Chiller - An Overview

11/9/2019 Chiller - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
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Chiller
A chiller is operating with a condensing temperature of 105°F and an evaporating
temperature of 35°F. How much does theoretical chiller efficiency increase if leaving
chiller water temperature is increased from 45°F to 48°F and entering condensing
water temperature is decreased from 85°F to 75°F?
From: Energy, Management, Principles, 1981
Related terms:
Heat Exchanger, Cooling Tower, Compressors, Absorption Chiller, Condenser,
Refrigerants, Chilled Water
View all Topics
Chillers and Heaters

John R. WagnerJr., ... Harold F. GilesJr., in Extrusion (Second Edition), 2014
38.1 Chillers
Chillers are used to control the feed throat temperature and barrel temperature for water-cooled extruders.
Downstream cooling associated with vacuum sizing tanks for profiles, pipes, and tubing, and other cooling processes
can use chillers. Chillers provide a closed-loop water system to cool either the equipment or the product. Advantages
of chillers versus once-through water are as follows:
• Constant water temperature
• Reduced water cost
• Reduced water waste
• Lower water temperature control point possible
In a large extrusion facility with many extruders and water cooling systems, it is common to have a cooling tower. If
no cooling tower is available, a chiller provides an efficient way to recirculate treated water through the feed throat
and extruder barrels if water cooling is being used. One chiller can cool a number of feed throats if that is all the
cooling that is required. The chiller has to be properly sized to match the heat load
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/chiller 1/21
The most important factor to consider when selecting a chiller is to choose the proper size. The extruder
manufacturer can supply the flow rate through the feed throat and the approximate flow rate to control the barrel in
a water-cooled extruder. Using Eqn (38.1), the heat load can be calculated and the chiller can be properly sized:
(38.1)
where
Recognizing that the cooling fluid density changes with temperature, let us assume 60 °F (15.6 °C) where the water
density is 8.33 lb/gal (1.0 kg/l). Assume that the feed throat flow rate is 1 gal/min at 100 °F. Also assume the water
temperature entering and exiting the feed throat has a 10°F ΔT and maintains the feed throat at 100°F. The heat
load (Q) calculation is given by Eqn (38.2):
(38.2)
Therefore, a chiller capable of removing 1.47 kW or 4998 Btu/h is needed to keep the cooling throat at the proper
temperature. Cooling is given in British thermal units per hour (kilocalories per hour) or tons. To convert from
British thermal units per hour to tons, use the conversion 1 ton of refrigeration = minute/200 Btu. Eqn (38.3)
converts the results from Eqn (38.2) into tons:
(38.3)
In chillers, the heat load is described in British thermal units (BTU/hr), kilowatts (kW), or tons capacity. Table 38.1
gives common guidelines for basic chiller tonnages [1].
Table 38.1. Typical Heat Loads in Extrusion
Load Chiller Tonnage
Feed throat 0.5
Gear box 1
Screw and barrel 1-ton/in. screw diameter
HDPE, LDPE, PP 1 ton for each 50 lb/h
PS 1 ton for each 75 lb/h
PVC 1 ton for each 80 lb/h
HDPE, high-density polyethylene; LDPE, low-density polyethylene; PP, polypropylene; PS, polystyrene; PVC, polyvinyl
chloride.
Obviously, the calculated load depends on whether the chiller is required to cool just the feed throat or the feed
throat plus barrel zones. If the barrel zones are water cooled, factors affecting the barrel temperatures are as follows:
• How much heat supplied by viscous shear heating has to be removed
• Extruder size
• Processing temperature window size
The more the cooling required, the greater the chiller cooling capacity and the larger the chiller must be. If the
extruder manufacturer can supply an appropriate heat load for different resin systems, these data can be used to
properly size the chiller.
In sizing chillers for extrusion, the following information is required:
• Extruder diameter and length
• Number of zones
• Extruder horsepower
• Connection sizes
• Throughput
• Materials being processed
• Melt temperature
• Cooling required if it is known in either British thermal units per hour or tons
The second issue in selecting a chiller is the choice between an air-cooled or water-cooled unit. Cooling is required
to dissipate the heat removed from the process. Water-cooled units are generally used in applications where tower
water or some other inexpensive water source is available to take away the heat. Air-cooled units are used where
water is contaminated, an inexpensive water source is not available, or the heat being dissipated is part of a heat
recovery system for heating the plant. Water-cooled models use condensers, whereas air-cooled models have fins
with an air-circulating blower to remove the heat. Water-cooled units are 10–15% more efficient than air-cooled
units are. The advantage of the air-cooled model is that it becomes more portable because a water source and drain
or return are not required at each location. Portable chillers in extrusion operations are generally used when cooling
tower water is not available. If cooling tower water is available to remove the heat from a chiller, it is also available to
hook directly to the extruder. In this scenario, a portable chiller may still be required for cooling water in a vacuum
tank or other downstream equipment to a temperature below that of the cooling tower water.
The third selection criterion is the control system, with a choice between a digital temperature controller and a fully
programmable, self-diagnostic microprocessor controller. A digital controller is inexpensive and provides continuous
operating temperature readings, with a single button for starting and stopping, easy entry of the process
temperature set point, low-liquid mode signal, and status indicators for on/off, compressor, alarm, and low flow. The
microprocessor controller supplies some of the same information available with the digital controller plus additional
information and more details. Microprocessor controls can provide the following:
• Set point and actual return temperatures
• Percent load or tons
• Process flow rate in gallons per minute (GPM) or liters per minute (LPM)
• Refrigerant pressures
• Run status
• Diagnostic information
• Adjustable alarm limits to display low level, high temperature, and low temperature
• Password entry to prevent accidental or unauthorized changes in settings
• Automatic fine tuning of proportional and integral and derivative (PID) temperature control parameters to
provide a uniform temperature
• Set points in degrees Fahrenheit and Celsius
The options available include communications ports for RS232, RS485, or RS422 with remote control switches and
sensors.
Figure 38.1 shows one fluid flow design for a chiller. Hot water return from the extruder enters a hold tank. The hold
tank has a vent system and refill valve to maintain the water level in the hold tank. A chilled water bypass can be used
if the hold tank gets too hot. The return water is then pumped through the refrigerant heat exchanger and then to
the extruder.
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Figure 38.1. Schematic of the fluid flow in a chiller.
The pump size is critical for good heat transfer characteristics. Turbulent flow through the process system is required
for good heat transfer. The pump size and flow rate are just as critical as the circulating water temperature. Higher
flow rates result in higher heat transfer rates
Some options available in chillers include the following:
• Nonferrous materials in contact with the water to prevent rust
• Pump motor overload protection
• Stainless steel tanks
• Brass shut-off valves
• Brass pump
• Audible and visual alarms
• Water filtration
One advantage of using a chiller versus once-through water is the water savings and the cost associated with the
water. Using 1 gal of water per minute for 24 h a day, 5 days per week, for 50 weeks consumes 360,000 gal/year. With
many water-cooled extruders, the consumption significantly exceeds 1 gal/min. Payback for chillers based on water
savings alone is relatively short.
Chillers are also used to control the water bath temperature in profiles and vacuum sizing tanks and to control the
cooling air temperature in blown film operations.
District cooling, current status and future trends

