applied

sciences
Article
Long-Term Behaviour of Precast Concrete Deck Using
Longitudinal Prestressed Tendons in Composite
I-Girder Bridges
Haiying Ma, Xuefei Shi * and Yin Zhang
Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; mahaiying@tongji.edu.cn (H.M.);
zhangyinzian@126.com (Y.Z.)
* Correspondence: shixf@tongji.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-216-598-2956




Received: 12 November 2018; Accepted: 5 December 2018; Published: 13 December 2018


Abstract: Twin-I girder bridge systems composite with precast concrete deck have advantages
including construction simplification and improved concrete strength compared with traditional
multi-I girder bridge systems with cast-in-place concrete deck. But the cracking is still a big issue at
interior support for continuous span bridges using twin-I girders. To reduce cracks occurrence in the
hogging regions subject to negative moments and to guarantee the durability of bridges, the most
essential way is to reduce the tensile stress of concrete deck within the hogging regions. In this paper,
the prestressed tendons are arranged to prestress the precast concrete deck before it is connected
with the steel girders. In this way, the initial compressive stress induced by the prestressed tendons
in the concrete deck within the hogging region is much higher than that in regular concrete deck
without prestressed tendons. A finite element analysis is developed to study the long-term behaviour
of prestressed concrete deck for a twin-I girder bridge. The results show that the prestressed tendons
induce large compressive stresses in the concrete deck but the compressive stresses are reduced due
to concrete creep. The final compressive stresses in the concrete deck are about half of the initial
compressive stresses. Additionally, parametric study is conducted to find the effect to the long-term
behaviour of concrete deck including girder depth, deck size, prestressing stress and additional
imposed load. The results show that the prestressing compressive stress in precast concrete deck is
transferred to steel girders due to concrete creep. The prestressed forces transfer between the concrete
deck and steel girder cause the loss of compressive stresses in precast concrete deck. The prestressed
tendons can introduce some compressive stress in the concrete deck to overcome the tensile stress
induced by the live load but the force transfer due to concrete creep needs be considered. The concrete
creep makes the compressive stress loss and the force redistribution in the hogging regions, which
should be considered in the design the twin-I girder bridge composite with prestressed precast
concrete deck.

Keywords: concrete creep; prestressing stress; compressive stress; FE analysis; force transfer

1. Introduction
A two or multiple-I girder system has two or more steel I girders connected with diaphragms and
composite with a concrete deck using shear studs. The steel girders are in tension and the concrete
deck is in compression in the regions of positive moments (i.e., the sagging region) under vertical
loads, which makes good use of material advantages of steel and concrete. While within the regions
of negative moments (i.e., the hogging regions), the concrete deck is in tension under vertical loads
and the tensile stress may increase due to concrete shrinkage and creep. Concrete cracking is a big
issue for the hogging regions [1–5]. High performance concrete with larger tension strength can be

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598; doi:10.3390/app8122598 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598 2 of 12

used [6] but the cost is substantial. One common way to make concrete deck in compression with
initial compressive stress to overcome the tensile stress induced by live load.
One way is to arrange prestressed tendons in the concrete deck in the hogging regions.
The prestressing compressive stress in the concrete is to overcome any additional tensile stress induced
by vertical loads and additional second order effect of shrinkage and creep. Miyamoto et al. found that
using external tendons could be considered an effective method of strengthening bridges deteriorating
due to overloading [7]. Deng and Morcous proposed a new prestressed concrete-steel composite girder,
which uses pretensioned concrete bottom flange to provide initial compressive stress in the concrete
deck [8,9]. Wang et al. investigated the behaviour of reinforced concrete strengthened with externally
prestressed tendons and they found that the basalt fibre reinforced polymer (BFRP) was feasible to
strengthen the beam behaviour [10].
Except using tendons to introduce compressive stress in concrete deck, some construction
strategies are used. Temporary loads are sometimes applied to the sagging regions (the regions
of positive moment) before the concrete cast in the hogging regions. In this way, the compressive stress
is induced in the hogging regions after the hogging region concrete is hardened and the temporary
loads are removed. Marí et al. and Dezi et al. studied the behaviour of composite bridges considering
different construction processes and they found that the construction sequence could affect the tension
stress in concrete deck in the hogging regions [11,12]. Liu et al. analysed the jacking-up method
to prestress the concrete deck and they found that jacking-up the interior support could efficiently
introduce compressive stress in the concrete deck in the hogging regions to overcome the tensile
stresses induced by shrinkage and live load [13].
Either prestressed tendons or construction strategies can introduce initial compressive stress
in the concrete deck to avoid or reduce concrete cracking in the hogging regions. However, for the
preconnected composite girder systems, the prestressed forces are applied to the whole composite
section and mostly are applied to the steel section. Kwon et al. and Hällmark et al. studied the
behaviour of steel-concrete composite girders with prestressing tendons before concrete deck connected
to steel girders [14,15]. Su et al. studied the behaviour of a continuous composite box girder with
prefabricated prestressed concrete slab in the hogging region [16]. Tong et al. studied the long-term
behaviour of the composite box girders with post connected prestressed concrete deck and the research
shows the prestressed concrete deck before connected with steel box girders can improve concrete
shrinkage [17].
In recent years, a significant amount of continuous twin-I girders with precast concrete deck
are built in China. The cracks in the hogging regions are usually controlled by the crack width
control [18–20]. However, crack width control is not an efficient way to improve the behaviour in the
hogging regions. The way to arrange prestressed tendons in concrete deck in the hogging regions
is used for twin-I girders with post connected prestressed precast concrete deck. In the paper, the
long-term behaviour of a continuous twin-I girder bridge is investigated to find the creep effect on the
compressive stresses induced by the prestressed tendons. Additionally, parametric study is developed
to find the creep effect on the prestressing the concrete deck and the force transfer between steel girders
and concrete deck.

