Task # 1

Draw the layout of mechanics of solid lab

Layout
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Mechanics of solid

It is a branch of mechanics discussing the behavior of solid material under the externally applied load as
a result to find out internal stress, strain and deformation produced in the material.

Tensile force

A pulling force that is applied away from the body is known as tensile force.

Compressive force

A pushing force that is applied toward the body is known as compressive force.

Universal Testing Machine

It is exploited to find out ----------------, -------------- and ------------------- of material. Max ---------KN force
can be applied on any material body by using this machine. However, it can be controlled manually or by
computer with the help of ---------------------. Moreover, we use gauge length to find out the strain. While
using software, nob must be on hold.

It displays the reading in both digital and analogue system and graphs of stress and strain.

Fig1.1: -----------------------------------------------

Torsion Testing Machine

Torsion

The resistance against the torque is known as Torsion.

By using this machine, max --------------Nm torque can be applied on the material. However, its one side
is fixed and other side is moveable. Moreover, its minimum angle of rotation is 0.10 and maximum is
3600. Also, the stress strain graph can be prepared by using data. (-------------------- software)

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 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑮 = − − − − −

Fig1.2: -------------------------------------------------

Charpy impact testing Machine

It is exploited to find out the modulus of toughness and modulus of resilience.

It has two hammers. First applies 25J force, however second applies only 15J force. 1 st hammer moves
with the velocity of 3.8 m/s. Moreover, the standard size of sample is 25x10x10 mm. there are two scales
on a dial, 1st shows angle while second is exploited to read out the energy.

Impact

Sudden force that is applied for a very short period of time on a material is known as impact.

Modulus of toughness

Modulus of resilience

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 Fig1.3: ---------------------------------------------------------------

Bi-axial Bending Apparatus

It is divided into three parts

• I section
By using this I section the strain can be found with the help of strain box.

• Z section
When load is applied on a principle axis, there will be bending only in one direction.

Principle axis -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------

• Channel / C section
It is utilized to find out the shear center.

Shear center

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To study the minor or small instrument Inside Caliper

It is the instrument used to measure the internal diameter of hollow shaped objects.

Outside Caliper

It is the instrument used to measure the external diameter of circular shaped objects.

Vernier Caliper

It is exploited to find out interior diameter, exterior diameter and depth.

1 inch = 16 divisions on the main scale 1

division = 8 divisions on the vernier scale

Its least count (L.C) is 0.05mm or 0.008in.

Reading = main scale reading + (Vernier scale reading * L.C)

Screw gauge

It is exploited to find out diameter of wires that we cannot find out by vernier caliper. Also, it is used to
determine external diameter and thickness of wires.

It measures readings both in inches & centimeters.

1 inch = 10 divisions on main scale

1 division = 25 divisions on vernier scale

1 division = 4 divisions on main scale

It is most accurate instrument as its least count (L.C) is 0.001mm.

Reading = main scale reading + (Vernier scale reading * L.C)

It can measure till 25mm.

When it completes one revolution of circular scale it covers 0.025 inches on the main scale.

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Spring divider
The instrument is used to divide some given length into equals’ part and also to measure extension in the
tensile test. It is especially useful after the elastic limit of the material because in this case the deformation
are large and mostly out of the Baty’s extensio-meter. It is used in the combination of a scale.

Dial gauge / Deflection Gauge

It is used to measure the deflection in the material. It is used to measure deformation in compression test.
It is also used to measure bending in the bending test.

Its least count is 0.0025mm.

1 inch = 10 parts

1 part = 2 graduations

Max deflection that can be measured by using dial gauge is 25cm.

It contains two circular scales; one is small and other is large.

Reading = L.C * (large scale reading in inch + small scale reading)

Baty’s extensio-meter
It is a latest version of deflection gauge that is used to find out the extension during tension.

It has two readings:

• Inner Circular Reading

It can measure from 0.1mm to 2.5mm.

• Outer Circular Reading

The smallest distance that it can measure is 0.001mm.

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Comment:
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Task#2
To perform tension test on hot rolled plain steel bar ASTM-A615/615-M

Apparatus

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Objectives

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Related theory

Steel

It is alloy of carbon and iron which is widely utilized in construction and other applications. Its tensile
strength is too much greater than its compressive strength. Carbon and other elements in the iron act as
hardening agents and prevent the movement of dislocations that naturally exit in the iron.

Stress

The ratio of internal force to the area of body is known as stress. Mathematically

it is shown as

σ = ----------
Unit of stress is Pascal (pa).