S. Tredinnick, G. Phetteplace, in Advanced District Heating and Cooling (DHC) Systems, 2016
8.3 Central plant configurations

The chiller plant layout is dependent upon a number of variables, such as the type of chiller, chilled water
temperatures, pumping configuration, how the chillers are piped (parallel or series), the load characteristics (i.e.
minimum to maximum load turndown) and redundancy requirements. Once each of the parameters is addressed,
then the plant can be logically configured.
8.3.1 Chiller configurations – Parallel and series

Frequently, chillers are piped in parallel (refer to Figure 8.2, later), where each unit of production has the same
entering and leaving conditions, thus providing a very logical configuration. If the chilled water system is to have a
very large temperature differential (e.g. over 18 °F or 10 °C), then they can be piped in series (refer to Figure 8.3,
later) to save energy. For a multiple chiller plant, a further nuance is to pipe the units in series on the evaporators
and counter flow on the condenser for even more energy savings, since it reduces the compressor ‘lift’ or ‘work’ even
more. ‘Lift’ is defined as the difference in leaving condenser water temperature and leaving evaporator temperature.
Reducing lift reduces the energy required. For example, consider a chilled water system using 20 °F (11 °C) chilled
water temperature differential and a 10 °F (5.6 °C) condenser water temperature differential with 40 °F (4.4 °C)
chilled water and 95 °F (35 °C) condenser water leaving temperatures. For a typical parallel chiller configuration, the
‘lift’ is 95 minus 40 °F, or 55 °F (35 minus 4.4 °C, or 30.6 °C).
Figure 8.2. Parallel chillers in primary–secondary pumping configuration.
Figure 8.3. Series chillers in variable-flow primary pumping configuration.
For a series counter flow chiller, there are a lead chiller and a lag chiller that share the load at about 50/50. Using the
same system temperature differentials as the parallel system, the lead chiller would have a lift of 95 minus 50 °F, or
45 °F (35 minus 10 °C, or 25 °C), and the lag chiller would have a lift of 90 minus 40 °F, or 50 °F (32.2 minus 4.4 °C,
or 27.8 °C). Therefore, the average lift for series chillers would be 47.5 °F (26.4 °C), which is substantially lower than
the 55 °F (30.6 °C) in the parallel configuration and would, therefore, use less energy.
8.3.2 Pumping configurations

