Science ard. Archaeology no, 27 (1985) pp. 29-34 1.

INTRODUCYIAN; STUDITNG BURTAL RITES IN

DETAIL

This paper will examine the problems

associated r^7ith textile material from inhuma-
DUST TO DUST: tion graves. Special emphasis will be placed
on textile materials preserved by association
THE PRESERVATION OF with metal grave goods. It is the contention
of the author that grave contents must be
TEXTILE lvlATERIALS IN lvlETAL analysed as a whole and r+ithin the context of
the funerary ritual - not as a convenient
ARTEFACT CORROSION PRODUCTS cache of textiles, pottery or metalwork to be
plundered in the process of intellectual grave
WITH REFERENCE TO robbing. Although textiles are discussed here,
the general methodology and approach, if not
INHU[vlATION GRAVES the specific decay mechanism.s, should be rele-
vanE to other organic maLerials in the grave.
This paper will confine itself to conditions
that are prevalent in temperate zones, and r+ill
R.C. Janaway not be concerned \^/ith the much more favourable
Department of Archaeology, preservation conditions that are associated
University of Leeds. rn,ith extreme desiccation or permafrost.
Although some exceptional cases of preservation
will be mentioned, it is intended to explore
areas lhat may aid the development of philo-
sophical and practical methodologies applicable
I ,*:"""
to the vast majority of grave types found in
? the British Is1es.

