able to adsorb 100% of its own weight in water from air at a water
vapour pressure of 10 mbar, which makes it promising for application in arid
climate zones. The high water uptake indicated that the incorporated salt is
accessible for water vapour, which is attributed to the micro pores of the matrix.
More than 90% of the adsorbed water can be released at 100 °C and complete
desorption can be achieved at 150 °C. These temperatures can be provided by
solar radiation, e.g., vacuum solar tubes. The results show that the presented
material is an interesting candidate for water harvesting applications .

The macroscopic structure may allow an application in packed columns.

Ambient air can be lead through the material at night to allow for water
absorption with a low pressure loss and therefore little energy consumption. At
daytime, the temperature of the packed bed can be increased by solar heat and
the released water can be condensed at ambient temperature. Calculations from
the bulk density of the material and the water uptake indicate that 660 kg of
water could be harvested per cubic meter of composite material in a packed bed.

Conclusion:-

This method of extraction can compensate the problems that society will face in
upcoming years .We need to develop the technologies to use beads which are
cheap and can be made in bulks to abstract the water from atmosphere which
can release the water content at the arid regions also. Although MOFs are
available to extract the water from air but they are very costly and they face the
problem of agglomeration so this method need to be developed in more
effective way to provide sustainable future because water scarcity will increase
as the population goes on increasing day by day.

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References
1.) Mekonnen, M. M. & Hoekstra, A. Y. Four billion people facing severe
water scarcity. Sci. Adv. 2, e1500323 (2016).
2.) Gad, H. E., Hamed, A. M. & El-Sharkawy, I. I. Application of a solar
desiccant/collector system for water recovery from atmospheric
air. Renew. Energy 22, 541–556 (2001).
3.) William, G. E., Mohamed, M. H. & Fatouh, M. Desiccant system for
water production from humid air using solar energy. Energy 90, 1707–
1720 (2015).

4.) The Influence of Selected Parameters on the Size and Shape of Alginate
Beads Prepared by Ionotropic Gelation by Polona SMRDEL ,Marija
BOGATAJ * and Aleš MRHAR

5.) American Society of Mechanical Engineering Research section.

6.) Wikipedia

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BUDGET

S.no Particulars QTY Price in

(Rs)

1 Chemical (Sodium alginate ) 1 250

2 Chemical (Calcium chloride) 1 650

3 Wooden Boxes 2 1250

4 Glasses 2 500

5 Bulbs 3 80

6 9v battery 1 15

7 Processor Fan 1 100

8 Wire 1 30

* End of statement*

No of Total
Items

12 2,875

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