There are several methods of pumping chiller plants. The basic parameters in making the appropriate decision are
the number of loops and whether they are constant flow or variable flow. With the exception of small chilled water
systems, there are no real advantages for constant flow, so this discussion will be focused on variable flow. The
number of pumped loops is also dependent on the size of the system. There can be a single loop that pumps the
chillers to the distribution system and finally the customer or that system can be separated into two or three loops
that are decoupled from one another with a shunt or bypass pipe. Usually the loops are termed ‘primary’, ‘secondary’,
‘tertiary’, etc. with the primary loop circulating through the chillers, the secondary loop circulating from the chillers
to the customer and then the customer circulating its own system as the tertiary loop.
Most large chilled water pumping systems generally fall into two categories: variable- primary flow or primary–
secondary. Frequently, older primary–secondary systems had constant flow primary pumps since the chiller control
systems could not handle the rapid varying evaporator temperatures caused by varying flow. That is not the case at
present, when each loop will vary its flow in order to save pump energy, so the contemporary primary–secondary
systems are termed ‘variable primary–variable secondary’ pumping.
From an energy perspective, there are minor improvements in annual system energy use when comparing a variable
primary to variable primary–variable secondary system; however, there are larger differences in installation costs due
to the fact that variable primary systems have fewer pumps that are large compared with more pumps that are
smaller for the variable primary–variable secondary systems. The system designer should conduct an energy and cost
analysis to determine most cost-effective system for a specific project.
8.3.3 Typical chilled water system efficiencies of equipment and system
The efficiency of the system is dependent upon a great many parameters. The largest impact to efficiency is the
compressor lift (as discussed above), as dictated by the entering and leaving conditions of the evaporator and
condenser. Table 8.2 summarizes typical chiller efficiency ranges for different chiller technologies.
Table 8.2. Typical chiller efficiency ranges with different prime drivers
Chiller type Typical efficiency Capacity range (ton)
Electric centrifugal (standard single compressor) 0.52–0.7 kW/ton (COP 4.7–6.75) 500 to > 1500
Electric centrifugal (standard dual compressor) 0.52–0.7 kW/ton (COP 4.7–6.75) 1500 to > 4000
Electric centrifugal (single compressor industrial – field erected) 0.52–0.7 kW/ton (COP 4.7–6.75) 2500 to > 5500
Gas reciprocating engine driven centrifugal (COP 1.5–1.9) 100 to > 3000
Steam driven centrifugal (COP 1.2–1.8) 100 to >+4000
HW absorption chiller (single effect) (COP 0.55–0.70) < 60 to > 3250
Steam absorption chiller (single effect) (COP 0.60–0.8) < 60 to > 3250
Direct fired (double effect) absorption chiller (COP 0.85–1.30) < 100 to > 3250
Source: Compiled from Table 3.3 of Phetteplace et al. (2013).
The overall efficiency (normally measured in kW/ton, a measure of energy consumption per unit of cooling) of a
chilled water system is truly dependent upon the summation of the efficiencies of all components (chillers, pumps,
heat rejection, etc.) within the system and not necessarily a single component. While the chiller is the largest
electrical load in the chilled water system, the most efficient chiller selection may not lead to the lowest system
kW/ton. As stated earlier, equipment efficiencies are heavily impacted by the design temperatures of the chiller. This
is best illustrated in Table 8.3, which breaks down the energy used by each system component for a sample chilled
water system. Example 3 has the highest overall system efficiency but does not have the highest efficiency chiller.
Table 8.3. Typical overall efficiency of chilled water system at various temperature differentials
Example 1 14 °F CHW Example 2 14 °F CHW Example 3 18 °F CHW Example 4 18 °F CHW
ΔT and 10 °F CW ΔT ΔT and 15 °F CW ΔT ΔT and 10 °F CW ΔT ΔT and 15 °F CW ΔT
Evaporator pump 1715 1715 1335 1335

flow (GPM)
Condenser pump 3000 2000 3000 2000

flow (GPM)
Distribution pump 4290 4290 340 3,340

flow (GPM)
Electric centrifugal 0.621 0.650 0.625 0.654

chiller (kW/ton)
Primary chilled water 0.015 0.015 0.011 0.011

pumps (kW/ton)
Secondary chilled Example 1

0.075 14 °F CHW Example 2
0.060 18 °F CHW
water pumps ΔT and 10 °F CW ΔT ΔT and 15 °F CW ΔT ΔT and 10 °F CW ΔT ΔT and 15 °F CW ΔT
(kW/ton)
Condenser water 0.056 0.030 0.056 0.030

pumps (kW/ton)
Cooling tower fans 0.075 0.090 0.075 0.090

(kW/ton)
Total 0.841 0.859 0.826 0.844
Notes on Table 8.3 examples:

1. Assumes 40 °F (4.4 °C) chilled water supply temperature and 85 °F (29.4 °C) entering condenser water
temperature for all examples.
2. 1000 ton chiller assumed with evaporator and condenser flows commensurate with temperature differential.
3. System assumed to be 5000 ton, five (5) chillers, a chilled water primary and condenser water pump per chiller,
two (2) cooling towers per chiller and a total of two (2) distribution pumps.
4. Assumes single compressor electric centrifugal chiller with variable speed drive
5. Minimum efficiencies compliant with ASHRAE Standard 90.1 are listed.
6. Pump heads assumed to be 15 ft. (44.8 kPa) plus evaporator pressure drop for primary pump, 60 ft. (179.3 kPa)
plus condenser water pressure drop for condenser water pump and 150 ft. (448.4 kPa) for secondary pump
pressure drop.
7. Customer chilled water pumps (tertiary) are excluded from central plant efficiency calculations.
Note that both chillers selected with 15 °F (8.3 °C) ΔT condenser water systems (Examples 2 and 4) had lower
efficiencies due to increased compressor lift (i.e. work) requirements. While the 15 °F (8.3 °C) ΔT condenser water
pumps used less energy than the 10 °F (5.6 °C) ΔT examples, both Examples 2 and 4 had lower overall system
efficiencies, at least for this example, compared with the 10 °F (5.6 °C) ΔT examples. This may not always be the case,
so the DCS designer is encouraged to perform this calculation for their specific project to achieve the optimum
selection of equipment and operating temperatures.
8.3.4 Best practices for chiller plants