It is important to be able to recover as

much evidence as possible concerning burial
[,.r,,"-
nland b e q[d
cranrum
practice: any material in the grave, r4,hether
textile, wood, wood-shavings, bracken, grass,
c avrcLe
/-Po(1ata e
strar^7, pine-needles or whatever, should not be
rnunl
considered as either accidental intrusions or
rrqht
s te
scapuia parE of "normal" at.tire, unless there is good
leit
humerus
evidence to the contrary. I'or instance, the
rilum
ve.lebral presence of wheat straw or wood-shavings may
pelvrc gtrd e
column
be a consistent part of burial practice for
SAC TU M
certain people, but this will not become
schrum coccyx
metaca rpa Ls
apparent if we continue to treat these mater-
ials as obviously intrusive or as "interes!ing"
femur oddities. The truiso that we only find what
\^re are looking for is most relevant in this
area. In general (for there are notable
exceptions) the philosophy behind the excava-
tion of burials is lacking. This has resulted
in the excavation of these features being less
rigorous than it could be. There is still a
tendency lo excavate graves photographically
rather than scientifically; a tendency to see
ABSTRACT excavation as a process for the recovery of
rbare bonesr and associated grave goods.
of textile matey,ial and the forma-
The decay Remaining work involves accurate deliniation
tion of cottosion-presez,ued tert'ile stv,uctuz,es are of the grave edge and looking for I'coffin
TeDieled against a detailed accowtt of the stages s tainstt .
of cadnuer.ic decotnpositt-on. Some of the factors
that effect the v,ate and nature of decaA patterns
tn tnhtunation grales ate discussed. In the past the study of less visually
obvious evidence has tended t'o occur during
the post excavation phase; usually the
rNDEX research design of the excavation phase has
made 1ittle or no reference to the possibili-
1. Introduction; studying burial rites in detail. ties of this work. Excavation strategy is
2. Decay and preservation mechanisms for textiles linked to the iuunediate stratigraphic problems
in the ground. of the grave cut, and recording the alignment
3. The inhumation grave as a burial environment. and relat.ive positions of the body and asso-
3.1 Changes in fat: hydrolysis ciated grave goods, It is because of this, for
3.2 Changes in fat: oxidation instance, that an iron knife will be recorded
3.3 Changes in protei.n by plan and photographs. Its tilt or skew
3.4 Production of gases with reference lo a three dimensional grid, and
3.5 Factors influencing the changes occurring which blade surface faces up, will not be
after burial, recorded since this has little relevance to
4. Proposed experimen!al work. grave plan type or typological classification.
5. Conclusions However, this information becomes critical when
using evidence preserved in the corrosion
Science and ArchaeologA no. 27 (r98s)
29
products to investigate the position or presence of 2. THE DECAY AND PRESERVA?ION WCHANISMS OF
organic materials in the grave layout. This TEXTILES IN ?HE GROUND
approach is particularly useful where there are a
number of metal artefacts per grave. Figure 1 Textile fibres can be divided into four main
illustrates how this might work in some hypothetical groups :-
situations ^ (a) Animal hair/wool which largely consists of
There are far more possible combinations than the protein keratin.
(b) Silk, rohich is produced by a number of
are shown. It would be difficult ro distinguish different moths and is based on two
certain situations using the knife blade in isola- proteins, fibroin and sericin.
tion (e.C. 1.5 and 1.6) although 1.4 and 1.5 can be (c) Bast or planE stem fibres which are
separated if different cloth is used for the body schlerenchyma tissue, that is cellulose-
wrappings and the coffin lining. The greatest based ce11s with heavily lignified walls.
