Avalokiteshvara. The Compassionate one and Protector of the World. Veheragala. Anuradhapura. c. 8th Cent.

ACE

1
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Cover photograph – Avalokiteshwara, c. 8th Century, the crown jewel of Sri Lankan bronze art,

FROM
Discovered in Veheragala, Anuradhapura District, depicting the advanced techniques of metal
sculpture of Sri Lankan Civilization. Presently displayed at the National Museum. Colombo.

EVOLUTION TO
Urban Revolution of Sri Lanka
Copyright © 2019
REVOLUTION
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
All rightsreserved.

Printed in Sri Lanka Aitken Spence.

Athula Amarasekera
No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner what soever without written
permission except in the case of brief quotations, embodied in critical articles or reviews.This Sudharshan Seneviratne
is a book of record. Authors have taken due care to present Names, characters, businesses, Jayantha Wickremasinghe
organizations, places, events and incidents as accurately as possible and give a historical Nishantha De Silva,
perspective and overview. Any other resemblance to actual persons, living or dead, events,
Steve Dunn,
or locales is entirely coincidental. No copy right of third party material is claimed and belong
to original authors and is duly acknowledged.
Forewords by Professor Priyan Mendis & Lorenz Pereira
The best effort has been made for the accuracy of information. The boundaries, geographic Layout Advisor - Dushantha Ahangama
and place names and related data shown on this book are not warranted to be error-free.
The Vision depicted, is seen by authors as a way forward in Visionary Development and
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First Edition: November 2019

NOVEMBER 2019

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

2 3
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA

Gaja Lakshmi. Goddess of Knowledge, Beauty & Prosperity. Polonnaruwa Galpota.
Central Cultural Fund
AN URBAN REVOLUTION IN SRI LANKA
The story of the transformation of Colombo of the Benchmark
change period from 2009 to 2014
And moving forward to a visionary, pristine and sustainable Sri Lanka
With Colombo as a world class city and
Regional towns & villages as inclusive, conducive, contended, live, work
and play environments for all Sri Lankans.
4 5
Town Planning and Urban Development in a Country must be
carried out by those with a Passion and Love for that Country
with a vision for the future…
Dedicated to
Teams from Urban Development Authority, Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Corporation,
Tri-Services of the Sri Lankan Military, Involved Urban Local Authorities, Ministry of Defence and Urban
Development lead by Gotabaya Rajapaksa, the Investors and Professional Stakeholders who in the post War
benchmark period of 2009 – 2014,tirelessly contributed day and night, with passion and love,to transform the
Urban Environments of Sri Lanka from a war engrossed dilapidated and rundown environments to a clean,
modern, much acclaimed urban environment of global recognition.
Based on an idea to record for posterity the contrast of Sri Lanka from 2009 to 2014 by Professor Sudharshan
Seneviratne and crafted by Athula Amarasekera,Jayantha Wickramasinghe ,Steve Dunn & Nishantha De Silva
with additional inputs for Chapters 6 – 8 by Lorenz Pereira..
Seeks to record for posterity the Contributions made by Institutions and Individuals that helped transform Sri
Lanka away from a war psychosis to a conducive & livable environment for its people and a globally sought after
investment destination in a benchmark period 2009 - 2014
and
on the premise
learning from the past inspires a VISIONARY OUTCOME for the future.
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Contents Part 5 - Emerging Colombo as South Asia’s World city
- Economic Benefits of Urban Renewal
- Moving the Military Headquarters to the Administrative Capital, Kotte
- Iconic Central Core City Projects of Benchmark Period 2009 - 2014, for a Live, Work and Play City
FOREWORDS • Shangri La, Colombo
• Lotus Tower,
Professor Priyan Mendis • Altair,
Lorenz Pereira • Tata Housing, Colombo
• ITC, (Sapphire Residences) Colombo
The Background • Destiny,
Introduction - Evolution to revolution - Reinventing the City of Colombo • Cinnamon Life
Key lessons from Town Planning & Architecture& its continuity • Colombo City Centre
• Access Tower 2
• Onthree 20
History
• Port City

Part 1 - History of Pre - colonial city and urban planning Sri Lanka
A Sustainable Future
Part 2 - History of Colombo and its historic town planning initiatives – from trading post to garden city to urban anarchy
Part 6 - Sri Lanka’s National Development for Visionary Outcome and A New National Land use Plan - A Sustainable marriage for a Pristine
Sri Lanka of its Nature, Rural & Urban Habitation, Transport, Planning and Development
Urban Interventions during the benchmark period 2009 - 2014
Part 7 - Five Major Impact Initiatives for Visionary Development Outcome
Part 3 - A Capital City with frequent floods - Flood Mitigation & Urban Management
a. Sustainable Rural Life,
- Arising from Flood Mitigation
b. Transport,
- Opportunities for Waterfront Public Parks for Public Health & Recreation, Self Employed Markets
c. Industrial Land Supply,
- Urban Low Income Housing upgrading (Underserved communities)
d. New World Class Capital City Centre, - “: New Colombo”
- Urban Management –
e. Redirecting Ribbon Development with Planned Regional Commercial Cities in Jaffna, Hambantota, Trincomalee and Key
Issue of Garbage Collection
National & Connecting Cities & Towns
Solving Garbage Disposal issues,
Restructuring the Urban Development Authority
Part 8 – A Pristine Sri Lanka
Financing Urban Development
- Tourism Growth
Environmental Police,
- Eco Tourism
Traffic Upgrading,
- Revitalisation of Bentota Resort Town to a global destination
Public Amenities – Public Toilets and Bus stops
- Creating Iconic Developments
- Protecting the Estuaries, Heritage and Scenic Routes & Limited High-rise Beach Resorts with vista
Part 4 – Breaking the Psychology of a fortified city encumbered with a siege mentality, Interventionist Planning for Place-Making and
- Clean Energy Plan,
Urban Upgrading
- Health city, Sports city and Education Hubs
- Colonial Buildings and Precincts
- Financial Structure for Visionary Development
- A Shopping Circuit
- Leadership & Administrative mechanisms to achieve a Visionary Development for all
- Markets to serve a growing city- easing commercial bottlenecks, Sea Street and Gold Market, orderly and conducive Self