The following is a list of important features to consider when designing a DCS:
● Energy efficiency—select chillers on a good (code minimum), better, and best efficiency condition in order to
quantify a pay back for increasing the efficiency on a chiller selection. In addition, provide at least one chiller to
have a VFD for increase part load efficiency.
● Provide variable flow—typically in an energy analysis, varying the flow through the chiller loop using a VFD on
the pump will pay back very quickly, especially if the location is in a warmer climate that would increase the
runtime hours.
● Provide adequate redundancy of N + 1 on the largest piece of equipment—equipment typically breaks down
when it is needed most and is running hard, which for chiller plants means the cooling season. Having
redundant equipment (chillers, pumps, cooling towers, etc.) mitigates system capacity shortfalls.
●
Chiller sizes to meet the load profile—while equal-sized chillers make selecting and laying out the chiller plant
easier, it may not always provide the best turndown to meet the load or efficiency requirements. Most chillers can
stably operate at about 30% of peak load, therefore, having a smaller ‘pony’ chiller will meet the lowest part loads
and provide optimal plant performance.
● Provide a high quality control system—this includes temperature, pressure and flow measurements, since the
more accurate information the operator has at their fingertips, the better they can optimize the operations.
Highly accurate instrumentation at the customer end is also recommended, since the energy meter is the ‘cash
register’ of the entire DCS, and the less confrontation over billing invoices, the happier the customers are.
● Third party optimization software—often, aftermarket software that enhances the sequence of operation of chiller
plants pays back very quickly and should be considered.
Designing heating, ventilating air-conditioning (HVAC)

B. Purushothama, in Humidification and Ventilation Management in Textile Industry, 2009
14.2.2.5 Chillers and condensers

1. Chillers. In large commercial and institutional buildings, devices used to produce cool water are called chillers. The
water is pumped to air handling units to cool the air. They use either mechanical refrigeration processes or
absorption processes.
Mechanical refrigeration chillers may have one or more compressors. These compressors can be powered by electric
motors, fossil fuel engines, or turbines. Refrigeration systems achieve variable capacity by bringing compressors on
or off line, by unloading stages within the compressors, or by varying the speed of the compressor. There are
different types of compressors. Reciprocating compressors are usually found in air-cooled direct expansion (DX)
systems for residential and small commercial systems with capacities of 10-200 tons. Multiple compressors can be
employed in a single system to match part load conditions. Scroll compressors are available in 1–15 ton range.
Multiple compressors can be found in water chillers with capacities of 20–500 tons. Scroll compressors require less
maintenance than reciprocating compressors. Rotary screw compressors are used in chillers with 70–500 tons
capacity. Centrifugal compressors are used in chillers with capacities of 100–7000 tons. Centrifugal chillers are the
most efficient of the large-capacity chillers.
Absorption chillers are heat-operated devices that produce chilled water via an absorption cycle. Absorption chillers
can be direct-fired, using natural gas or fuel oil, or indirect-fired. Indirect-fired units may use different sources for
heat: hot water or steam from a boiler, steam from district heating, or waste heat in the form of water, air, or other
gas. Absorption chillers can be single-effect or double-effect, where one or two vapour generators are used. Double-
effect chillers use two generators sequentially to increase efficiency. Several manufacturers offer absorption
chiller/heater units, which use the heat produced by firing to provide space heating and service hot water
14.2. Cooling tower.
Evaporative coolers, also called as swamp coolers, are packaged units that cool the air by humidifying it and then
evaporating the moisture. The equipment is most effective in dry climates. It can significantly reduce the peak
electric demand when compared to electric chillers
Typical full-load operating efficiencies for chillers are noted below:
• Small air-cooled electric chillers have 1.1–1.6 kW t- 1 (COP of 2.2 to3.2).
• Large and medium-sized air-cooled electric chillers have 0.95−0.85 kW t −1 (COP of 3.7 to 4.1).
• Similar water-cooled electric chillers have 0.8−0.7 kW t- 1 (COP of 4.4 to 5.0). Lower values such as 0.6−0.5 kW t- 1
chillers (COP of 5.9 to 7.0) may indicate energy efficient equipment, but part-load performance should also be
examined.
• The COP of absorption units is in the range of 0.4−0.6 for single-effect chillers, and 0.8−1.05 for double-effect
chillers.
• Engine-driven chillers attain COP of 1.2−2.0.
2. Condensers are heat exchangers that are required for chillers to reject heat that has been removed from the
conditioned spaces. They can be either air-cooled or water-cooled. Water-cooled condensers often rely on rooftop
cooling towers for rejecting heat into the environment; however, it is possible to reject the to the ground or river
water.
Air-cooled condensers are offered on smaller, packaged systems (typically from less than one ton to 120 tons). They are
initially less costly than water-cooled condensers, but do not allow the chiller to operate as efficiently.
Water-cooled condensers use water that is cooled directly from the evaporative condenser or indirectly via a cooling
tower. The lower temperature achieved by evaporating water allows chillers to operate more efficiently.
A waterside economiser consists of controls and a heat exchanger installed between the cooling tower water loop and
the chilled water loop. When the outdoor air temperature is low and/or the air is very dry, the temperature of the
cooling tower water may be low enough to directly cool the chilled water loop without use of the chiller, resulting in
significant energy savings.
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Systems