scope for this type of analysis rests with graves (d) Ptant hair fibres, such as cotton, which
where there are a number of metal grave goods with is cellulose-based.
each interment and there is a high incidence of
corrosion-preserved organics. Excavations at Although textile fibres can be denatured or
Christchurch revealed about thirty inhumations of decomposed by soil chemicals (cellulose fibres are
the late sixth to seventh centuries A.D. (Arnold easily degraded in acidic conditions, and the pro-
et al., 1983, pp. 1O2-144). The data is outlined teins are attacked by strong bases), the principal
in Table 1. If the 6 graves with no grave goods are agents of decomposition are biological. If the
discounted, the remaining 24 graves produced an aver- burial conditions are suitable for the range of
age of 1.6 metal objects per grave (shield fittings micro-organisms that will decompose a certain fibre
and bosses are counted as one object),10 graves had type, then it will eventua-l1y disappear. If,
more than one metal artefact, and only 7 artefacts however, the soil conditions are such that one or
did not have traces of either wood or textile asso- more of the succession of decomposer organisms can-
ciated with them. The graves were dug into acid not flourish, then the textile r^ril1 be preserved.
sand, no skeletal material survived and the metal The problem with textiles studies is that the condi-
artefacts were all heavily corroded. Most, but not tion in which wool will be preserved is not the same
all, the r{7ood remains were clearly from knife handles, as linen, and so on.
spear shafts and shield boards. Unfortunately, the
1eve1 of interpretation that could be put on textiles In anaerobic conditions there are no micro-
and remaining wood was limited by shortfalls in recor- organisms that can easily decompose keratin, sericin
ding artefact position. During work on this material or fibroin, provided that they are in neutral to
the author was first convinced of the need for the basic conditions. Ce1lulose will only survive in
precise recording methods outlined above. anaerobic conditions where the pE is high, such as
Table 1, in the Swiss lakes.
Grave knives spears shields buckles other The preservation of textiles, or other organic
no. materials, in association with metal artefacts is
*T
dependent on two decay rates: (i) the rat.e of degra-
1
*IlJ
dation of the textile fibres; (ii) the rate of corro-
2
sion, transport and deposition of the metal ions on
3 to and into the textile. If the former rate is fas-
4 ^w ^r ter than the latter then the textile evidence will
5 *!m *I,J *W *
not be preserved. A number of possible mechanisms
6
*T ** for this type of preservation have been outlined in
7
**T * Janaway, 1983. In the copper/textile system, copper
8 frag ions acE as localised biocidic agents. In the iron/
9 *T *W
textile sysLem the corrosion products form casts
l0 *!m
around the fibres, which later decay, The casts
1l *I{
accurately reflect the dimensions and surface mor-
L2 phology of the now degraded fibres. In general a
13 *!n higher proportion of rnrool pseudomorphs are found in
t4 *I,J *i^rTG
associaEion with iron artefacts and a higher propor-
15 tion of bast fibres are preserved in association
15 with copper alloys. However, the author has found
16 linen pseudomorphs on a Viking age sword from the
t7 Isle of Man.
18 ,<w *I,n
19
Grass leaves have been identified on an iron
20 frag spearhead from Christchurch (Arnold et al., 1983,
2l *w? *!m
p. 1I9, grave 14). In an inhumation grave a number
22 ,r of factors, both biological and chemical will affect
L) *I^I *!m both organic degradation and metal corrosion.
*I1I L? Burial environments are not uniform, and a number of
localised microenvironments may prevail that will
25
*I,l cause differenlial preservation within one grave
26
)7 **InI *I,J
cut.
29 *T ,<W