Employed (Hawker) Locations, Weekly Fair Upgrading
- Expanding to Provinces Conclusions - A Bold New Beginning to achieve a Pristine Sri Lanka
- Revitalizing colombo’s Green Arteries and Park Lands – Independence Square, Vihara Maha Devi Park, Parliament Grounds,
Galle Face Green About Authors, Photo Credits, Bibliography,

6 7
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Foreword- I
A proper planning system is extremely important to guarantee
that urban development is in the public interest. Urban Revolution
of Sri Lanka, From Evolution to Revolution is an outstanding
publication describing the remarkable story of transformation of
Colombo to a world class city.
Having worked in generally urban infrastructure development area
for few decades and initiating the formation of the Green Building
Council of Sri Lanka in 2019, I followed this publication with a
lot of interest. I sincerely appreciate the opportunity to write this
foreword. This book offers a wealth of information on several
topics related to the urban revolution, all systematically presented.
The highly qualified authors have brought together an inspiring
publication covering important milestones. We must recognise
the vast academic and professional experience of the authors,
which is translated into a broader vision of new urbanism through
viable and tangible suggestions.
The book begins with an historical overview of urban planning in
precolonial Sri Lanka and includes a diverse set of interventions
covering most pertinent issues in urbanism today, where the
principles behind them are carefully documented. The book takes
the readers through the golden era of 2009-2014, where we saw
a rapid transformation of Colombo and the country through a
careful planning and implementation process and the emergence
of Colombo as South Asia’s world city, bringing order and pride.
As we all know this happened when His Excellency Mahinda
Rajapaksa was the President and the bold vision of Mr. Gotabaya
Rajapaksa as the Secretary of Ministry of Defence and Urban
Development and Chairman of Urban Development Authority,
correcting the perilous state of the built environment prior to 2009
and bringing visionary plans and strategies to re-shape the city. In
8 9
the period 2009 – 2014, a diverse set of Government interventions
were implemented addressing the most pertinent issues in
urbanism and brought clear results for betterment of the Sri Lankan
society improving the living standards and incredible conversion of
Colombo, after the civil war that lasted nearly thirty years.
The book provides us with a compendium of sections in the history
of urbanism in Sri Lanka in a comprehensive and systematic
way. The historical narration in the book starts with the City of
Anuradhapura and how immaculate planning and engineering
techniques were used at that time for development. Part 2
presents the very interesting story of the Ancient Kingdom of
Kelaniya in 3rd Century BC, then the first Settlement of Colombo,
Portuguese period (1505 – 1602) to Dutch (1602–1796) to
British (1796 – 1948), emergence of Port of Colombo, Precincts &
Suburbs of Colombo and town plans at that period. As presented
in Part 3, One of the key parts in the book deals with strategic
Urban Interventions during the period of 2009 – 2014, Which
included revitalising Colombo’s Green Arteries and Parklands, Flood
Mitigation, revitalization of many neglected areas such as Beira
Lake , Kotte area and many more, employment vendor stores and
picnic areas, urban low income housing, environmental upgrading,
garbage collection and disposable techniques, managing water and
drainage processes which if unplanned would have led to major
urban disasters and disruption to life. As authors point out, these
measures helped to mitigate recent floods in September 2019
whereas the rest of the Western and Southern regions were affected
by severe flooding In Part 4 Authors give several examples from
2009-2014, starting from Refurbishment of the Dutch Hospital,
Colombo Race course grounds Arcade, Floating Market, Engineering innovations and a knowledge-based society
Independence Square, Vihara Maha Devi Park, Parliament with high skill levels are essential for rapid development of Sri
Grounds, Galle Face Green and its Precincts, the urban Lanka. Some suggestions include incorporation of modern
upgrading carried out to transform to an International Gateway technologies such as cloud collaboration, advanced business
and Urban renewal in the Provinces, Heritage Sites such as Galle communication and business systems , automation of business
and Jaffna Ports and upgrading undertaken in several local towns processes, health care considering the ageing population and
Part 5 covers the Emergence of Colombo as the “South Asia’s biotechnologies,3-D printing, Industry 4.0 techniques, Automation
World City”, a city of international standing and the hub for and Robotics, Internet-of-things (IOT), Artificial Intelligence, Smart
economic renewal in the country, Port City Reclamation and the buildings and infrastructure, sophisticated renewable energy
key decisions taken to relocate the government activities away options, use of modern computer processing power including
from key commercial areas to open up land for international big-data, Intelligent transport systems, value added materials
investment and development. Part 6 suggests an important including nanotechnology and recycled materials, technologies
Land-use Master Plan articulating complex ideas effectively utilising purest form of graphite in the world, vein graphite, which
and in a practical manner coalescing Development, Planning is only available in Sri Lanka.
and Transport. If urban sprawl is not controlled it will lead to I conclude by extending my warmest congratulations and best
unsustainable infrastructure and resource requirements required Wishes to the authors and share my sentiment that this book will
to build and operate our cities. Important land-use solutions are provide all the readers precious information, as much as it has
given through 5 major impact initiatives and other measures for provided me. I wholeheartedly recommend this book to all who
Tourism growth, Clean renewable energy and Health-Sports- seek a better future for Sri Lanka
Knowledge cities, etc. in Parts 7 and 8.
From historic times, lives of people have been entirely governed
Prof. Priyan Mendis, Professor of Civil Engineering,
by their ability to control the use of materials giving the names
University of Melbourne, Founder
such as stone age, bronze age and iron age. We have access
Chairman of Green Building Council of Sri Lanka
to innovative sustainable materials now and the engineering
knowledge to transform the built environment by designing deep
underground tunnels, elevated roadways, intelligent concepts
to avoid traffic congestion, prefabricated and super tall buildings
and icons like Lotus Tower which is the tallest tower in South Asia
and Altair, sophisticated offshore structures, smart household
waste disposable and purification strategies using circular
economy principles, etc. What is required is a strategic and
visionary plan to effectively implement those projects respecting
the environmentally friendly principles. Infrastructure development
in the Rural sector is also vital to achieve a sustainable future. It
is proven that Quality infrastructure always lead to solid return on
investment.
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA

Foreward- II
I consider myself exceedingly privileged and honoured to have
been asked by the editors to provide this Forward to this unique
story on the Evolution and intended Revolution of Planning
and Development in Sri Lanka. Indeed, a most fascinating and
educative story of an incredible journey of urban evolution since
the beginning of the 4th Century BC, when the ancient ‘citadel’ of
Anuradhapura was upgraded by King Pandukabhaya.
At its Prime, the City of Anuradhapura beat any City of its time
in its complexity, size, planning, environmental and ecofriendly
design, water conservation, sanitary engineering etc. It had grand
Avenues with Vistas to some of the World’s tallest Structures,
Vistas to water bodies, Avenues and meandering paths along
waterfronts, harmonized use of natural elements like boulders to
its buildings. One could say it was the crème de la crème of City
planning and development.
What has happened since then to our urban cities, particularly
Colombo? This Book quite rightly refers to this Evolution since
that golden period as Urban Anarchy and its continuation
is guaranteed unless dramatic draconian intervention from
Governments occur without delay. The Book highlights a few
salient outstanding examples where bold and creative intervention
has had a marked influence in changing derelict underutilized
places/structures to provide both economic and civic amenity
benefits to both local and external residents. These interventions
are to be applauded. However, time has arrived for interventions
of major proportions to occur immediately to stall further Urban
Anarchy.
10
An attractive development investment scenario, safeguarding
foreign investment, ensuring dynamic demand from end users
of economic built structures and consistent, professional and
timely approvals of major proposals are pre-requisites in the
Revolution to making Colombo the pre-eminent Investment Hub
in South East Asia.
In that respect this Book is unique. It is not a traditional land
use planning document and that is to be complimented. It is
far more. It establishes an exciting Visionary Framework for
a Revolution in Urban outcomes that has never before been
articulated nor even contemplated. In addition, for the first time,
Rural Sri Lanka, home to about 16 million people, has been
given long over-due priority and recognition, particularly from a
land use planning aspect.
Of course, remaining somewhat untouched and
uncompromised provides these rural communities with a unique
Sri Lankan ‘village’ atmosphere which has its own charm, values
and qualities to be admired. The challenge then to planning
interventionists is to protect these admirable traits wherever
possible and yet to find a way forward to improve their physical,
social and economic well-being. It is hoped that their needs
and aspirations are addressed via some or most of the creative
initiatives proposed in Part 7.
Critical to achieving the above is to ensure that rural youth find
sustainable employment within their own rural environments
that will provide them with dignified lifestyles. Another factor is
to ensure the non-alienation of good agricultural land and the
optimization of outputs of all agricultural land. Regrettably, Sri Lanka is unable to boast of any such icon
development since the eras of the ancient Kingdoms. The
new Port City, in time, may well turn out to be such a defining
The Urban picture is disturbing, dysfunctional and aesthetically development.
a hotch potch of mushroom unplanned developments
by private persons who have tended to maximize their But that is not the solution to addressing the pressing
investments with no or little regard to the amenity of the monumental and critical Urban Anarchy issues, particularly
external public. This has been one of the main causes that has good road transport accessibility both in Colombo and island
led to the Urban Anarchy of Sri Lankan urban environments. It wide.
has led to chaos and unsustainability, particularly on the road
network. I am delighted to see that this Book is proposing some
incredibly Visionary concepts to deal with this pressing matter.
Melbourne, where I was a planner for more than 40 years, has If implemented, it can Revolutionize road transport in Sri Lanka,
invested significantly on massive road infrastructure projects leading to unimaginable social and economic spin off benefits.
that included road tunnels under the City. Freeing the heart The Elevated Transport Structures proposed can be built at
of the City from unwanted ‘through traffic’ thereby enhancing a positive benefit to cost factor as has been recently done in
overall accessibility and amenity for residents and workers Melbourne.
has been a key criteria in Melbourne being voted, on a few
occasions, as the Best City to live in. More major transport Such a road network traversing Colombo and Country wide
infrastructure developments, both road and rail, essentially will most definitely turn out to be the modern International Icon
under the City, are currently being implemented. that will define Sri Lankan Civilizations henceforth.
Of direct relevance to the Sri Lankan Transport Anarchy and What is needed is a strong Interventionist.
a possible way forward is the recent construction of Elevated
Rail Tracks running through busy suburban communities for
the purpose of separating road and rail intersections at grade Lorenz Pereira (MA Cambridge University, UK)
level. This has been an enormous success in enhancing
functionality of transport movements and safety, and as a
by-product created valuable landscaped public open spaces
below. In keeping with this new mode of road infrastructure
construction, the Australian Federal Government has just
announced the funding of an Elevated Road linking the City
of Melbourne to Melbourne Airport. Another huge advantage
of this form of construction is that it causes least disruption to
existing traffic movements.
Over Centuries, innumerable major Icon developments,
both as significant monuments or gigantic infrastructure
developments have defined the Civilizations that built them.
The ancient Civilizations of Sri Lanka is testimony to this.
11
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 The Background
Introduction