James Sinopoli, in Smart Building Systems for Architects, Owners and Builders, 2010
Chillers
Chillers, or air conditioners, utilize heat exchanges and circulate fluid or gas to cool the air that is passed through the
unit. Chillers are often located in a mechanical area at ground level, or in a central plant in a campus environment.
Chill l i b i h t i th fi ti i l ( l k th
Chillers cool air by removing heat using the refrigeration or vapor-compression cycle (also known as the reverse-
Rankine cycle), which consists of compression, condensation, expansion, and evaporation (Fig. 3.2).
Figure 3.2. Vapor compression cycle.
A refrigerant in vapor form is initially compressed in a compressor, reducing its volume and increasing its
temperature. It is then pumped to a condensing unit, where the refrigerant is cooled and condensed into a liquid.
This liquid is then pumped to the indoor evaporator unit, where it is passed through evaporator coils that remove
heat from the building. The hot air in the building is passed over the evaporator coils, adding heat to the refrigerant
and removing heat from the air, which is recirculated back into the building. The added heat turns the refrigerant to
vapor, which is sent back to the compressor, completing the cycle.
Chiller condensers remove heat from the system via cooling air, cooling water, and evaporation. Air-cooled systems
are typically found in residential homes and commercial buildings where the cooling load is less than 100 tons (Fig.
3.3). The air-cooled condenser is comprised of coils that house the flowing refrigerant and maximize convective
surface area (the area for the transfer of heat), and a forced air source (typically a fan) that uses convection to extract
heat from the refrigerant and remove it from the system altogether.
Figure 3.3. Air cooled chiller.
Water-cooled systems are used for buildings that require large cooling loads, and typically have higher efficiencies
than air-cooled systems. (Fig. 3.4). Instead of using air to remove the heat from the refrigerant, water is used to
extract heat. Once the heat is extracted the water is then pumped to a cooling tower, where the heat is rejected back
into the atmosphere and the water is then pumped back to the condenser (Fig. 3.5). Cooling towers reject heat by
using an air stream to evaporate a portion of the incoming water, thereby cooling the rest of the incoming water.
The heat transferred to the air causes it to rise, flowing out of the top of the tower and into the atmosphere.
Figure 3.4. Water cooled chiller.
Figure 3.5. Cooling tower.
Water-cooled chillers have higher efficiencies than air-cooled chillers because they reject heat at the wet-bulb
temperature (which takes into account humidity and radiation), rather than the dry-bulb temperature at which air-
cooled chillers reject heat. They are also smaller than air-cooled chillers for the same cooling output because its
condenser requires less surface area and does not use fans, which also significantly reduces noise levels (Fig. 3.6).
Figure 3.6. Water-cooled AC system.
Evaporative condensed chillers operate essentially as a smaller and more efficient version of a water-cooled system;
they use the same evaporative cooling provided by a cooling tower. The cooling is achieved using a recirculating
water system, which continuously wets the condenser tubes while fans blow air over them, evaporating the water and
thereby moving (rejecting) the heat to the atmosphere.
Although this also uses air to move heat out of the condenser just as an air-cooled system would, an air-cooled
condenser is less efficient because it draws ambient air over the condensing surface and rejects heat at the dry-bulb
temperature. Evaporative condensed chillers use considerably less water than water-cooled chillers, thus reducing
the operational costs.
For each type of chiller there are four compressor subcategories: reciprocating, centrifugal, screw driven, and
absorption. Reciprocating, centrifugal, and screw-driven chillers are powered mechanically by electric motors, steam,
or gas turbines while an absorption chiller is powered by heat and uses no moving parts. Reciprocating compressors
use pistons driven by a crankshaft and are typically used for delivering small amounts of refrigerant at high pressure.
Centrifugal compressors use centrifugal force to compress air and are used for delivering large volumes of
g p g p g g
refrigerant at low pressure. They are widely used in industry because they are energy efficient and have few moving
parts. Screw-driven compressors use two opposing rotating screws to compress the air between them.
SIMULATION OF A COMBINED SOLAR HEATING AND

COOLING SYSTEM FOR A MIDDLE SIZE BUILDING IN
GREECE
P. Axaopoulos, D. van Hattem, in Passive and Low Energy Architecture, 1983
Summer operation
During the summer the chiller is automatically put into operation as soon as the temperature in the hot water
storage exceeds 78°C. The chiller stops when the storage temperature drops below 76°C. The chiller stops also when
the evaporator inlet temperature drops below 10°C. Normally the chiller cools the cold water storage, which, in turn,
provides the space cooling to the building. The chiller can be directly connected to the building in the case that the
temperature of the cold storage is too high to cool the building, but the chiller can operate with heat from the hot
storage. When both the hot and cold storage are exhausted, an auxiliary heater runs the chiller. In this case the
chiller is directly connected to the thermoconvectors.
Control Diagrams and Sequences

The reading text for this course was originally written by, ... Robert McDowall P. Eng., in Fundamentals of HVAC
Control Systems, 2008
Chiller Plant, Pumps, and Boilers – Monitoring and Control