30
3. THE INHUMATION GRAW AS A BURIAL ENVIRONMENT
!\cy
J, Iron artefact + CoPPer artefact As has been demonstrated by Janaway (forthcom-
Corrosion-preserved: W wood, T textile, G grass
i.g) in the rBeeston Experimental pitt, an environ-
L leather ? IdentificaEion uncertain ment of mixed decaying organic matter can lead to
NB. A1l shietd fittings- are counted-as one artetact'
Science and Az'chaeolagA no. 27 (1985)

30
1.3 1.4

1.6

Ebody I iron mwood lEIstraw --fabric

Figure 1
1.1 Knife between naked corpse and base of coffin
1.2 Coffin lined with straw, knife in straw 1ayer.
1.3 Corpse wrapped in shroud, or clothed, knife between corpse and coffin base.
1.4 Corpse wrapped in shroud, or clothed, coffin cloth Lined, knife between body and coffin base.
1.5 Corpse rurapped in shroud with knife beEffeen cloth layers,
1.6 Corpse clothed or wrapped in shroud, knife separately wrapped in cloth.

Scilettr:;: ti i',1.i'ta).) o i,a.) !'^o. ( 1985)

31
the rapid decomposition of textile material, and
the rapid deposition of corrosion products onto the
textile surface. This pit was dug on 25th April
1982 and backfilled with the experimental material
on 29th April 1982. The pit was 1.5m in diameter
at the top, l.Om deep and O.9n in diameter at the
base. It was cut through a loaroy soil with clay
Ienses, and eventually clay and weathered sandstone.
In addition to the experimental samples, consisting
of iron billets, copper alloy coins (2 pence
pieces) and various organic materials (textile,
leather, grass, hair and wood) there was a mixture
of parsnips, cabbage leaves, potatoes, rotten pears
and pork fat trimings. The pit r{as re-excavated
137 days later on 9th September 1982. The experi-
mental details and results are discussed at greater
length in Janaway (forthcoming). In the experimen-
ta1 refuse pit linen sanples were severely degraded
in 137 days, except where i-ediately adjacent to a
metal object. Although soil chemistry is an impor-
Ean! factor, it is severely roodified by the inter-
action of decay products. In the refuse pit the
linen (ce11u1ose) material was decomposed the most
rapidly; this roay have been the result of localised
acids in the r^rater systeo, or of the other decaying
vegetable matter providing a reservoir of
cellulose-degrading organisms in a suitable envir-
onment. In the presence of a corpse, release of
acids will again favour the degradation of
ce1lulose-based material. However, there will be a
larger quantity of keratin-decomposing bacteria,
which will colonise the skin and hair, as well as
any wool or hair textiles.
The following discussion is for the most part
based on Polson et a1 (1985, pp. 20-37) and Evans
( 1e63) . noth) inside a 'sealedr coffin. In this instance
Assuming a tine 1ag between death and burial,
the firsE, innediate decay processes will take
place above ground. The degradation processes
above ground are differenE to those when buried.
The presence and type of coffin will also effect
putrefaction (see below). During the firsE twelve
hours after death the body will coo1, the circula-
Eion of the blood will have ceased and will accu-
mulate in the dependent parts of the body, result-
ing in the phenooenon of post-mortem hypostasis
(Polson et al., 1985, p. 13). If the body is
exposed to the airrthe blood will become oxidised
in those regions that are not in contact with the
ground. Rigornoitis will start to set in at about
4 hours and will be complete in about 6. This con-
dition lasts for about 36 hours. The onset and
duraEion will be largely dependent on the physio-
logical state of the body at death and the post
morteo environment. Considerable variation has
been recorded (op. cit., p. 15).
The process of putrefaction begins ime-
diately after death and is visible under normal
conditions fron 48 to 72 hours afterwards (op.
cit., p. 20). Putrefaction is a result of both
action by bacteria and degradation by the bodyts
orrn enzymes, "Miero-organisms from the intestines
migrate into the local Eissues, and gain access to
the lyurphatics, b1ood, capilliaries and veins, and
Ehence by way of the tissue planes and blood and
lymph to rhe body tissue generally". Aerobic
organisms deplete the tissues of oxygen and,
although their numbers decrease as the available
o).ygen is diminished, they create conditions which
are more suitable for the more destructive anaero-
bic organisms thaE ultiDately come froo the inles-
tinal cana1. Thus the bacterial flora change from
aerobic groups as exemplified by the coliform-
staphyl ococcalproteus varieties, to the anaerobic
Science and ArchaeoLogg
32
in which the Clostridia predorninate (Evans, L963a,
Pp. 4_5) .
In later stages micro-organisms may be
derived from the soil, and here the soil history is
an important factor. Soil in which a lot of corpses
have been interred will have a greater reservoir of
dormant micro-organisms, particularly in the case of
sequential multiple graves, or new graves cutting
into recent, previous graves. Most fungi that are
found on decomposing remains are aerobic, conse-
quently their growth is restricted to che surface