2. Case of a Twin-I Girder Composite with Precast Deck

The bridge is composed of steel two-I girders with precast concrete deck and the steel girders
and precast concrete deck are composite with shear studs within the voids. The span arrangement is
4 × 35 m. The girder spacing is 8.95 m. The steel girder depth is 1.7 m. Cross beams are arranged with
a spacing of 7 m. Interior cross beams are not connected with the concrete deck and end cross beams at
the ends of bridge are connected with the concrete deck through the shear studs. The width of the
precast concrete deck is 16.75 m. For the concrete deck, the prestressed tendons are arranged in the
hogging regions. Figure 1 presents the structure components in the hogging regions of the bridge.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598 3 of 12
Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2018,
2018,8,8,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 3 3ofof1212

Precastconcrete
Precast concretedeck
deck Void
Void
Prestressedtendons
Prestressed tendons

Crossbeam
Cross beam Jointbetween
Joint between
decksegments
deck segments

I Igirder
girder

Figure11.
Figure
Figure 1AA continuous
Acontinuous twin-I
continuoustwin-I girder
twin-Igirder with
girderwith prestressed
withprestressed precastconcrete
prestressedprecast
precast concretedeck
concrete deckinin
deck inthe
thehogging
the hoggingregion.
hogging region.
region.

As shown
Asshown
As shownin in Figure
inFigure
Figure2,2, the
2,the construction
theconstruction procedure
constructionprocedure including
procedureincluding
includingfive five steps:
fivesteps:
steps:
(1) TheThe
(1) steel girders
steel are are
girders lifted andand
lifted connected
connectedto be abe four-span continuous system.
(1) The steel girders are lifted and connected totobe aafour-span
four-span continuous
continuous system.
system.
(2) All the
(2) All
(2) Allthe precast
theprecast concrete
precastconcrete segments
concretesegments are
segmentsarelifted to
arelifted the steel
liftedtotothe girders
thesteel and
steelgirders
girdersand the concrete
andthe deckdeck
theconcrete
concrete and and
deck the
andsteel
the
the
girders
steel are not
girders composite
are not (the
compositeconcrete
(the in the
concrete voids
in are
the
steel girders are not composite (the concrete in the voids are not casted). not
voids casted).
are not casted).
(3) Only
(3)
(3) Only
Only thethe precast
the concrete
precast
precast concrete
concrete deck
decksegments
deck segments
segments within
within
within thethe hogging
the hogging
hogging regions
regions
regions (e.g., within
(e.g.,
(e.g., the
within
within regions
the
the regions
regions at
interior supports)
atatinterior
interior are prestressed
supports)
supports) are and the
areprestressed
prestressed and
and steel girders
thesteel
the steelgirdersare not
girders are
are composite
notcomposite
not withwith
composite the concrete
with deck
theconcrete
the concrete
at deck
this
deck time.at this time.
at this time.
(4) (4)
The
(4) The
The joints
joints
joints and and
and voids
voids
voids are are
are casted
casted
casted with
with
with concrete
concrete
concrete tototomake
makethe
make theconcrete
the concretedeck
concrete deckcomposite
deck compositewith
composite withthe
with the
the
steel
steel girders.
girders.
steel girders.
(5) (5)
The
(5) The
The transverse
transverse
transverse tendons
tendons
tendons are areareprestressed
prestressed
prestressed and and andbridge
the thebridge
the bridge isisconstructed
constructed
is constructed with the with thewearing
wearing
with the wearing
surface
and surface
the attached
surface andthe
and the attachedappurtenances
appurtenances
attached appurtenances (barriers,
(barriers, railings,
(barriers, railings,
lights, etc.).
railings, lights,etc.).
lights, etc.).