Chiller and boiler plant control systems consist of controllers, sensors, relays, transducers, valves, and dampers that
operate the plant and its equipment, as well as optimize it for energy conservation, efficiency, and functionality.
On a demand for cooling, the chilled water system shall be enabled. First the chillers respective chilled water primary
pump may be energized and then the chillers respective condenser water pump (or condenser fan system) may be
energized, then, several minutes later, after flow is proven at the pumps/fans/chiller, the respective chiller shall be
enabled to operate and produce chilled water to the HVAC&R system. The internal controls of the chiller shall
operate each chiller to produce the required chilled water supply temperature. The control system shall monitor the
common supply and return temperatures and provide a constant common supply water temperature, typically 40°F
(adjustable).
If the chiller plant has cooling towers as a source of condenser heat rejection, then the condenser water supply
temperature shall be controlled to optimize the plant energy use (check with chiller manufacturer for recommended
set point values and allowable drop in temperature at times of low enthalpy outside air) by staging the cooling towers
as necessary and cycling the cooling tower fans as required. If cooling tower fans are controlled using variable speed
drives, then their speed can be varied in order to meet the demand. Deadbands and time limits shall be set up such
that the fans do not cycle unnecessarily.
S li t l t h b l di t l th t ll b i f t d th t
Some cooling tower plants have a bypass loop and internal sumps that allows bypassing of water around the towers
in order to maintain minimum set points during cold and below freezing ambient conditions.
On a call for heating, the plant control system shall start the boiler primary pump, and then the boiler shall be
started–stopped. The boiler primary pump shall be operated at least 10 min before and after boiler is energized. A
high limit temperature sensor will operate the circulating pumps until the boiler internal temperature is at or below
its set point. The boiler discharge temperature control is integral to the boiler and is provided by the manufacturer. If
multiple boilers are used, a control routine that starts and stops them is used to maintain an adjustable set point
temperature of water in the loop or storage tank while maintaining an appropriate return water temperature. In
addition, some boiler plant controllers monitor outside temperature, and provide higher hot water supply
temperature set points to be available during extreme cold ambient conditions.
Primary pumping systems are used frequently and are described above. In some designs, secondary pumps are used.
Secondary pumps receive their water flow from the primary loop usually via a coupling “header” as shown in Figure
9-10.
Figure 9-10. Primary Secondary Pumping System
The primary loop (chillers and pumps) provides the “header” with a constant flow of chilled water. The secondary
loop, via its secondary distribution pumping system, takes water from the primary loop as needed for the hydronic
systems it serves. The secondary pumps may be controlled in order to provide adequate flow to the secondary piping
loop, using a water pressure or flow sensor. They can be constant speed pumps with a bypass arrangement, or the
motor speed can be controlled by a variable speed drive, less energy waste. Control valves are typically two-way when
variable flow secondary control systems are used.
Secondary pumps, as with any dual equipment scenarios, shall be rotated from lead to lag typically on a daily basis.
When a failure is sensed, the lag (or redundant backup) pump can automatically take over.
A flow meter and appropriate temperature sensors, in the secondary loop, can be used to monitor its flow readings
and calculate energy usage. Flow meters can be used to monitor make-up water flows in order to trend water usage
and identify potential leaks.
When the outside air temperature is above/below an appropriate temperature (adjustable), the chiller/boiler plant
may be disabled/enabled. An override feature that will override this outside temperature shutdown should be
installed and available
installed and available.
For maintenance or out-of-service times, the control system will sense the abnormal off and/or alarm condition of a
chiller, boiler, fan or pump and bring on its next in series in order to maintain its set points. All alarms should be
monitored by an alarm providing visible or audible alarm.
Computer Control of Building Energy Systems

D. Busch, in Energy Conservation in the Design of Multi-Storey Buildings, 1984
Chiller optimisation
When a chiller operates at its design load and the cooling tower operates at maximum summer design
temperatures, standard catalogue data provides a close approximation to power consumption. However, in a typical
system, design conditions occur infrequently. At all other times, capacity and efficiency vary as a function of
condenser water and chilled water supply temperatures. The total power consumed by a chiller plant also includes
auxiliary equipment such as the cooling tower fans, condenser water and chilled water supply pumps. Power
required for these auxiliaries varies according to the number of chillers operating, chilled water flow and
environmental conditions. The situation becomes even more complex when chillers of different sizes or types are
utilised. Continual chiller operating efficiency cannot be maintained if a plant operator must recalculate the best
operating strategy each time load conditions change. A microprocessor is able to overview the plant and performs
calculations with speed, enabling continuous monitoring and decision processing. Chiller optimisation software
enables the microprocessor to continuously perform energy–efficient calculations, select the most favourable chiller
combination, and adjust both chilled water and condenser water supply temperatures. Overall system power
consumption is then kept to an optimum minimum level.
Gas Sweetening
Maurice I. StewartJr. PhD, PE, in Surface Production Operations (Third Edition), Volume 2, 2014
9.9.3.4 Additions to Traditional Pretreatment

The following additional equipment may be added to enhance the system performance.
9.9.3.4.1 Chiller
A chiller may be included to reduce the dew point of the gas and the heavy hydrocarbon content. Because chilling
does not completely remove all heavy hydrocarbons, an adsorbent guard bed is still required. If deep chilling is
necessary, steps must be taken to prevent hydrates from forming, either by dehydrating the gas upstream or by
adding hydrate inhibitors. If inhibitors are added, they may need to be removed downstream of the chiller because
some inhibitors may damage the membrane.
9.9.3.4.2 Turbo-expander
The turbo-expander serves the same purpose as a chiller, but has the benefit of being a dry system. It is smaller and
lighter than the refrigeration system. A disadvantage is the net pressure loss, which must be taken up by the export
compressor
9 9 3 4 3 Glycol Unit
9.9.3.4.3 Glycol Unit
The glycol unit is added upstream of the chiller to prevent hydrate formation or freeze-up. An adsorbent guard bed is
still required to remove heavy hydrocarbons but must be larger than it would normally be because it must also
remove glycol carried over from the adsorber vessels.
Integrated Design of Energy Efficient Cities