of the cadaver and little deep penetration of the
tissues takes place, In a well-sealed coffin or a
burial environment where gas exchange through the
soil is s1ow, fungal growth will eventually become
inhibited by the formation of a reductive atmos-
phere. Fungi were not found by Evans in sealed
coffins; and they r^/ere absent froo the sealed triple
coffins exhumed at Huddersfield (Polson et al.,
1985, p. 2O).
Insect larvae which cause focal liquefaction
by proteolysis include the Lucilia (Greenbottles),
Calliphoridae (Blow flies or Bluebottles), Muscidae
(Houseflies), and Piophila caeseri (Cheese skipper) .
The winged adult lays eggs in carrion (including
dead humans) on which the larvae feed before pupat-
ing. Thus infection nust take place prior to burial.
Iron corrosion casts of fIy pupae have been found on
two belt buckles from the Christchurch cemetery. In
Ehe case of coffins in vaults or toobs, even those
of sound construction, the infestation Day not occur
until after the coffin has been inEerred for some
time. Evans (1963, pp. 50-51) records the presence
of living Tinea pallescentella (Greater pale clothes
the body was in a triple coffin, consisting of a
r,rooden inner coffin, which was sealed in a lead cof-
fin with ao outer wooden casket. Both the coffin
ard the vault were not sealed by eerth. The body
was examined approxirr,ately IO3-127 years after
burial. According to Evans, the insect had entered
via minute holes in the coffin and flourished on the
scalp hair of the body. He does not suggest the
possibility that the eggs may have been present in
woollen clothing or other cloth and maintained a
viable population within the coffin. In either case
the larvae would not have been viable r{ithout the
access of o:cygen to the interior. Some larvae have
remarkably specific proteolytic chemical systess,
thus the larvae of Lucilia can secrete a collagenase
which dissolves the usually resistant co11agen.
Tineola (Clothes moths) are able to attack keratin
by reducing its S-S bond to -SH.(Evans, 1963, p. 5).
Although necrophagous animals (especially
those in the soil.) are attracted to a dead body,
they are largely repelled during the more active
phase of decourposition. They reappear when this
has passed, and a great range of animals can be
found to attack the liquefying remains. Kuhnelt
(1961, p. 243 et seq) lists these organisms which
range from ptotazoa to insects. The Colembola
(Springtails) have been discovered at a depth of 2m
in grave yards (op. cit. p. 161) despite the fact
that their normal burrowing depth is locm.
It'is now intended to discuss the main chemi-
cal changes thaE take place during putrefaction;
the account is largely based on Evans (1963).
3.1 Charqes dn fat: hydtolysis
NeuEral fat is hydrolysed to some extent by
intrinsic tissue lipases. This proceeds slowly and
no. 27 (1985)
the activity of this enzyme system soon diminishes,
Analyses of post mortem faf exhibiL the presence of
o1eic, palmitic and stearic acids as soon as eight
hours after death, These are the first stages of
neutral fat breakdoi,m. The palmitic acid increases
and the oleic becomes increasingly reduced in
amount through hydrolysation. More effective than
the intrinsic lipases are the lipolytic enzymes
produced by bacteria, particularly those of
Clostridia (esp. C, Welchii). However, other
micro-organisms also take part in neutral faE
breakdown. Water is necessary for both the intrin-
sic and bacterial enzymes to work, but Lhere is
usually sufficient in the far tissue itself. If
the process continues, Ehe neutral fat is totally
converted to fatty acids, which are deposited in
its place. If no further chemical changes take
place these farty acids remain as adipocere,
Adipocere, depending on age and burial conditions,
has been described as looking like suet or cheese,
Lrhen analysed, in addition to the mixture of
stearic, oleic and palmic acids, there is a frac-
Eion of calcium soaps (Polson et al., 1985, p.24).
Adipocere may effect the preservation of textile
material; when Dr. Brierely examined some forty
burials in lead coffins (interred before t85O) the
grave clothes had rotted but Lhe remains were pre-
served by adipocere formation (op. cit. , p. 27).
3.2 Changes t-n fat: oridation
As well as changing by hydrolysis, fat can
also oxidise, a process that can be brought about
by the action of bacteria, fungi and atmospheric
oxygen. In most instances hydrolysis rather than
oxidation dominate the fat degradation system,
Fatty acids, the products of hydrolysis, will be
quickly oxidised into aldehydes and ketones; this,
however, can only lake place in rhe presence of
oxy'gen, which is often absent in a sealed coffin.
3.3 Changes in p:rotein
Protein is broken down by enzyme action, bu!
this does not proceed at a uniform rate throughout
the body. The rate is determined by the amount of
moisEure, the temperature, and bacterial action.
luloisture favours decay, and proteolysis is slowed
by cooling and increased by warming, In the event
of death caused by viral or bacterial infection,