P1
P1 P2
P2 P3
P3 P4
P4 P5
P5
(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)

(c)
(c)

(d)
(d)

(e)
(e)

Figure Constructionsequence
Figure22.2Construction
Figure Construction sequenceofof
sequence ofthe twin-Igirder
thetwin-I girderbridge:
bridge:
bridge:(a) Steelgirder
(a)Steel girdererection;
erection; (b)
erection;(b) Precast
(b)Precast
Precast
concrete
concrete deck
decksegments
segments erection; (c)
erection; Prestressing
(c) concrete
Prestressing deck
concrete in
deck the
in hogging
the regions;
hogging (d)
regions;
concrete deck segments erection; (c) Prestressing concrete deck in the hogging regions; (d) Cast-in- Cast-in-place
(d) Cast-in-
joints
place and
jointsvoid
placejoints and to
andvoidconnect
void girders
totoconnect
connect and deck;
girders
girders (e) Constructed
anddeck;
and deck; condition
(e)Constructed
(e) Constructed withwith
condition
condition the wearing
with surface
thewearing
the wearing and
surface
surface
the
and attached
andthe appurtenance.
theattached
attachedappurtenance.
appurtenance.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598 4 of 12
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3. Finite Element
3. Finite ElementModel
Model

3.1.3.1.
Elements and Meshes
Elements and Meshes
The software
The software ANSYS
ANSYS is used to to
is used develop
develop analysis
analysisin in
thethe
paper [21,22].
paper FEFE
[21,22]. analyses
analysescan predict
can predictand
analyse
and analyse the behaviour of steel-composite bridges [1,9,16,23]. Solid elements (element type of solid45)
the behaviour of steel-composite bridges [1,9,16,23]. Solid elements (element type of solid
are45)
usedareto model
used a concrete
to model deck deck
a concrete and shell elements
and shell (element
elements typetype
(element of shell 43) 43)
of shell are are
used to model
used to modelsteel
girders and stiffeners.
steel girders Spring
and stiffeners. element
Spring (element
element typetype
(element of combine14)
of combine14)is used
is usedtotomodel
modelshear
shearstuds
studs to
connect the concrete
to connect deckdeck
the concrete and steel girders.
and steel The The
girders. concrete deckdeck
concrete andand
the the
steel girders
steel areare
girders assumed
assumed fully
connected by the shear
fully connected by thestuds.
shearLink elements
studs. (element(element
Link elements type of link
type8)ofare used
link 8) to
aremodel
used prestressed
to model
prestressed
tendons. tendons. The
The prestress prestress
forces in theforces
tendonsin the
aretendons
appliedare applied
with with temperature.
temperature. Figure 3Figure
shows3theshows
finite
the finite
element element
model model
of the of the
bridge. Thebridge.
default The default convergence
convergence criteria
criteria are used are used
in the in the analyses.
analyses.

2 Vertical
1 3 Longitudinal
Lateral

Figure 3. 3Finite
Figure Finiteelement
element model
model of
of a twin-I girder
a twin-I girderbridge
bridgewith
withprecast
precastconcrete
concrete deck.
deck.

3.2. Material Models

3.2. Material Models
TheThesteel material
steel materialofofthe
thegirders
girdersisismodelled
modelled using
using anan elastic
elasticisotropic
isotropicmaterial
materialinin
thethe elastic
elastic range
range
with an elastic modulus of 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 and a perfectly plastic
with an elastic modulus of 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 and a perfectly plastic isotropic materialisotropic material
in in
thethe
inelastic
inelasticrange.
range. The yieldstrength
The yield strengthofofthe the steel
steel material
material is 345
is 345 MPa.MPa. The concrete
The deck deck concrete
has 23.1has
23.1
MPaMPa compressive
compressive strength
strength (Ministry
(Ministry of Transport
of Transport of theofPeople’s
the People’s Republic
Republic of China)
of China) [19,22,23].
[19,22−23]. An
Anempirical
empiricalstress-strain
stress-strain model for unconfined concrete proposed by Oh and Sause is used for thethe
model for unconfined concrete proposed by Oh and Sause is used for
uniaxial
uniaxialstress-strain
stress-strainrelationship
relationshipofofconcrete
concrete[24].
[24].
TheThecreep
creepandandshrinkage
shrinkageare areincluded
included in in the
the model based on
model based onthe
theequations
equationsfromfromMinistry
Ministry
of of
Transport
Transport of the
of the People’s
People’s Republic
Republic of China
of China [25]. [25]. The shrinkage
The shrinkage effecteffect is applied
is applied to theto the models
models through
through temperature
temperature decrease indecrease in the
the concrete concreteANSYS
material. material.
doesANSYS doesdirect
not have not have direct
method to method
calculatetothe
calculate
creep effect.the creep metal
It gives effect. creep
It gives metalto
model creep
modelmodelthe to model
creep the creep in
in concrete. concrete.
There are 13There
creepare 13 creep in
equations
equations in ANSYS and one
ANSYS and one used often is as follows: used often is as follows:

.ε = C σ ε e / (1)
εcr = C1 σC2 εcr C3 e−C4/T (1)
where, ε is creep strain; ε is creep variance ratio of time; σ is stress; T is absolute temperature;
.
C1 through
where, C4 isstrain;
εcr is creep parameters
εcr is to be calculated.
creep Usually,
variance ratio thereσare
of time; two ways
is stress; T isto simplifytemperature;
absolute the equation.C1
One isC4
through to assume that creep
is parameters variance
to be ratio Usually,
calculated. of time isthere
only are
related
two to stress
ways to with C2 =the
simplify 1 and C3 = C4One
equation. =
0 (Method A). Thus the equations is simplified as follows:
is to assume that creep variance ratio of time is only related to stress with C2 = 1 and C3 = C4 = 0
(Method A). Thus the equations is simplified∆ε = C σ∆t
as follows: (2)
For concrete with constant stress, the creep strains satisfy:
∆εcr = C1 σ∆t (2)
σ
ε = ε ϕ t, t = ϕ t, t (3)
For concrete with constant stress, the creep strainsEsatisfy:
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598 5 of 12