Evolution to revolution - Reinventing
the City of Colombo through an Urban
Revolution
Colombo’s History in Brief
Over a period of 1000 years Colombo had transformed itself
from being a secondary trading port in the first millennium, to
a major city in Sri Lanka over the next millennium. Today, it is
the largest and most economically significant city in Sri Lanka,
one of the largest Asian transshipment ports and perhaps
the only part of Sri Lanka that can be called a city in terms of
scale of global cities. All other cities are mere towns in a global
scale of cities in city planning. Its dominant history in the post
Anuradhapura era can be traced back to post 14th century
trade routes and the need to control the important trade routes
by western powers namely; the Portuguese, the Dutch and
the British. The invading colonialists used Colombo’s strategic
position on the west coast with accessible inland waterways
to control their empires and the inputs to the trading economy.
In the Second World War, signifying the prominent location
and security it offered, Sri Lanka housed the main allied
headquarters for Asia. Having become the seat of power and
governance under colonial rule, Colombo became the natural
capital of the new Sri Lankan nation following independence
in 1948, with colonial demarcations of provinces, districts and
town council areas prevalent to this day.
Colombo the pre-eminent city of Asia - 1965
In the 1960s to date most South & South East Asian cities
and countries by nature have been accepted to be unclean,
unplanned, chaotic and without any amenity value. There was
however, historically a different Asian city in the 1960s. That
was Colombo in Sri Lanka. When the late Singapore Prime
Minister Lee Kuan Yew was asked in 1965, when Singapore
was separated from the Malayan Federation to become the
Republic of Singapore on 9th August 1965, what his aspiration
12
for his newly formed country to be in a BBC interview the late
Prime Minister’s reply was
“ We want to be Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka and its capital
Colombo) and we cannot match Japan but we can match
Ceylon”
That statement in a few words summarizes the standing
of Sri Lanka and Colombo at that time in Asia and the
world. Colombo was a city of tree-lined avenues, wonderful
bungalows or suburban houses sitting in large and lush
gardens, schools, universities and institutions of character and
architecture symbolic of their status or their context sitting on
garden settings and clean tree lined streets. Moving out of
Colombo, roads were free of ribbon development, full of vistas
that remained the traveller of the Pristine nature of the Emerald
Isle of the Eastern World, where the traveller would periodically
encounter organized towns and bazaars free of traffic chaos
where trade was conducted on an organised manner with the
weekly or twice weekly market Fair/Pola a key feature. A set
of “A” grades road transversed the island that were lined with
houses sitting on large gardens or lined with plantations and
the periodic surprise of a rice/paddy field on valleys.
The growth of Colombo &chaotic Sri Lankan urbanization
leading to urban anarchy
The economic reforms of 1977 to a free market economy,
the professional migration commencing with the burger
migration in 1960s, the worker migration to the Middle East
made massive demands on Colombo and Sri Lanka’s towns.
The new economy with local wealth creation and foreign
remittances from expatriate Sri Lankans has resulted in an
explosive urbanization, but without a cohesive land use plan or
a matching city plan with a vision to guide conducive growth
compared to the vision of the Geddes Plan for Colombo in
1921. That explosive urbanisation, without any vision or control
has turned almost every artery to a bazaar with obviously
resultant traffic snarl despite all the town and city plans since
independence.
13
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Trouble in Paradise –Youth Insurrections, Wars, Indian
Ocean Tsunami and Easter Sunday Bombings
Coupled with free education but faced with lack of
opportunities made the southern Sinhalese youth of Sri Lanka
raise arms in major Marxist uprisings in 1971 and 1989, both
quelled ruthlessly within months of emergence with the last
claiming estimated 35,000 lives.
The colonial policy of divide and rule, giving undue privileges
to minorities and the subsequent actions by the majority race
to achieve a balance made the northern youth to take up
arms in the light of loss of undue privileges. The causes of civil
conflict are never pleasant but in part can definitely be traced
back to colonial rule and the independent nation’s struggles
to eliminate discriminatory barriers or disadvantages against
the majority, develop a democratic republic and government
that is accepted by all parties. Ethnic divides led to political
divides, the struggle for a separate northern homeland for Tamil
separatists and eventually terrorism and military conflict.
The 1983 riots caused by a northern youth attack on a military
patrol flared into a war for a separate state and raged from mid
1983 to 19 May 2009 in 4 significant phases of intensification.
Fostered and backed by foreign powers for their domestic
considerations or geopolitical reasons or simply nipping in the
bud an emerging competing nation, this war was one of the
most brutal in the world claiming 105,000 lives by the time of
its ending in May 2009.
Significant to note that Sri Lanka in 1983, was a preferred
investment destination in Asia and Motorola which
subsequently employed 20,000 workers in Singapore, first
established in Sri Lanka in 1983, before abandoning and
moving to Singapore with 1983 anti – Tamil riots.
Not a single bullet has since been fired since the ending of the
war, dawning a peace uninterrupted for another 10 years.
On Boxing Day 2004 an earthquake in the Indian Ocean, west
of Sumatra caused a massive tsunami that devastated Sri
Lanka, killing more than 30,000 people and displacing one
14
and a half million more from their homes. Sri Lankan authorities
dealt with the health and human emergency situation with the
worst areas impacted on the southern and eastern coast with
efficient ease. Sri Lanka was for a time held in the international