not only will the body lemperalure be higher but
also bacEeria may be widespread throughout the
cadaver and hasten post mortem decomposition.
In general, proteins breakdown into pro-
teoses, pepEone, polypeptides and amino-acids, As
the proteins are broken down into more simple units
a greater range and number of micro-organisms can
grow on the substrate. The tissues become increas-
ingly liquid and, in the case of a body buried
directly in the soi1, a mucus sheath r^rill form
around the corpse consisting of liquid body decom-
position products and the fine silt fraction from
the soil (Barford, L979, p. 45).
3.4 Production of gases
Initially gaseous pioduction is evident in
the intestines and is a result of the rapid decom-
position of their contents, as a result the gut
cavity becomes disEended; discoloured natural
liquids and liquefying tissues are made frothy by
the gas, and some may exude from the natural ori-
fices, forced out by the increasing pressure of
the gases. As the skin starts to break dor,l.n the
body cavities will rupture. Not having \{ilnessed
this event I am not sure with what force this occurs
and what irnplications this has for associaEed grave
goods. Evans (1963, p. 10) records the popular
Iegend that the body of Queen Elizabeth I swelled so
Science and Ar'cl',aeclogA no. 27 ().985)
33
much that it burst the coffin. Professor Gee (pers.
com.) has conrnented t'I have never seen a corpse where
the body cavities have ruptured and the conEents
spilled forth simply due to putrefaction. I very much
doubt if it actually occurs. Certainly not in the way
some authors would suggest, with the body going off
rather like a bomb. As pressure builds up within the
cavities it releases itself through the natural ori-
fices lvith progressive eversion of the anus and evac-
uation of fluid by that route as well as through the
mouth and nose. I have no doubt that theoretically
it is possible for a body cavity to burst, but in
practice I have never seen it happen".
There is a tradition in archaeology that a dig-
ger put his pick through a sealed Roman lead coffin
and was showered by Ehe liquified contents being
expelled under the pressure of the gas. tr^lhen Dr.
Brierley examined the forty lead coffins from
Huddersfield (Polson et aI.,1985,p.21) one or t!r'o of
them contained gas under pressure, although others
were no longer gas-tight. due Eo the seals breaking up,
As the soft tissues start to break dor,m and
gases are formed the skin sr+ells and blisLers. The
gases formed are carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide,
armnonia and methane, It is the formation of these
gases together with the ingestion of oxygen by
aerobic micro-organisms that will convert the body
tissues and the immediate burial environment Lo
reducing cooditions (unless oxygen is free to
diffuse in).
3.5 Factots tnfluencing the changes accu?yLrLg
after burt,al
The major contributor to this area is Mant,
who had Lhe opportunity to investigate in 1950 a
large number of exhumations while working for the
War Crimes Investigations after World War II. This
work is sunEnarised by Mant in Simpson (1953,
pp, 84-91). I will use his headings:
(a) State of body before death.
This was found to be more critical than hitherto
believed before. An emaciated body may decompose
with extreme rapidity, whereas a well-covered body
may decompose less under similar conditions and
over the same time span. An emaciated body rnay
tend to munmify.
(h) Time lapse between death and burial.
Bodies Ehat have !een allowed to start decomposing
above ground r,ii11 skeletalise much quicker when
buried.
(c) Effect of coffin.
The coffins in these investiga!ions were roughly
made of unseasoned r^rood; usually they had warped
and collapsed wirhin two years. Most of these
coffins were not airtight. trrrhere the base of coffin
is watertight, water tha! percolates down from the
top and is retained there was usually one !o two
inches of mixed waEer and putrefied tissue. This
Eype of burial will decompose quicker than an uncof-
fined burial, especially if the uncoffined burial is
in clothes, Bodies buried in non-airtight coffins
will exhibit little adipocere formation, whereas
uncoffined burials of the same date and cemetery
will show considerable adipocere formation.
Liquefaction of Ehe body was so1e1y associated with
coffined burials,
(d) Clothing.
Clothing tends to retard decomposition, and adipo-
cere formation is more contrnon under clothing. The
clothing probabl,v acted as a physical barrier to
insects and retained a high moisture 1eve1 around
the body.
 (rri i.',:';l;r to uirii-lr i:lt{i bodl/ h,:i3 bur:i.d. It is inportarlL lo ir,rcstigare iht: possibJ-c inr-cr-
i:ir:: i :-r-:.-,:t 1l:tl'.js ,ta,.. rtit,l.-c iji::r:i-tlitii iir.,.l a l- I r"-, *l ciii:ar ,:icli.;;r 'l,ai\ie(:n i:li.: r:li;r-o-.[1,;r:,s i;lri.r:ir drc,-rlirt,s,: t,it.]
il( ,r0:::ri lr: insect::; ar.,,i aliir,a ls, ;r..rci ihgrcioI.e c.tuSe a hoiiy, tr:d ttrose lrhicl.r deconpose the assi:ciated
i.l:;lei: rritte of clrtcrtii.iposiLion. (lr')-,: ili,: l:elCri elS.