σ0
εcr = ε0 φ(t, t0 ) = φ(t, t0 ) (3)
E
Equation (3) is changed with time of ∆t:

∆εcr σ ∆φ(t, t0 )
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW = ε0 φ(t, t0 ) = 0 5 of 13 (4)
∆t E ∆t
Within the time of ∆t, C1 is calculated
εcr =as follows:
ε0 ϕ(t,
σ0
t 0 ) = ϕ(t, t 0 ) (3)
E
Equation (3) is changed with time of ∆t: ∆φ(ti , ti−1 ) 1
Ci = (5)
∆εcr ∆t σ ∆ϕ(t,
E t )
0 0
= ε0 ϕ(t, t 0 ) = (4)
∆t E ∆t
Another way is assuming there is linear relationship between creep variation rate and strain with
C2 = C4 = 0,Within
C3 = the time of ∆t,
1 (Method B),C1which
is calculated as follows:
is denoted as follows:
∆ϕ(t i , t i−1 ) 1
Ci = (5)
∆εcr = C
Δt1 ε∆tE (6)
Another way is assuming there is linear relationship between creep variation rate and strain
Forwith
concrete
C2 = C4with constant
= 0，C3 stress,B),the
= 1 (Method creep
which strains as
is denoted satisfy:
follows:
∆ε = C ε∆t (6)
ε(t) = εe + εc (crt) = 1(1 + φ(t, t0 ))εe (7)
For concrete with constant stress, the creep strains satisfy:
Thus within the time of ∆t, C1 isε(t)
calculated as=follows:
= εe + εc (t) (1 + ϕ(t, t 0 ))εe (7)

∆φ
Thus within the time of ∆t, C1 is calculated as(follows:
t ,t ) i i−1
C1 = (8)
∆t(1∆ϕ(t i , t)i−1 ))
+ φi ,(tti−1
C1 = (8)
Δt(1 + ϕ(t i , t i−1 ))
Figure 4 presents the validation of these two ways to analyse the creep effect for a column applied
Figure 4 presents the validation of these two ways to analyse the creep effect for a column
with a vertical constant force (denoted as P) and shows that the ways agree with the results using
applied with a vertical constant force (denoted as P) and shows that the ways agree with the results
theoretical
usinganalysis.
theoretical analysis.

0.025
Method A
0.020
Displacement (m)

0.015 p FEM
理论
Theory
0.010

0.005

0.000
0 200 400 600 800 1,000
Time day)
(a)
0.025
Method B
0.020
Displacement (m)

0.015 p FEM
理论
Theory
0.010

0.005

0.000
0 200 400 600 800 1,000
Time day)
(b)

Figure
Figure 4. 4 Finite
Finite element
element analysis
analysis using
using metalcreep
metal creepmodel
model for
for creep
creepeffect:
effect:(a)(a)
Method A; (b)
Method A; Method
(b) Method B.
B.
 Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598 6 of 12
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3.3.3.3.
Boundary Conditions
Boundary Conditions
Continuously
Continuouslysupported
supportedboundary
boundary conditions
conditions areare used
used for
forthe
thebridge
bridgemodel.
model.TheThevertical
vertical
displacements
displacements (U2)
(U2)atatthe
thebottom
bottomofofthe
theflange
flange nodes
nodes are restrainedat
are restrained ateach
eachsupport.
support.At Ateach
eachsupport,
support,
thethe
lateral
lateral displacements (U1) of the bottom flange nodes at the bottom of the flange nodes areare
displacements (U1) of the bottom flange nodes at the bottom of the flange nodes
restrained.
restrained.The
Thelongitudinal
longitudinal displacements
displacements (U3)(U3)ofofthe
the bottom
bottom flange
flange nodes
nodes at middle
at the the middle support
support are
areonly
onlyrestrained.
restrained.