spotlight.
Ten years on from the end of the war, another disaster hit
Colombo but this time in the form of Jihadist terror in a
complacent country with a dormant security establishment,
which had badly let its guard down knowing very well the
global precedence of such attacks against Christians on
Easter Sundays. The 2019 Easter Sunday bombings saw
Colombo as the victim of international terrorism. Bombings
in Colombo targeted churches and hotels, while there were
further bomb attacks in Negombo and Batticaloa. Again,
Colombo was in the international spotlight but this time it
caused safety concerns for would be travellers with a negative
impact on tourism and visitation. There has been an immediate
impact in the number of tourists and visitors coming to Sri
Lanka with short-term or medium-term implications for the city
and the country.
Effect of war on the City of Colombo and national physical
planning
In the periods of intensified conflict from 1983 to 2009, as
capital city, Colombo was often under attack. Particularly so
its form and function reflected the need for military protection
and survival during a terror war. As the people suffered,
so did economic growth and prosperity, the entire build
environment also suffered across the country as resources
were directed into military and security operations, leaving
less for city building infrastructure, education, health and
social services. The threat of danger and possible attack also
stalled much needed international investment. The constant
threat of attack and the limitations on travel meant that tourism
reduced significantly and the international audience looked to
other places to travel and invest. Other countries in Asia like
Thailand, Singapore, parts of Indonesia and Maldives grew
multi-- fold. Buildings were designed to be fortified or secured
with high walls. A high security zone was declared and check
points and bunkers were everywhere.
The end of the civil war came through significant military
intervention between 2007-2009. When Mahinda Rajapaksa
was elected to office of President of Sri Lanka, in 2005, very
few people thought that the war would be won and that
peace would come to Sri Lanka in the foreseeable future.
Terrorism had been a part of day-to-day life in Sri Lanka
for so long that there was a widely held perception that the
LTTE could never be defeated. Many people thought that
peace could never be achieved without accommodating
the LTTE’s demands. Visionary and decisive leadership by
President Rajapaksa ensured the end of the war.
The trauma and scars of civil conflict are not easily
erased and the war psychosis remained. If one follows
a conventional path, resolving differences and building
a new more tolerant nation after the war will take time,
perhaps generations even if there is a strong national will
to heal wounds and rebuild the country. This was where
leadership was needed. Nowhere is this more obvious than
in Colombo, where the post-conflict years had provided an
opportunity to rebuild the capital city in preparation for an
era peace and prosperity. That effort was spearheaded by
non-other than the effective leader of the same war effort,
the then Secretary of Defence and Urban Development,
Gotabaya Rajapaksa. Having a positive outlook and taking
bold decisions are some of the key qualities of outstanding
leadership.
Colombo’s urban beautification and urban management
At the end of the war, the Ministry of Defence and Urban
Development lead by Gotabaya Rajapaksa with a definitive
vision, which began with a major flood mitigation and Urban
Improvement Program in Colombo and regional centers
including major construction program to eradicate urban
slums and low income settlements to better environments,
can be defined as a Bench Mark Interventionist Period
(2009-2014).
The Process of Urban Renewal was commenced in this
background, led by a transformed Ministry of Defence to
a Ministry of Defence and Urban Development in 2009
with Gotabaya Rajapaksa as Secretary and President Mahinda
Rajapaksa as the Minister.
Colombo was a city that surprised visitors by 2011 for its
cleanliness and regained beauty. Decisive and interventionist
actions had ensured a cleaned up and beautified city.A city free
of typical South Asian model of slums, putrid canals, garbage piles,
frequent floods at every rainfall, traffic snarl, adequate policing with
safety.
Colombo the on the way to be a pre-eminent city of South Asia
- 2014
With the end of the war and rapid beautification of the city of
Colombo in place, by 2012, Sri Lanka was reaping the full rewards
of a just and hard won peace. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
inflows &Tourist arrivals were on the rise, with more than a million
tourists arriving in Sri Lanka. By 2012, many regionally and globally
recognized groups have committed to large investments, including
the Shangri La hotel chain, ITC Hotels, Dawn Group, Indocean
Developers, China Harbour, Shin Kwan Group, Minor International
(MINT) and more. Local Conglomerates John Keels, Sanken Group,
Access Group, Hemas Group, Abans Group, Nawaloka, Softlogic,
Ready wear made major investments into city building either on
their own or in collaboration with foreign Investors.
These groups have built high-end hotels, iconic residential spaces,
office buildings, healthcare and commercial facilities in Colombo,
as well as tourist hotels as world class resorts in other parts of the
country that have resulted in large scale job creation or increased
tax revenue.
By 2012, the country, had nearly won the rights to host the
Commonwealth Games 2018 subsequently won the right to host
Asian Youth Games in 2016,(surrendered subsequently), hosted
the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in 2013 and the
International Cricket Council’s Twenty20 World Cup 2014.
All of this reflects the confidence that the Global Business & Sports
Community had in the stability and peace that Sri Lanka enjoyed
and its optimism about the country’s prospects going forward.
15
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Considering the speed at which the beautification was achieved and scale of
follow up investments and the magnitude of the projects that followed is simply

