Ferroresonance Related terms: Power Quality, Substations, Capacitance, Overvoltage, Transformers, Capacitive, ‘Coupling Capacitor, Overvoltages View all Topics > ke ® Power Quality — Harmonics in Power Systems DrC.R. Bayliss CEng FIET, B,. Hardy CEng FIET, in Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering (Fourth Edition), 2012 24.6.2 A Physical Description of Ferroresonance Ferroresonance is characterized in a circuit by the sudden departure from sinusoidal conditions and the emergence of current spikes reaching magnitudes of typically 2to 5 per unit values. These current spikes arise from the magnetic cores of transformers or reactors going into brief saturation excursions. Such large current spikes give rise to system overvoltages reaching values in excess of 1.5 per unit as illustrated in Fig. 24.8¢. Ferroresonance and subsynchronous resonance can arise in power system circuits when capacitance is connected in series (and less commonly when connected in parallel) with non-linear inductive circuits such as transformers and reactors and when the voltage is suf fient to drive the non-linear inductance to near the knee point of the B- H cure. As the inductance falls at the knee point a stage may be reached where the residual inductance is in resonance with the capacitance at the driving voltage frequency. This causes a drop in the circuit impedance to the value of the residual resistance and a spike of current results that drives the inductive reactance well into saturation. The inductance then becomes very low, the resonance condition is destroyed, and since the voltage wave is now falling, the current rapidly falls to a low value. This whole process is repeated in the next half cycle yielding another current spike in the opposite direction. This is a simplistic explanation of a complex phenomenon since sometimes two spikes of current occur each half cycle. The potential for ferroresonance problems has ironically increased with the introduction of low-loss square law characteristic transformer and reactor steels. Such materials increase the inherent non-linearity of transformers and reduce system damping. Hence, ferroresonance is basicaly a fundamental system frequency event, but, because of the current spikes and voltage distortion a rich harmonic spectrum is generated. ‘Atypical situation that arose on the British 275 KV grid system involved a double circuit line feeding two grid transformers as shown in Fig. 24.9. If one circuit was tripped out for whatever reason, that circuit should have been dead and was initially expected to be so. However, it transpired that if the double circuit line was long,enough then there was suf Eient intercircuit capacitance between the live and apparently dead circuits for @ ferroresonance response to be excited in the transformer feeder circuit that had been switched out of service. The transformer was continuing to be fed by energy through the intercircuit mutual capacitance, The resulting spiky currents caused an alarming noise from the transformer core and some transformer failures resulted from overvoltage f bshover ef €cts. Such phenomena are now avoided by the use of operational rules that require the transformer to be initially switched of fand isolated from its circuit and earthed, before the overhead line circuit is switched out ‘Another well-documented case occurred in the USA on the Detroit-Edison Company electrical supply system. A 40 kV transformer had lost a phase and gone into ferroresonance with the system capacitance. The resulting overvoltages caused the failure of 39 surge arresters on the network. In summary, the following parameters are important [12]: +The characteristics of the iron of the transformer core. + The designed f ix level of the transformer. +The level of the supply voltage compared to the nominal. +The inductance of the relevant transformer winding when saturated. + The load on any other windings on the transformer, and the coupling between the windings. +The instantaneous fx in the transformer when the initiating incident occurs. +The point on wave at which the switching event occurs. Problems can be avoided by tackling these criteria, and by operational actions such as ensuring suf Eient load remains connected to the system being switched and eliminating single-phase switching. 4, Purchase book Introduction to Power Quality Mohammad AS. Masoum, Ewald F. Fuchs, in Power Quality in Power Systems and Electrical Machines (Second Edition), 2015 Unpredictable Events Both electric utilities and end users agree that more than 60% of power quality problems are generated by natural and unpredictable events [6]. Some of these include faults, lightning surge propagation, resonance, ferroresonance, and geomagnetically induced currents (GICs) due to solar fbres [13]. These events are considered to be utility related problems. The Electric Utility ‘There are three main sources of poor power quality related to utilities: +The point of supply generation. Although synchronous machines generate nearly perfect sinusoidal voltages (harmonic content less than 3%), there are power quality problems originating at generating plants which are mainly due to maintenance activity, planning, capacity and expansion constraints, scheduling, events leading to forced outages, and load transferring from one substation to another. ‘+The transmission system. Relatively few power aualitv orablems originate in the transmission svstem. Tvoicalpower quality problems originating in the transmission system are galloping (under high-wind conditions resulting in supply interruptions and/or random voltage variations), lightning (resulting in a spike or transient overvoltage), insulator f bshover, voltage dips (due to faults), interruptions (due to planned outages by utility), transient overvoltages (generated by capacitor andjor inductor switching, and lightning), transformer energizing (resulting in inrush currents that are rich in harmonic components), improper