(i)'f,vl--e c.f sr,i.l.,

!.1:r:,:r,r.ri f la;r;d b;., rroils in ieco,.rircsi.Licr'r'lii:^s j:+r:n
ir.'1.:L I), o.,'er-:l:1;l:;rs ized, f,ie l1- ci rai t.:d soi 1 s c::;.r lil;I'r?i?CJS
ica,:l to i::rr*:i:[icati.on.
,\rnold, C.J., J:nraay, R.C, and ltecpax, C,, 1983
This 1e,.q! JlaL,tit?i1i, r,taCr: in 1953, rnay have
ii;rpcr:lan! inp f i-cations f or ;r:r:h:reol.ogic;'il scieilL:is !s A deta j-1ed s t,rdy of rcctalworl< f ron the
oi Lhe 1980s, riho, in ny opinion! iend tr) pl,ace tilo Cilt:i s i: i:hu r ch Alr o-S axon ct--:rlr t cry, inc 1,udi ng an
11 1"

lulrcir e:-.pl:asis crl soiI char.rcteristics in thrtirr dis- aiialysis of th: textile and rvoorl
cussio:.is of pr:itc.ess,.:s associatecl tJifh eilher decay- ir Jarvis, l(. (ed. ) , 1983 l!:ccttttettotis .in
irg borii.es or ref\lsi: ri:.pcsits. CTnlstclnrciL,
Barlor:d, P.M., 1979
4. PRji>)SilD il:i.f.lltl!.2ilr.4L ii)pJ{ ){.inr:ral pse.urlomorphs of orglnic nateri-als: a
s Ludy (jf b'-u:ial. env:'.:ccr,n..:nEs RSc, Disserttlttc:n,
Irr orcler ED test ehe l:ffecL of a caci;:ver on .[t.tst ttute of At.citrtec'Lagy, Loticlon.
tha j-lteracEion'b*i:ireer argsilic naieriaLs and neLal
nrlrrEir"a.ts in ilhrnalioir gravrs it is propcseii L,: Iiv,:uts, l,l.E.D., 1.963
i;ury a i\.:rLct' of pigs, both w:i-th errd. irithout coi j:ii.ts,
;rn.i a;rltunr: itlletll aa sr: c ilttorvals, Pigs are fhr: besE :llhe chenisi;:ry oi rieoLlt r\neri.ran lecture series.
srri;...;cil-r:tcs for hr:inarr bor1j.es, hevi-iry1 ;lppr:o:<iraLely Cii:ir:1es C. Thcn;rs, I1li.nois,
t-ird co-;:rect :.reigilt aitd sr:i:1:aco iiit+ii Lo .lo-j-r-lre ri-..tio,
.lrd a sinilar f JL coi-tieilt. Ther: have treen r"is:..1 in s Janr.r,'ay, R.C,, 1933
tit,t::rl: er.. Llf ezlr.c rir:1iii l :.1 i.;trzes t i- g:t e i.riis i.l f rens i c
<; llcxfil* fib;e characteri:tic pre-cerved by netal
:.ri:rai.ne. 1f l;i1i. br: or;ssiblr: lo rrin a i:ulrler of c-oi:r:osion: t:h,: l.:t-+:tti:.1. c:f li.E,X, Strrdies '!l:c
ilrrisrsIigaLioili.:; c(:',:ic1Jr-rerLtiy, such as lite novenir]iil- of C0!1su?,l)ator 7 ( 1-.r 83) .
i. ii,r:c i ie rl da cllr:i)., iiillr pr:o<.1rii:t:.i ill ro:-i;i'r the s oi 1,
r1c,:,;s iti<-.n of m;,:''riianesr: anLl phospiri.rte , ancl Lhe spa- .Janr':.r+ay, R, C. (:ior:t'hcoaring)
I i,.1 I 3 i..tili Lity .r )r.r- avD gooCs. 1i:'lyiror]y inr:eresLed
ir. il;:clpor;Liirg,:xperinent.s irit-o i:iri: br,irj.als shoLrld C,:rri:sion pri:ilei:r'ed texriles: mechanisn, b.i-as and
cci'11::lci'cix.' :r;litr-.r itjl at*r)n ;t:i !rc!,iibl-e sc lhili !:he illterapretation
fu l-1. iesearch C::sign car bc- Iineli.s;e11. A! p.r(]senL a. in Jaravav, R.C. 6n'd Scoic, ji, (eds),
s:rr1 1 piloL studT is in iri:c,gr:ass, :thicir ii.r.:olves ilu'i tt.:it c e l,r e s r: t, t; e d'it t C o z.t o s ci t Pyc ciuc i; s,
i.

lrri-:cp;1,ra, r,:"1s, 1-.r:ri.eri'l;olh r;.i.'.:ir :lti r+itirour cof-

iiltr. Yi-,.::icu,; tr':iti-1r:: arrl r,eta1 sla:p1.es a.re i.nccr- Kui:ne1L,196l
pri;1if d inio *acl q!jr\,e, These e::i..cr-inetits are iia iL BirtL,:grl Iabt:r i.,nd l'a';:;r, I,cnrlon,
ril::li3ltr,1 l-o d(irr1r,rp e:;lcri-uei-itt-rl !:1ci!r)iqi-reii, 1..rrt the
r::r,-:l l.: clr!:;'til;:r'. ,t.tf:n,' i be ii-t..,i:',:1-,. sa]-ltd rtp ii) Poi::o:1, C"J., [i,tr:, I) J. ;:'r,:1 X:iii;ht, 8,, L!i]5
1:l;:ra.is t'cr it r.ru;llei: o.1- re ascns. I'itc bcCy siz;: anrl
fr:rl,:er Cfii1i-oir1.: is g:r: i.i, anil Ci.ie L:irgc grrrf ace :.rea I'l:e Ir:';ent i.r,.Ls of ttolini;1:c ii.:.;cL!ci.iie 4r:h e dn.
lo',,o1ur:i ratic :iii1" r:esult,ir,, ;r i-arher cliffere,rt 0:<f o rd ; Pc rg::i:r-lr P::c,s s ,

s;i ci.ii:c4, pili't;:.i:Liis. iu:r1ciit.ion, ihc) g.".r-\je$ are

!i::.1Cii:rrilr{:r- t!..* $I.rft:ce thai] r,'i,v be thr: case it a ,J;r.kes, K.A. and Siblr:y, i..R,, 1.r83
:-t-.ir' -';,: i:
L) l- 1$,1,:rt;in ir:r i g ;:a,..,iti^ s . ir:iv:',,i of c..i.i.i1,...;ic tiirr-.; irr Eltv
lich::eo1ogi t,r.I .rcr1 i:rixt S,-:i t:tt ce. rLi".d. A.t,a]tcteo LogiJ
25 ( 19x3) pp. i i-33 "
5 " CCit.:i,ut;.tai|5