not an evolution but an revolution

in terms of redevelopment of a City,
in fact A True Urban Revolution
Colombo as the pre-eminent city of Asia and Sri Lanka moving
forward from 2019 onwards

This book chronicles that Urban Development that took place in Sri Lanka of the
benchmark period from 2009 – January 2015 are not mere accidents but a co-
related continuity of the Ancient Asian & Sri Lankan Traditions of Cities.

It provides a thread for moving forward with ideas and vision for a sustainable Sri
Lanka with a World Class South Asian City in Colombo for the future.

An Urban Revolution through Administrative Action than Political

Action

It is worthy to highlight that the urban improvements and massive investment

inflows that followed in the Benchmark period of 2009-2014, unachievable and
unimaginable before, were achieved by a leader in an administrative role than in
a political role.

An administrator, who lead teams beyond the 8 am to 4 pm, Monday to Friday,

work routine of a traditional administrative service officer, mustering teams with
similar commitments from all sectors and segments practically 24/7. What the
administrator had was solid and strong political backing to take bold decisions,
The decisions were bold, innovative, ground-breaking at times simply sufficient
to break archaic colonial area rules and self-protective taboos of administrators
and planners that was leading a nation on a path of eternal decline. Instead, the
actions highlighted in this book lead to a massive positive transformation of the
city of Colombo and through that the national economy.

It set a new path for administrative practices suited for 21st Century nation-
building, free of the fear of political interference that set the path to achieve
conducive cities and towns and thereby, a cohesive, attractive and well planned
national built environment with a vision. It is a strong and positive precedent
and sets a new path for the administrators to embark of a new visionary path of
administrative and managerial action based on professional advise free of undue Colombo - Anticipated 2024
Rising from a low-rise laid back town to a global metropolis
political interference.

16 17
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 landscape architecture unparalleled in the world.

Key Lessons
It had a Infrastructure system that took care of its Sanitary requirements scientifically without polluting the environment. Its water supply
was provided by a canal from a man made Reservoir 54 Miles or 87 km away that had a flow gradient difficult to even achieve today.
Yodha Ela or Giant canal was constructed during King Dathusena’s reign in 459 AD.It is a trans-basin diversion canal transferring water

from Town
Planning and
Architecture
Ruwanweliseya - C 1st Century BCE

and its
continuity Kalawewa - Point of origin of Yodha ela (Back Ground Kandalama hill, “ The Sleeping man”)

Sri Lanka has been at the Center of Asian and

from Kala Oya Basin to Malwathu Oya Basin, Its
Global Urbanization from 3rd Century BCE.
mild-gradient had been found to be of the order of
0.32 m (1.0 ft) drop along 1.61 km (1.00 mi). Even
The City of Anuradhapura, (3rdCentry BC – 1017 AD) is
with the modern day survey equipment achieve the
perhaps the largest ruin on Earth. At its Prime, it beat
said accuracy Its design ingenuity being Yodha Ela
any City of the time in its complexity, size, planning and
functions in a way of a moving reservoir because of
design ambience, environmental and eco friendly design, Evolved Royal Temples of Bangkok in Sri Lanka Style
its single banking aspect which is different from the
water conservation, sanitary engineering, etc. It had grand
present day double banking irrigation canals’. Before
avenues with Vista to some of the World’s tallest Structures,
feeding the supply Reservoirs of Anuradhapura,
Vistas to water bodies, Avenues and Meandering paths
it feeds water in an area of 470 km2 (180 sq mi)
along waterfronts, harmonized use of natural elements
feeding 4,630 ha (11,400 acres) of paddy lands and
like boulders to its buildings, a distinct Architectural Style
120 small tanks on its way from Kala Wewa to Tissa
that continued in Buddhist Cities of Thai Royal Cities of
Wewa.
Sukothai, subsequently in Ayuthiya up to 17th Century and
the Royal Quarter of Modern Thai City Bangkok.