operation of voltage regulation devices (which can lead to long-duration voltage variations), slow voltage variations (due to a long-term variation of the load caused by the continuous switching of devices and load), fF txible AC transmission system (FACTS) devices [14] and high-voltage DC (HVDC) systems [15], corona (16), power line carrier signals [17], broadband power line (BPL) communications [18], and electromagnetic felds (EMFs) [19]. + The distribution system. Typical power quality problems originating in the distribution system are voltage dips, spikes, and interruptions, transient overvoltages, transformer energizing, improper operation of voltage regulation devices, slow voltage variations, power line carrier signals, BPL, and EMFs. The Customer Customer loads generate a considerable portion of power quality problems in today's power systems. Some end-user related problems are harmonics (generated by nonlinear loads such as power electronic devices and equipment, renewable energy sources, FACTS devices, adjustable-speed drives, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), fax machines, laser printers, computers, and f Lorescent lights), poor power factor (due to highly inductive loads such as induction motors and air-conditioning units), flcker (generated by arc furnaces [20)), transients (mostly generated inside a facility due to device switching, electrostatic discharge, and arcing), improper grounding (causing most reported customer problems), frequency variations (when secondary and. backup power sources, such as diesel engine and turbine generators, are used), misapplication of technology, wiring regulations, and other relevant standards. Manufacturing Regulations There are two main sources of poor power quality related to manufacturing regulations: + Standards. The lack of standards for testing, certif tation, sale, purchase, installation, and use of electronic equipment and appliances is a major cause of power quality problems. + Equipment sensitivity. The proliferation of “sensitive” electronic equipment and appliances is one of the main reasons for the increase of power quality problems. The design characteristics of these devices, including computer-based equipment, have increased the incompatibility of a wide variety of these devices with the electrical environment [21} Power quality therefore must necessarily be tackled from three fronts, namely: + The utility must design, maintain, and operate the power system while minimizing power quality problems; + The end user must employ proper wiring, system grounding practices, and state-of-the-art electronic devices; and ‘+ The manufacturer must design electronic devices that keep electrical environmental disturbances to a minimum and that are immune to anomalies of the power supply line. 4, Purchase bookImpact of Poor Power Quality on Reliability, Relaying and Security Mohammad AS. Masour, Ewald F. Fuchs, in Power Quality in Power Systems and Electrical Machines (Second Edition), 2015 8.4.1 Fast Interrupting Switches and Fault-Current Limiters Fast interrupting switches and fault-current limiters serve to maintain the stability of an interconnected system by isolating the faulty portion or by mitigating the ef €ct ofa fault on the healthy part of the power system. Fast interrupting switches are used to prevent ferroresonance due to the not quite simultaneous closing of the three phases, and to ease reclosing applications. In the Fist application the almost simultaneous switching of the three phases prevents the current f bws through the capacitance of a cable, which is required for inducing ferroresonant currents (see Chapter 2), whereas in the latter the reclosing should occur within a few cycles as indicated in Chapter 4 Fast Interrupting Switches (FIS) Fast interrupting switches [111] rely on sulfur hexaf Loride (SFe) as a quenching medium resulting in an increased interrupting capability of the circuit breaker. SF. is an inorganic compound; itis a colorless, odorless, nontoxic, and nonf mmable gas. SF has an extremely great inf Lence on global warming and therefore its use should be minimized or entirely avoided. From an environmental point of view a circuit breaker is expected to use smaller amounts of SF or to adopt as a quenching medium a gas that causes no greenhouse ef Ect. Research is performed to substitute SF, by a greenhouse benign alternative quenching gas. The series connection of an FIS with a fault-current limiter either reduces the interrupting conditions or makes the substitution of SF. with a ess ef Gctive quenching gas possible. For this reason it is important to investigate the dependence of the interrupting condition on the circuit parameters as will be done in the nest section. Fault-Current Limiters (FCLs) Fault-current limiters are installed in transmission and distribution systems to reduce the magnitude of the fault current and thereby mitigate the ef €ct of the fault on the remaining healthy network. The fault-current limiter is a device having variable impedance, connected in series with a circuit breaker (CB) to limit the current under fault conditions. Several concepts for designing FCLs have been proposed: some are based on superconductors [112-114], power electronics components [115-118], polymer resistors [119], and control techniques based on conventional components [120]. FLCs not only limit the fault currents but can have the following additional functions: + reduetion of voltage sags during short-cireuits [121], + improvement of power system stability [122,123], + reduction of the maximum occurring mechanical and electrical torques of a generator [124], and + easement of the interrupting burden on circuit breakers by limiting the fault current to a desirable level. Note that in the latter case the burden on the circuit breaker depends not only on the interrupting current but also on the transient recovery voltage (TRV) appearing across the contacts of a circuit breaker. It is conceivable