.As hi;; L*r:l ."lr::irioiistre.tr:d, i;hi: iloclltocsi_ti.,:ll of Si.n,;s<;r-_, ii, (cC.. ) , 1953
ilr,.: l::ciiy cii. ha:?-rl a ccn:;i.i:l-:::til:l-c il,;,.i i-fyi.nt3 r:f:lcL:t on
i.ii. ir:i{r(iiaic br.iil-:1 6i1,7.j-16r-,;::rt;rr:":ioL iear:t j"rr i:ire i.io:!z'c,t ttr:itit-s i;i I'ar':;,tsic !it:4.ic-ire l-rutt -:i:ir, i:t_:h,
J.r :1{icil.
'.; .;, irr .;11i,'11 r;,Iri,.';ivt: ,:o;r,.iil:i,:rrr; '..,,i1-1 pr,::r:ri 1 irr a
:1.:i::Ii)d r:n.if -:rir or jl :;oi 1 t,;i:e i:.: gt!lr:cus ilxil]nitAe
'i:lrrlrgir Ll',e s;.ri1 ;:i:n,-::;';he'ra is l-lil;,t-ed. {t hiis rilso
1-.rr:::r siir:'.;:'l l,y i.lart jj'l);:i:.i;plh i-)l;:),g .1 cr)r.si_Calr:11,1e
;:i:::l i:r t.lr: r.':r:n,:i: cf lire decOnl;cri ti-itL envi_-I:o:t;lent,
iir::: ii: is a nisl-i:lkc sL1.l-:ll\r lo (:ci'isi.lqr sr:i,1 ci'lt:m-
i;:ir:7 es Iile ij:-t.i ,i: [ar:i:or, bot-it i;L the Citi:a;r lI i]-,;:
,:..;i:i)ili-r, ri+,:lry,:f .1::i.icaj;:icd olrr.i-ilt-ic...t:i,:r.-ia1s, l:':ch
il5 :ai'i:i1lrs, r.rr {:1le:;i,.ctL-- i-(:t':r; r:oi'i:ltij.c:r o.f :ii:l;rl.
irrJ.-trf r'..rrar"i. lii:,:: .l . i:ii:i: l;i.11 t::lil Lll i:aacl1 n ni:.,

'r,:,.'i l;.ir.,:'i'ril! rg.ii:ir ifrc *ci I i.:rrvi.r:it;,,it..:,1a: iL{ter li-re

:1i .:1..i11.i." rleccl'rlr-r:;r'-i:ior-r phl,.le is ci;lrl;1ctr:, iior;riy,;1,
r-hi-:; '..;i 1I i:,,-ii:iditir) 1-irr. cri-r-iL:i:l- ;:i ric,l f itr ith.:: f r-r.-
;r: itic:l r-f lr:;Lnii:
i:rr:scrverl sI:l-L,rt-1ti-'riii i$ lne{il1
\::.:).ial, i-li],iriC'tli:i {1:.l !:tly r.'ci1. i:cstL1.:r1:-a i:!\c ai.iti-
(:r.r I rrlj:rl!j l;r' r-it,.r ril;,,i-ri!5i6il ,r-f {::.:{ir'tv"l j: rir:r:iv.:il
1i..:;;r:itr1-.:ii it:l-L.i ;irl!.ji:;i:'iiui-ij C:):,tit le:t,::; j_n lhrr ;*il" it is
r,,,r i.,,,rlo;:i:i;:t go:ri 'ii iit'Li.tfe vorli i-c iir..';stiqiri:e Ll'te
;.-il: ,;'.:t r::t-' l,::,.1.i;::i:i,.,.<: r:,t,:ii t: iirt ::iLcr;t-,1 t ijc)..tliiiu ii_ri
rii-i i.rii:r;: :;ni-!, ar,irilii:i .-tliii as ',r(:,i. j -'. lhe ihrr;::ii-.i.ty
r:,[,ii.iili:rrirt toli-i'r i-yp*s, :rri r.r;,;',1::-ii,:cri i:l..rri.,:,l.s.
.i.:.::,i. .r.i,.r;,,;;y,11.,!C,.;11 n,-r. 27 ( i.935)
,_t
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