In height the Structures of Anuradhapura were Second Only
to the Pyramids of Cheops, all given rise by the Strategic
Location of Sri Lanka as Entrepot of Trade in the middle of
Indian Ocean.
The 5th Century kingdom of Sigiriya and some of the Royal
Palaces of Anuradhapura boasted of water gardens and
Minneriya wewa c.4th century ACE constructed by king Mahasen,
builder of Jetavana stupa
“Nothing of such magnitude or complexity that will be magnificent has since been
attempted in Sri Lanka. This book seeks to highlight that a path has been set in the
benchmark period of 2009 -2014 to take the island nation to a greater height.”
Kuttam-Pokuna, Abhayagiri monastery, Anuradhapura.

18 19
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 History of
Part 1 Pre Colonial
City and Urban
Planning in
Sri Lanka

20 21
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Sri Lanka: The Island of Trans-Oceanic THE CITY & URBAN PLANNING
Heritage Convergence IN PRE-COLONIAL SRI LANKA
Sudharshan Seneviratne Ph.D., FSLCA. FNASSL

The historic city - its culture and

form - represents an integral component
of the Sri Lankan ethos. Image of the
“urban” or “nagara” was transmitted to
us through history and memory. It is
embedded in our culture. Narratives
Engraving of a single mast ship. 1st Cent. BCE
inscription. Duwegala. NE Sri Lanka on the historic city is unfolded in
our classical literature, religion and
A land known by many a name to the World Systems located to the east and west of this even through the pilgrimage trail. It is
island, its history is essentially a story of trans-oceanic connectivity. It is a story how this
materially tangible and an inclusive
island came to evolve its unique personality due to the convergence of multiple streams
of people, cultures, languages, religions, ethnicities and technologies. The historical saga sentiment shared by the people of this
of Sri Lanka, an island situated in a pivotal position in the Indian Ocean Rim, could not be island.
inscribed otherwise in the annals of history and most certainly not without the story of the Since the post war revitalization of the
sea – a story of nurtured reciprocity as one of the most valued “ports of call” in antiquity.
urban form was initiated ten years ago -
it was a matter of translating that history Sigiriya linear built environment and political
Sudharshan Seneviratne and memory - into action!
landscape of power
(Central Cultural Fund)

22 23
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 The City in History
and urban Culture
The City in History and urban Culture
Origin of the City in Human History
First Cities in South Asia: The Harappan Civilization
Second Urbanization in South Asia
Early City in Sri Lanka
Social scientists have long referred to modern human culture as an ‘urban’ civilization.
The Historic City: Its morphology and anatomy Central to that idea is, as to when and where cities first appeared and the process that led
Centripetal and Organic City to their emergence (Sabloff 1995:9-10). The city and its urban culture is not a new concept
Historic Eco and Green City to South Asia and most certainly not a Colonial idea either. This region itself had a
knowledge and experience of cities, urban living and its culture. Evidence from material
End Note: late Historic Urbanization
culture, literary texts and folklore provides a rich corpus of evidence on the city in South
Epilogue Asia and urban societies dating to the 4th Millennium BCE and its continued
Past in the Present & Present in the Past survival until the intrusion of Colonialism.

The emergence of the Colonial and post-Colonial city in Sri Lanka is largely an organic
development from the late Colonial period. It was not a planned effort, but instead rebuilt on
pre-existing settlements with extensions and expansions of residential spatial zones. It was
largely a response to administrative, mercantile and export-oriented Colonial economy.

Urban revitalization in Sri Lanka witnessed a new lease of conscious planned activity
in the latter half of the decade of 2000. There was a convergence of several factors
responsible for an invigorated urban revitalization showcasing Sri Lanka’s futuristic path
setting the national goals for the 21st Century and beyond. Among them were, overcoming
long term adverse impacts of a 30-year war on terrorism and tsunami destruction
that held back the progress of an Urban Revitalization.

It was also an announcement to the world of a new phase showcasing a determined

Sri Lanka challenging adversity of destruction inflicted by terrorism and natural causes. It
signaled that the resilience of this nation is alive and has a Right to Defend it self especially
in the face of internal and external threats. The “revitalized” city and its magnificence
essentially became the mirror and nuclei of the new-found determination towards rebuilding
Sri Lanka. The catalyst was provided to the nation during His Excellency Mahinda
Rajapakasa’s tenure of office under the vision plan of Gotabaya Rajapaksa as Chairman,
Urban Development Authority. The UDA engaged itself on all fronts in allied sectors of
Colombo urban revitalization and unfolded multiple people friendly socio-environment and
cultural scapes. It also presented a prototype and benchmark for all urban centers
in Sri Lanka beyond Colombo and a new country-specific urban model in the years to come.