Moncef Krarti, in Optimal Design and Retrofit of Energy Efficient Buildings, Communities, and Urban Centers, 2018
8.5.2 Operation of Multiple Chillers

Instead of a single chiller, two or more smaller chillers may be more cost-effective to meet varying load requirements
especially for DES applications. Indeed, parallel staging of multiple chillers is a common method of meeting peak
load in larger installations. Multiple chillers also provide redundancy for routine maintenance and equipment failure.
For some applications, sizing one chiller at one-third and another chiller at two-thirds of the peak load enables the
system to meet most cooling conditions at relatively high chiller part-load efficiencies (Krarti, 2011). These staged
units can also be sized optimally for different conditions. For example, one chiller can be operated for peak efficiency
at summer conditions and the other chiller can be optimized for winter conditions. Furthermore, proper sequencing
helps to maintain the flow rate through each evaporator within the range recommended by the chiller manufacturer.
As the system flow nears the maximum limit for the operating chiller(s), another machine must be brought online.
Similarly, as the system load and flow decrease, chillers must be shut down to reduce the need for bypass water flow.
The energy savings attributed to switching from a single-chiller plant to a multichiller cooling plant depend on the
load profile and climatic conditions. Table 8.5 shows the number of hours of operating one-chiller system at various
part-load ratios for a load profile associated to office buildings located in four US climates. The potential savings in
total electrical energy use as a function of the number of chillers in a multichiller cooling plant is provided in Fig.
8.13.
Table 8.5. Hours at Percent Part-Load Ratio Using One Chiller
Climate 0–10 10–20 20–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60–70 70–80 80–90 90–100 100+
Denver 539 601 1214 1182 703 140 25 3 2 1 0
Chicago 644 523 980 1290 657 139 19 1 0 0 0
Phoenix 350 456 790 1270 1349 600 55 25 16 8 1
Atlanta 589 595 888 1167 633 635 45 2 2 0 0
Figure 8.13. Energy use reduction as a function of number of chillers for office buildings located in four US climates.
Fig. 8.14 illustrates the potential savings associated with the annual building electrical energy savings when using a
two-chiller central cooling plant with various chiller sizing ratios. The chiller size ratio, SR, is defined as the ratio
between the sizes of the small chiller to that of the larger chiller in a two-chiller cooling plant. The analysis was
carried out by letting the SR vary from 0 (single chiller configuration) to 1 (two equal chiller).
Figure 8.14. Energy use savings as a function of chiller size ratio in a two-chiller central cooling plant for office buildings located in four US
locations.
Process Control
William A. Poe, Saeid Mokhatab, in Modeling, Control, and Optimization of Natural Gas Processing Plants, 2017
3.6.6 Chillers
A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycle. A
vapor-compression chiller uses a refrigerant internally as its working fluid. Many refrigerant options are available;
when selecting a chiller, the application, cooling temperature requirements, and refrigerant's cooling characteristics
need to match. Important parameters to consider are the operating temperatures and pressures. Natural gas
processing employs a number of refrigerants. Among some of the refrigerants used are:
• sodium brine
• ammonia
• freon (phased out)
• propane
th l ( ft d d ith ) d
• ethylene (often cascaded with propane), and
• mixed light hydrocarbon refrigerants.
In some processing schemes, the refrigerant is delivered directly to chillers and in other schemes chilled water or
other medium is delivered to the process.
The typical refrigeration cycle consists of two isothermal and two isenthalpic or adiabatic steps at isobaric conditions.
Usually, the heat of vaporization isothermally transfers heat from the refrigeration to the process yielding a lower
temperature of the process fluid. The refrigerant vapors are compressed to raise the pressure adequately for
condensing by a heat sink. The heat sink is typically cooling water or ambient air; however, in cascade refrigeration
schemes the heat sink may be a higher-temperature refrigerant.
The heat sink is of sufficiently low temperature to condense the refrigerant totally and isothermally at the discharge
pressure of the refrigerant compressor. Condensed refrigerant, now in liquid form, is expanded isenthalpically across
a valve to lower the temperature of the liquid refrigerant. A portion of the refrigerant will flash into vapor across the
valve. This vapor is dead load in the chiller unless the refrigerant pressure is lowered in stages with economizers
installed to separate the liquid from the vapor. The remaining liquid will enter the chiller to continue the
refrigeration cycle (Fig. 3.10).
Figure 3.10. Refrigeration cycle.
Point A to B is the isenthalpic expansion step.