4. Long-Term
4. Long-Term BehaviourAnalysis
Behaviour Analysis

4.1. Prestressed Concrete Deck Condition

4.1. Prestressed Concrete Deck Condition
Table 1 gives the induced compressive stresses in the precast concrete deck within the hogging
Table 1 gives the induced compressive stresses in the precast concrete deck within the hogging
regions. After the tendons prestressed, the compressive stresses on the deck top surface are from
regions.
−6 Mpa After the tendons prestressed, the compressive stresses on the deck top surface are from −6
to −7 Mpa (negative value denotes compression) and are from −7 Mpa to −8 Mpa on the
Mpa to bottom
deck −7 Mpasurface.
(negative
The value denotes
tendons are not compression) and are
located at the neutral from
axis −7deck
of the Mpacross-section
to −8 Mpa onandthe deck
cause
bottom surface. The tendons are not located at the neutral
the difference between the top surface and the bottom surface. axis of the deck cross-section and cause
the difference between the top surface and the bottom surface.
Table 1. Stress and deformation analysis results.
Table 1 Stress and deformation analysis results.
Prestressed Concrete Constructed
Analysis Result 10,000-Day Creep
Analysis Result Prestressed Concrete Deck Condition Condition
Deck Condition Constructed Condition 10,000-Day Creep
Bottom surface −7~−8 MPa −4.4~−6.2 MPa −2.3 MPa~−3.3 MPa
Concrete deck Bottom surface −7~−8 MPa −4.4~−6.2 MPa −2.3 MPa~−3.3 MPa
Concrete deckTop surface −6~−7 MPa −4.7~−5.6 MPa −2.6 MPa~−3.5 MPa
Top surface −6~−7 MPa −4.7~−5.6 MPa −2.6 MPa~ −3.5 MPa
Top flange
Top flange 135 Mpa
135 Mpa 165 MPa165 MPa 10–20 MPa
10–20 MPa
SteelSteel
girdergirder
BottomBottom
flange flange 143 MPa
143 MPa 167 MPa167 MPa 155–165 MPa MPa
155–165
Tendons
Tendons - - 1135–1175
1135–1175 MPa MPa 1115–1180 1115–1180
MPa MPa
Deflection
Deflection 0.066 mm
0.066 0.074 m0.074 m 0.040 m0.040 m

4.2.4.2.
Constructed Condition
Constructed Condition
Figures
Figures5 5and
and66 present thenormal
present the normal stress
stress variation
variation in concrete
in the the concrete deck
deck and theand
steelthe steelunder
girders girders
under the bridge
the bridge constructed
constructed condition.
condition. WithinWithin the hogging
the hogging regions,regions, the compressive
the compressive stressesstresses
vary fromvary
from −5.6 MPa to −6.4 MPa at middle interior support (P3) and vary from −4.7~−5.6
−5.6 MPa to −6.4 MPa at middle interior support (P3) and vary from −4.7~−5.6 MPa at the other MPa at the other
interior supports
interior supports (P2
(P2and
andP4).
P4).The
Themaximum
maximum tension
tension stresses
stresses inin the
thesteel
steelgirders
girdersare
areabout
about 165
165 MPaMPa
at P2. After
at P2. Afterthethe
bridge
bridgeconstructed,
constructed,the
thecompressive
compressive stresses
stresses inin the
theconcrete
concretedeck
deckwithin
within the
the hogging
hogging
regions
regionsareare
not
notsmall.
small.

Figure 5. Stress at the top surface of the concrete deck under the constructed condition in the hogging region (Pa).

Figure 5 Stress at the top surface of the concrete deck under the constructed condition in the hogging
region (Pa).
 Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598 7 of 12
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Figure6.6Stress
Figure Stressatat
thethe
toptop
flange of the
flange ofsteel girders
the steel under the
girders constructed
under conditioncondition
the constructed in the hogging region
in the (Pa).
hogging
region
4.3. (Pa). Behaviour
Long-Term
Figure Behaviour
4.3. Long-Term 7 shows the normal stress variation on the concrete deck top surface after 10,000 days creep
near P2. Compared with the stresses under the constructed condition, the stresses in the concrete deck
Figuredue
change 7 shows the normal
to the concrete creep,stress variation
especially in the on the concrete
hogging deck
regions. The top surface
compressive afterdecrease
stresses 10,000 days
creep −2.6~P2.
to near −3.5Compared
MPa, with awith the ofstresses
decrease under
about 3 MPa fromthethe
constructed
constructed condition, the stresses
condition. Figure in the
8 presents
the stress variation in the steel girder. The flange stresses in the girder change
concrete deck change due to the concrete creep, especially in the hogging regions. The compressive a lot compared with
the constructed
stresses decrease tocondition
−2.6~−3.5that top with
MPa, flangea stress is in of
decrease compression
about 3 MPa withfrom
stressthe
from −10 to −20condition.
constructed MPa.
The stresses in the tendons are checked and it is found that no changes occur for the tendons.
Figure 8 presents the stress variation in the steel girder. The flange stresses in the girder change a lot The results
show that the concrete creep reduces the initial compressive stress in the concrete deck and causes
compared with the constructed condition that top flange stress is in compression with stress from
force
Appl. Sci. transfer
2018, between
8, x FOR the concrete deck and the steel girders.
PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
−10 to −20 MPa. The stresses in the tendons are checked and it is found that no changes occur for the
tendons. The results show that the concrete creep reduces the initial compressive stress in the
concrete deck and causes force transfer between the concrete deck and the steel girders.
Table 1 summarizes the stress change in the bridge due to the concrete creep. The results show
that the stresses in the concrete deck and the steel girders change due to the concrete creep. The force
transfer occurs between the concrete deck and the steel girders and it mostly occurs within the
hogging regions.