that a limiting impedance of the FCL and a stray capacitance ean result in a change of the TRV and may bring about a more severe interrupting duty than in the absence of an FLC. In the following section the inf Uence of a resistive and an inductive FLC on the interrupting duty of a circuit breaker will be investigated for various fault locations. First, a fault occurring near an FCL must be addressed because it produces the maximum fault current that a circuit breaker must interrupt. In this case the TRV across the circuit breaker will be not as severe as compared with the case where the fault occurs a few kilometers from the terminals of the FCL. However, arave OF rise oF une recovery voltage (rrr is higher in this case than for a fault occurring near the FCL. «4, Purchase book Reactive Power Plant and FACTS Controllers A Gavrilovié OBE, ... DJ Young BA, in Electrical Engineer's Reference Book (Sixteenth Edition), 2003 41.7 Series compensation Series compensation may consist of capacitor banks with a single xed value, or adjustable in steps, capacitors with one or more stages that are continuously variable or it may be provided by a synchronous voltage source. All equipment that is intended for series connection must have suitable insulation to ground and be designed and rated for or protected against faults that can cause severe overcurrents through it. 41.7.1 Series capacitor compensation Series capacitors have, for many years, provided the only practicable means of compensating the series luctance of transi requires caution at the system design stage, because series capacitors always introduce natural frequencies below the power frequency. Series capacitors resonate with the generator and line inductances at subharmonic jon lines. Nevertheless, the application of series capacitors in large power systems frequencies and the subharmonic oscillations which follow any transient disturbances can lead to self-excitation of generators, to rotor hunting and to shaft oscillations. The possible danger of this phenomenon was illustrated in the early 1970s when the shaft of a large turbo-generator was twice damaged in service, owing to subsynchronous resonance (SSR) excited by series capacitors in the transmission system. ‘The SSR phenomenon is now well understood as being due to near coincidence of a shaft torsional resonance frequency and the complement of an electrical subharmonic frequency. It can be fully analysed using non-linear dif €rential equations of the complete electrical-mechanical system. For studying such phenomena more economically, however, digital computer programs have been developed, based on either eigenvalue analysis or frequency-response analysis of the complete system of linearised machine and network equations, including any shaft torsional equations of the turbine prime movers 41.7.1.1 Subsynchronous/subharmonic resonance damping Methods of damping subsynchronous oscillations include the use of SVCs, damping flters, dynamic control of the series capacitor impedance and generator excitation control signals. The awareness of the possible danger of SSR, the improved methods of study and the available methods of damping such oscillations have enabled the application of series capacitors to continue successfully, albeit with some constraints. Subharmonic oscillation phenomena may also occur when capacitors are in series with devices that have a nonlinear reactive characteristic because they use saturable iron in the magnetic path, for example transformers, gapped-core ‘linear’ reactors and self-saturated reactors. These phenomena are amenable to non- linear or linearised analysis, but generally with only limited accuracy. Model studies using transient network analysers or simulators are employed in assessing individual applications involving transformers or linear reactors. Theoretical analysis of ferroresonance phenomena has not resulted in generally applicable conclusions. The performance of harmonic-compensated saturated reactors with slope-correcting series capacitors can be analysed satisfactorily and appropriate subharmonic damping f ters can be designed accurately.41.7.2 Controllable series compensation 41.7.2.1 Thyristor switched series capacitor (TSSC) In a practical installation of series capacitors itis common for the overall bank to consist of several sections, each with its own protection, isolation and bypass switchgear. This subdivision provides an improvement in availability and more f kxible adaptation to changing circumstances, including the possibility to avoid using capacitance values that would give undesirable resonance frequencies under particular system conditions. Itis impossible to obtain rapid or frequent bypassing and re-insertion of capacitor sections using conventional mechanically operated switchgear, but faster switching can be achieved using thyristor switches for one or more sections, Figure 41.37(a). There is a large discharge current when a capacitor is bypassed and a current limiting reactor (not shown) is needed to reduce the current to within the transient rating of the thyristor switch. Changing the capacitance value in discrete steps is suitable only for de-tuning SSR conditions but is not a satisfactory method of applying positive damping for SSR oscillations. 41.7.2.2 Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC) The TCSC is similar to the TSSC but the thyristor switch is converted into a TCR, Figure 41.37(b). By using point- con-wave switching of the reactor, two ranges of continuously variable impedance can be obtained, Figure 41.37(¢. The controlled reactor has a signif cantly lower impedance than the capacitor so that when the thyristor valve is fully conducting, the overall impedance of the capacitor section becomes inductive; the current through the reactor is greater than the line current and the capacitor current is smaller. At the other extreme, when the thyristor valve is hlacked the line current Fhws aniy throvieh the canacitor