Point B to C is vaporization of the refrigerant.
Point C to D is the compression step.
Point D to A is the refrigerant condensation step.
In most systems, the refrigerant is condensed by water from a cooling tower or air from fin fan coolers. The main
cost of condensing in either case is the horsepower required for circulating the air and cooling towers require the
additional costs of pumping and treating the cooling water.
In general, when adequate refrigeration is available, the highest refrigerant supply temperature that will satisfy the
process needs will result in the least cost. Often lower process temperatures will result in higher recovery, yield, or
throughput and then the lowest refrigerant temperature (lowest refrigerant compressor suction pressure) will result
in optimum operation. In all cases, the maximization of the value of incremental recovery or yield less the additional
cost of refrigeration will determine the optimum process temperatures. The cost of refrigeration consists of fan
motors, cooling tower pumps, and refrigerant compressors

There will be an optimum approach above the wet bulb temperature for supplying cooling water for refrigerant
condensation and an optimum range, which is defined as the difference between the cooling water return and
supply. The optimum will be affected by the weather conditions of ambient temperature and humidity that affect wet
bulb temperature. Air cooling is similar in that the cost of cooling increases as the temperature rises. The cooling
tower water supply temperature should not be held constant. Each 1°F reduction in cooling tower supply
temperature results in about a 1.5% improvement in efficiency.
As the approach to wet bulb temperature decreases, the costs of pumping cooling water and compressing refrigerant
decrease, whereas the cost of cooling tower fans increases. When less cooling tower fan horsepower is required, fans
can be stopped, slowed down, or the blade pitch varied, if these capabilities exist.
The water flows to individual cells of the cooling tower should be adjusted to correspond with fan operation. For
instance, cells with fans operating at high speeds should attain high water rates, cells at low speed take low water
rates, and cells with fans that are off should receive minimum water rates.
Lower suction pressures normally lead to colder refrigerant temperatures leading to more efficient chilling. However,
this creates an increase in the compression ratio for a given condensing temperature. The suction pressure can be
optimized by balancing the effect of compression ratio on horsepower (cost) against the increased revenues obtained
with colder process temperature.
It is preferential to control evaporator pressure and maintain constant chiller level to fully utilize heat transfer area.
Refrigerant levels in chillers should be held adequately high to cover all tubes, but not so high that refrigerant liquid
carries over into downstream scrubbers.
Some refrigeration system optimization opportunities may include:
• Maximize temperature difference across the chiller when cooling water is used
• Minimize pumping
• Cooling tower approach optimization
• Store refrigerant at night
• Always use the most efficient chiller combination
• Use efficiency information to initiate maintenance
Ideally, variable speed drives are preferred for refrigeration compressors to match horsepower consumed to amount
of refrigerant required. If several constant speed motors are used, then one compressor should be throttled and the
remaining compressors should be operated with the throttle valve wide open.
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Chillers and Heaters

Table 38.1. Typical Heat Loads in Extrusion

Load Chiller Tonnage

Feed throat 0.5

Screw and barrel 1-ton/in. screw diameter

HDPE, LDPE, PP 1 ton for each 50 lb/h

PS 1 ton for each 75 lb/h

PVC 1 ton for each 80 lb/h

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Figure 38.1. Schematic of the ﬂuid ﬂow in a chiller.

District cooling, current status and future trends

8.3 Central plant conﬁgurations

8.3.1 Chiller conﬁgurations – Parallel and series

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Figure 8.2. Parallel chillers in primary–secondary pumping conﬁguration.

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Figure 8.3. Series chillers in variable-ﬂow primary pumping conﬁguration.

8.3.2 Pumping conﬁgurations

Table 8.2. Typical chiller eﬃciency ranges with diﬀerent prime drivers

Chiller type Typical eﬃciency Capacity range (ton)

Gas reciprocating engine driven centrifugal (COP 1.5–1.9) 100 to &gt; 3000

Steam driven centrifugal (COP 1.2–1.8) 100 to &gt;+4000

HW absorption chiller (single eﬀect) (COP 0.55–0.70) &lt; 60 to &gt; 3250

Steam absorption chiller (single eﬀect) (COP 0.60–0.8) &lt; 60 to &gt; 3250

Source: Compiled from Table 3.3 of Phetteplace et al. (2013).

Evaporator pump 1715 1715 1335 1335

Condenser pump 3000 2000 3000 2000

Distribution pump 4290 4290 340 3,340

Electric centrifugal 0.621 0.650 0.625 0.654

Primary chilled water 0.015 0.015 0.011 0.011

Secondary chilled Example 1

Condenser water 0.056 0.030 0.056 0.030

Cooling tower fans 0.075 0.090 0.075 0.090

Total 0.841 0.859 0.826 0.844

Notes on Table 8.3 examples:

8.3.4 Best practices for chiller plants

Designing heating, ventilating air-conditioning (HVAC)

14.2.2.5 Chillers and condensers

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14.2. Cooling tower.

Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Systems

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Figure 3.2. Vapor compression cycle.

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Figure 3.3. Air cooled chiller.

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Figure 3.4. Water cooled chiller.

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Figure 3.5. Cooling tower.

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Figure 3.6. Water-cooled AC system.

SIMULATION OF A COMBINED SOLAR HEATING AND

Control Diagrams and Sequences

Chiller Plant, Pumps, and Boilers – Monitoring and Control

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Figure 9-10. Primary Secondary Pumping System

Computer Control of Building Energy Systems

9.9.3.4 Additions to Traditional Pretreatment

Integrated Design of Energy Eﬃcient Cities

8.5.2 Operation of Multiple Chillers

Gas reciprocating engine driven centrifugal (COP 1.5–1.9) 100 to > 3000

Steam driven centrifugal (COP 1.2–1.8) 100 to >+4000

HW absorption chiller (single eﬀect) (COP 0.55–0.70) < 60 to > 3250

Steam absorption chiller (single eﬀect) (COP 0.60–0.8) < 60 to > 3250