FigureFigure 7. Stress
7 Stress at the
at the topsurface
top surface of
of the
theconcrete
concretedeck in the
deck in hogging regionregion
the hogging after 10,000-day creep (Pa).creep
after 10,000-day
(Pa).
Table 1 summarizes the stress change in the bridge due to the concrete creep. The results show
that the stresses in the concrete deck and the steel girders change due to the concrete creep. The force
transfer occurs between the concrete deck and the steel girders and it mostly occurs within the
hogging regions.
 Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598 8 of 12
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Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12

P2

1 Lateral

3 Longitudinal

Figure 8. Stress at the top flange of the steel girders in the hogging region after 10000-day creep (Pa).
P2 after 10000-day creep (Pa).
Figure 8 Stress at the top flange of the steel girders in the hogging region
5. Parametric Studies
5. Parametric Studies
To study the effects of different parameters on the prestressing the concrete deck and the force
To study the effects of different parameters on the prestressing the concrete deck and the force
transfer between the concrete deck and steel girders, a simplified two-span I girder is conducted.
transfer between the concrete deck and steel girders, a simplified two-span I girder is conducted. The
The continuous girderhas
continuous girder hastwo
twospans
spansof of
3 m3 +m3 +m.3 The
m. precast
The precast concrete
concrete deck
deck has hasofwidth
0.5 m.of 0.5 m.
1width
Lateral The
The parameters includegirder
parameters include girder depth,
depth, concrete
concrete deck thickness,
deck thickness, prestressed
prestressed compressive compressive stress in
stress in concrete
concrete
deckdeck
and and additional
additional imposed
imposed vertical vertical
load. Theload. The additional
additional imposed load imposed loadthe
is to model is to model the
condition
3 Longitudinal
condition that long-term
that long-term load applied
load applied on the on the bridge
bridge system. system. Note
Note that that
10,000 10,000
days creepdays creep
is consideredis considered
in the
analyses.
in the analyses.

5.1. Girder
5.1. Girder DepthDepth
Different
Different girdergirder depths
depths areare analysedand
analysed anddiscussed
discussed to to find
findthetheeffect
effectofof
girder
girderstiffness on the
stiffness on the
creep effect. Figure 9 gives the stress variation in the hogging region. The initial prestressing stress is
creep effect. Figure 9 gives the stress variation in the hogging region. The initial prestressing stress
10 MPa. Along with the increase of girder depth, the stress variations due to shrinkage and creep
is 10 MPa. Along
-0.110x109 with the increase
0.491x10of
-indicates 8 girder depth, the 8stress variations
-0.113x10 0. due
718x10 8 to shrinkage and creep
decrease
decrease -0.793x10
slightly, which
9 - 0.189x10
that the8 girder 0.416x10
stiffness has little
8 effect
slightly, which indicates that the girder stiffness has little effect on the creep .102x10
on 0the creep 9 effect. The
effect. The results
results also show that the stress loss due to creep is over than 50% of the initial prestressing stress.
also show
The that theinstress
stresses thetoploss duedotonot
tendons creep is over andthan 50% ofloss
theininitial prestressing isstress. The stresses
Figure 8 Stress at the flange of thechange
steel girderstheinstress
the hogging the concrete
region afterdeck transferred
10000-day creepto(Pa).
in thesteel
tendons do
girders. not change and the stress loss in the concrete deck is transferred to steel girders.

5. Parametric Studies 12

To study the effects of different parameters on the prestressing the concrete deck and the force
10
transfer between the concrete deck and steel girders, a simplified two-span I girder is conducted.
The continuous girder has two Shrinkage
spans of 3 m + 3 m. The precast concrete deck has width of 0.5 m. The
8
Stress (MPa)

Creep
parameters include girder depth, concrete deck thickness, prestressed compressive stress in concrete
6 Prestressing stress
deck and additional imposed vertical load. The additional imposed load is to model the condition
that long-term load applied on the bridge system. Note that 10,000 days creep is considered in the
4
analyses.
2
5.1. Girder Depth
0
Different girder depths 15are analysed 20 and
25 discussed
30 to 35
find the40effect of45 girder stiffness on the
creep effect. Figure 9 gives the stress variation in the hogging region. The initial prestressing stress is
Girder depth（cm）
10 MPa. Along with the increase of girder depth, the stress variations due to shrinkage and creep
9. Stress
FigureFigure variation
9 Stress in the
variation concrete
in the deck in
concrete inthe
the hogging regiondue
duetoto different effects different
for different
decrease slightly, which indicates that thedeck
girder hogging region
stiffness has littledifferent
effecteffects
on for
the creep effect. The
girdergirder
depths.
depths.
results also show that the stress loss due to creep is over than 50% of the initial prestressing stress.
The stresses in the tendons do not change and the stress loss in the concrete deck is transferred to
steel girders.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598 9 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12
5.2. Deck Thickness
5.2. Deck Thickness
5.2. Deck Thickness
Different deck thickness are analysed and discussed to find the effect of deck size on the creep
Different
effect. Figure 10 deck thickness
presents are analysed
the stress variation andindiscussed to find
the hogging the effect
region. Theof deck size on the creep
Different deck thickness are analysed and discussed to find the effect ofinitial prestressing
deck size on the creepstress
effect.
is 10effect. Figure
MPa.Figure 10 presents
The results the
showthe stress
that variation
thevariation in
stresses due the hogging region. The initial prestressing stress is
10 presents stress in thetohogging
shrinkage haveThe
region. noinitial
change with the increase
prestressing stress is of
10 MPa. The
deck10thickness. results show
Along show that
with the the stresses due to shrinkage have no change with the increase of deck
MPa. The results thatincrease
the stressesof deck
due to thickness,
shrinkagethe stress
have variations
no change withduethe to creep of
increase varies
deckbut
thickness. Along with the increase of deck thickness, the stress variations due to creep varies but the
the thickness.
variation is not linear.
Along with theThe stressofvariation
increase induced
deck thickness, theby creep
stress increases
variations with
due the increase
to creep thethe
varies but deck
variation is not linear. The stress variation induced by creep increases with the increase the deck
variation is not linear. The stress variation induced by creep increases with
thickness up to 180 mm thickness and then decreases. With the thickness of 180 mm, the stress loss is the increase the deck
thickness up to 180 mm thickness and then decreases. With the thickness of 180 mm, the stress loss is
thicknessone.
the biggest up to 180the
But mm thicknessisand
difference notthen
big decreases. With the thickness
and the difference between of the180 mm, the of
thickness stress
180 loss
mmisand
the biggest one. But the difference is not big and the difference between the thickness of 180 mm and
the
mmbiggest
160 160 is 6%. one.
The But the difference
results also show is not
that big
theand the difference
stress loss due between
to creep theover
is thickness
than of 180ofmm
50% the and
initial
mm is 6%. The results also show that the stress loss due to creep is over than 50% of the initial
160 mm
prestressing is 6%.
stress.The results also show that the stress loss due to creep is over than 50% of the initial
prestressing stress.
prestressing stress.
12
12