Strain

The ratio of change in length (∆L) in the body to the original length of body (L) is known as strain.

Mathematically it is shown as

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 ɛ = -------------
Strain is unit less quantity as it is a ratio of similar quantities.

Stress Strain Curve

It shows variations of strain with respect to stress applied. As the axial load is increased and the total
elongation over the gauge length is increased at each increment and process is continued until rupture
strength is attained.

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Toughness
In materials science and metallurgy, toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically
deform without fracturing. One definition of material toughness is the amount of energy per unit volume
that a material can absorb before rupturing.

Stiffness
It is the rigidity of an object, the extent to which it resists deformation in response to an applied force.
The complementary concept is flexibility or pliability: the more flexible an object is the less stiff it is.

Components of stress strain graph

Elastic limit

When the stress is applied the maximum extent to which a solid may be stretched without permanent
alteration of size or shape is known as Elastic Limit.

Proportional limit

Up to this amount of stress, stress is directly proportional to strain (Hook’s Law), so the stress strain graph
will be a straight line, and the Gradient will be equal to the Elastic Modulus of the material.

Young’s Modulus

Young’s Modulus (E), also known as tensile modulus or elastic modulus, is a measure of stiffness of an
elastic material and is a quantity used to characterize materials. It is defined as the ratio of the stress (force
per unit area) to the strain (deformation over initial length) and Hook’s Law holds Its unit is Pascal (pa).

σ∞ɛ

σ=Eɛ

Strain hardening

It is defined as the process of cold down a material after heating it. During this process, the strength of
metal is increased and its ductility is decreased.

If a ductile material can be stressed even after the yielding point and it does not fail the material is known
as strain hardening material.

Ultimate strength

It is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before failing or
breaking. The tensile strength is not same as the compressive strength.

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Rupture strength

It is the strength of material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking strength. It is the stress at failure.
Rupture strength is always less than the ultimate strength.

For brittle materials, the ultimate and rupture strength are almost same. And it occurs without any
noticeable prior change in the elongation.

Rupture point

The point at which the breaking of material starts is known as rupture point.

The stress at which steel is broken is known as rupture stress.

• Actual rupture stress

It is a ratio of load at rupture to actual area of bar.

• Nominal rupture stress

It is a ratio of load at rupture to nominal area of bar.

Gauge length

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Necking

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Yielding

A yield strength or yield point of a material is defined in engineering and material science as the stress at
which a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will deform elastically
and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed.

Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of deformation will be permanent and non-reversible.

Method of determining yield point

1. ----------------------------

2. ----------------------------

3. ----------------------------

4. ---------------------------
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Halting of machine

In this method, yield load remains constant on machine for some time.

Lunder line method

During yielding, microscopic lines are formed on the surface of material and the angle of which they
formed is 500-550 of longitudinal axis of specimen.

Offset Method

The offset is the horizontal distance between the modulus line and line running parallel to it. This is utilized
for those materials which do not show the yield point. For such types of materials, a parallel line is drawn
to initial straight line with the base line is 0.2% of strain.

Specific strain method

This method is similar to the offset method, but in this method of determining the yield point is 0.5% of
strain.

Procedure

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Ductile & brittle behavior

The behavior of material can be broadly classified in to two categories

▪ Ductile behavior

▪ Brittle behavior

The ability of material to deform plastically is called Ductility that is how for a material can be plastically
deformed before fracture.

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Adequacy of sample
Tolerance in Length

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Tolerance in Diameter

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Tolerance in mass

Sample has some length, width and thickness so the mass of sample is determined w.r.t its length.
𝑚
𝜌= =−−−−
𝑣

𝐴=−−−−

The density of steel is -------------- kg/m3.

Tolerance of M/L

𝑀
𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 =−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
𝐿

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(𝑀/𝐿)𝑁 = 6𝑚𝑚 (limit is ±9)

(𝑀/𝐿)𝑁 ≥ 12mm (limit is ±6.5 & ±4.5)

The yielding strength of 40grade steel = ---------------- psi The

yielding strength of 60grade steel = ---------------- psi

Observation & calculation

Effective length of bar = -----------------------m

Dia of bar = ---------------------mm

Area of bar = --------------------mm2

G.L = Gauge length= ----------------------------m

Sr# Load Extensionmeter Extension Strain Stress True area True
reading (mm) (%) N/mm2 At=Aa/1+e stress

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Precautions
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Results and Comments

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