10
10
Shrinkage
Shrinkage
8
(MPa)

8 Creep
Stress(MPa)

Creep
6
6
Stress

4
4

2
2

0
0135 145 155 165 175 185 195 205
135 145 155 165 175 185 195 205
Deck thickness（mm）
Deck thickness（mm）
Figure
Figure 10. 10 Stressvariation
Stress variationin
in the
the concrete
concrete deck
deck in
in the
the hogging
hoggingregion
regiondue
dueto to
different effects
different for for
effects
Figure 10 Stress variation in the concrete deck in the hogging region due to different effects for
different
different deckdeck thicknesses.
thicknesses.
different deck thicknesses.

5.3. 5.3.
Prestressing Stress
Prestressing Stress
5.3. Prestressing Stress
Figure
Figure 11 11 presents
presents theresults
the resultstotoanalyse
analyse the
the initial
initial prestressing
prestressingstressstressapplied
appliedto concrete
to concretedeck.
deck.
Figure 11 presents the results to analyse the initial prestressing stress applied to concrete deck.
TheThe stress
stress duedueto to shrinkage
shrinkage hashasnonochange
changewith
with the
the increase
increase of of prestressing
prestressing
The stress due to shrinkage has no change with the increase of prestressing stress. Along with the
stress. Along
stress. Alongwith the the
with
increase
increase of the
of the initialprestressing
initial prestressing stress, the thestress
stressloss due to creep increases. The ratio
Thebetween the
increase of the initial prestressing stress,
stress, the stress loss
loss duedue to creep
to creep increases.
increases. The ratio ratio between
between the
stress
the stress loss
stressloss due
lossdue to creep
duetotocreep to
creep the initial prestressing stress is larger for smaller prestressing stress (e.g.,
to to
thethe initial
initial prestressing
prestressing stressstress is larger
is larger for smaller
for smaller prestressing
prestressing stress
stress (e.g.,
(e.g.,67%
67% 67%forfor
5 MPa
5 MPa
for 5 MPa
prestressing
prestressing
prestressing
stress
stress
andand
stress 49% for 10
and 49%49% forMPa
for 10
prestressing
10 MPa
MPa
stress).
prestressing
prestressing
The results
stress).
stress).
show that
The results
The results show
show that
thethat
the
prestressing stress is decreased in the concrete deck due to creep and the loss mostly is larger than
the prestressing stressisisdecreased
prestressing stress decreasedininthe theconcrete
concretedeck
deck due
due to to creep
creep andand
thethe loss
loss mostly
mostly is larger
is larger than
than
50% of the initial prestressing stress.
50%50% of the
of the initial
initial prestressing
prestressing stress.
stress.
8
8
7
7
6
6
(MPa)

5
Stress(MPa)

5
4
4
Stress

3 Shrinkage
3 Shrinkage
Creep
2 Creep
2
1
1
0
0 4 6 8 10 12
4 6 8 10 12
Initial pressing stress（MPa）
Initial pressing stress（MPa）
Figure 11 Stress variation in the concrete deck in the hogging region due to different effects for
Figure Stress
11. 11
Figure Stressvariation
variationininthe
the concrete
concrete deck in the
deck in the hogging
hoggingregion
regiondue
dueto to different
different effects
effects for for
different prestressing stress by tendons.
different
different prestressing
prestressing stress
stress byby tendons.
tendons.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598 10 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 12

5.4. Additional
5.4. Additional Imposed
ImposedLoad
Load
Additional imposed
Additional imposed loadload isis to
to model
model the
the condition
condition under
under long-term
long-term dead dead load
load and
and live
live load,
load,
which induces tension in the concrete deck in the hogging regions. The tension
which induces tension in the concrete deck in the hogging regions. The tension stress induced by the stress induced by the
additionalimposed
additional imposedloadloadis is
usedused to denote
to denote the value
the value of theofimposed
the imposed load. Figure
load. Figure 12 presents
12 presents the
the results
results to analyse the effect of additional imposed load to the creep effect. In the figure,
to analyse the effect of additional imposed load to the creep effect. In the figure, “shrinkage” denotes “shrinkage”
denotes
the stressthe stress induced
variation variationby induced by theshrinkage,
the concrete concrete shrinkage, “creep”
“creep” denotes thedenotes the stress
stress variation variation
induced by
induced by the concrete creep considering 10,000 days and “prestressing stress”
the concrete creep considering 10,000 days and “prestressing stress” denotes the initial compressive denotes the initial
compressive
stress stress
introduced byintroduced
the prestressedby the prestressed
tendons. tendons.
The initial The initial
prestressing prestressing
stress is 10 MPa. stress is 10 MPa.
The stress due
The
to stress due
shrinkage hasto
noshrinkage
change with hasthenoincrease
change ofwith the increase
additional imposedof additional
load. With imposed load.
the increase With the
of imposed
increase
load, of imposed
the stress loss dueload, the stress
to creep losswhich
increase, due toshows
creepthat
increase, which shows
the additional imposedthatload
the have
additional
a big
imposed load have a
effect on the creep effect.big effect on the creep effect.

12

10

8 Shrinkage
Stress (MPa)

Creep
6

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Additional imposed load (MPa)

Figure 12.
Figure 12 Stress
Stress variation
variation in the concrete deck in the hogging
hogging region
region due
due to
to different
different effects
effects for
for
differentadditional
different additionalimposed
imposedload.
load.

6.
6. Conclusions
Conclusions
The
The paper
paper investigated
investigated the
the behaviour
behaviour of
of aa four-span
four-span continuous
continuous twin-I
twin-I girder
girder bridge
bridge using
using
prestressed
prestressed precast concrete deck due to concrete creep. Simplified two-span I girder models
precast concrete deck due to concrete creep. Simplified two-span I girder models are
are
analysed to find the effect on the prestressed compression and force transfer between concrete
analysed to find the effect on the prestressed compression and force transfer between concrete deck deck
and
andsteel
steelgirders.
girders.Major
Majorfindings
findingsare
aresummarized
summarizedas asfollows:
follows:
(1) For the continuous twin-I girder bridge, the prestressed tendons introduce compressive stress
(1) For the continuous twin-I girder bridge, the prestressed tendons introduce compressive stress in
in the concrete deck and the compressive stress under constructed condition is big and it can
the concrete deck and the compressive stress under constructed condition is big and it can
overcome the tensile stress induced by shrinkage and live load.
overcome the tensile stress induced by shrinkage and live load.
(2) In the hogging regions, the prestressed stresses in the concrete deck are reduced due to the
(2) In the hogging regions, the prestressed stresses in the concrete deck are reduced due to the
concrete creep effect and the decrease is up to 50% of the initial prestressing stress.
concrete creep effect and the decrease is up to 50% of the initial prestressing stress.
(3) Thestresses
(3) The stresses inin the
the steel
steel girders
girders in in the
the hogging
hogging regions
regions vary
vary big,
big, especially
especially for
for girder
girder flange
flange in
in
tension and the changes are due to force transfer from compressive stress
tension and the changes are due to force transfer from compressive stress in concrete deck. in concrete deck.
(4) The stresses
(4) The stresses inin the
the tendons
tendons havehave almost
almost nono change
change andand thethe prestressed
prestressed force
force transfers
transfers from
from
concrete deck to steel girders in the hogging
concrete deck to steel girders in the hogging regions. regions.
(5) Thesteel
(5) The steelgirder
girder stiffness
stiffness has
has nono effect
effect onon the
the prestressing
prestressing stress
stress loss
loss in
in the
the concrete
concrete deck.deck.
(6) The concrete deck, initial prestressing
(6) The concrete deck, initial prestressing stress and additional imposed load have
have an effect on
an effect onthe
the
initialprestressing
initial prestressing stress
stress loss
loss in
in the
the concrete
concrete deck
deck due
due to
to concrete creep.
(7) The
(7) The prestressing
prestressing stress lossloss inin the
theconcrete
concretedueduetotocreep
creepmostly
mostly is is over
over 50%50%
andand
it isit transferred
is transferred
to
to steel
steel girders
girders toto change
change thethe stress
stress distribution
distribution of of composite
composite section
section in in
thethe hogging
hogging regions.
regions.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.M. and X.S.; numerical analysis, H.M., X.S. and Y.Z.; writing: H.M.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.M. and X.S.; numerical analysis, H.M., X.S. and Y.Z.; writing: H.M.
and Y.Z.
and Y.Z.
Funding: This research was funded by National Key R&D Program of China, grant number 2018YFC0809606,
National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 51608378 and Science and Technology
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2598 11 of 12

Funding: This research was funded by National Key R&D Program of China, grant number 2018YFC0809606,
National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 51608378 and Science and Technology Commission
of Shanghai Municipality (18DZ1201203, 17DZ1204300) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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