24 25
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 They were:

Origins of the City

• Population density more than a village
• Full time specialization of labour and production
• Stratified or class society
• System of taxation and central control of surplus production

in Human History
• Organized bureaucracy and military
• Public building, monuments and public works
• Section of the population released from production
• Practical/applied/predictive sciences
• Use of alphabet, writing systems and record keeping
• Use of symbolic art as a form of expression
• Use of units of exchange and measurement
• Long distance specialized trade and movement of raw
material and finished products
• Central place of worship

The earliest urbanization was indeed a revolutionary change. It was a new ethos that was based on changes in
the habitat, culture of living, architecture, spatial management and planning. The river valley urban civilization of the
copper-bronze age thrived for over 2000 years and declined due to environmental factors, dislocation of trade and
supply of raw material, invasions and probably due to health hazards. These regions gave way to village cultures
for over one thousand years when the second urbanization emerged in different ecosystems based on the iron
technology. It is the Iron Age that set the benchmark for the subsequent historic period and after.

Ancient city of Babylon (Iraq)

“ City of the Gods” Teotihuacan. Ancient Aztec city. Mexico. (Sabloff 1995. Cover page)

In the history of humankind, urban planning has an antiquity extending to the 5th/4th Millennium BCE.
Following social, economic and technological development emerging from the Neolithic Revolution (Childe
1950), select ecosystems witnessed the first “Urban Revolution” in the fertile valleys of the Nile, Tigris- Uprates,
Indus and the Huang He (Yellow River). It represented the opposite of the village culture, signaling a change
from simple to complexity. This phenomenon is also identified as the “Emergence of Civilization”, characterized
by developed social, economic political, ritual formations and technological advancements. The urban process
itself was a novel dynamic characterized by the emergence of the pristine state, social stratification and a new
https://www.cemml.colostate.edu
complex habitat and settlement unit known as the “city”. Gordon Childe (1950) identified several characteristics
/cultural/09476/images/iraq05-
that represented the early city and the process of urbanization. 007-01.jpg

26 27
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 First Cities in South Asia:
The Harappan Civilization
Urban history in South Asia (mainly in present Pakistan and North India) has an antiquity extending to the 4th
Millennium BCE. It has two distinct epochs. The first urbanization is represented by the Harappan Civilization,
based on copper-bronze (Chalcolithic) technology and mainly wheat and paddy cultivation to a lesser extent.
Some of the most representative city sites are Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro (Pakistan) and Lothal (India) including
many other sites in both countries. The Second Urbanization, emerged much later around 7th/6th century BCE
in the Indo-Gangetic plain and was based on iron technology and primarily, paddy. Iron Age urbanization spread
to Peninsular India and Sri Lanka around 4th Century BCE.
The earliest cities in South Asia emerged in Baluchistan/Pakistan region. Having emerged from the preexisting
Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures in the Baluchistan hills, full-fledged urban cities evolved in the 4th Millennium BCE
parallel to the early cities in Mesopotamia. Its period and region of efflorescence originally emerged in the Indus
valley and subsequently expanded in to modern Gujrat and upper Gangetic region.
(Dawn 2016: https://www.dawn.com/news/1163814)
28
The Harappan city was a landmark achievement in the annals of human progression and in the history in South Asia. Spatial
organization, city and civic planning, drainage and sanitation systems, street grid layout, varying built-environment features,
demographic locations, logistical arrangements within and outside cities, garden layout and public buildings including
central ritual place of worship were measured, planned out and had designated spaces. However, due to a time hiatus of
over 1500 years, the Harappan city and its urban culture did not have any significant impact on the subsequent Second
Urbanization of the Iron Age.
The decline and disappearance of the Harappan civilization is attributed to several factors. Gradual decline in rainfall,
demographic expansion leading to pressure on agriculture and other strategic resources, tectonic movements and shifting
of river courses, fluctuation in subterranean water level, retreat of the ocean front, salinity, drying up of river systems, invasion
and epidemics such as malaria are some of the theories suggested for the decline of the urban centers and its culture.
Ultimately, it resulted in the decline in the civic order, urban life and the cities were displaced by village and pastoral societies.
City of Mohenjodaro (Pakistan)
Port city of Lothal. (Gujarat. India)
Citadel of Mohenjodaro Artist’s impression of Lothal Port City (Gujarat. India)
(Sabloff 1995: 67) http://www.mysteryofindia.com/2016/03/unearthing-civilisation-lothal.html
29
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Second
Urbanization
of South Asia
Scene from Ancient City in North India C. 4th 3rd Cent BCE.
Conjectural image based on Sanchi gateway sculpture
Conjectural reconstruction of the Main Gateway to the ancient city of Kusinagara ( cir. B.C. 500) in magadha
(Bihar). Adapted from a bas-relief on the Southern gateway of the Great Stupa at Sanchi, Bhopal State.
Percy Brown 1965
7th/6th Century BCE is recognized as the material and institutional watershed ushering in the emergence of the
Second Urbanization in South Asia. They are: correct selection of suitable environmental zones and eco systems;
reorganization and establishment of an agrarian and craft economy based on commodity production-distribution
and consumption; money economy; full time specialization and new division of labour; demographic changes;
efficianizing and diversifying technology and assertion of coercive power. Parallel to this, new social doctrines
(e.g. Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivakism etc.) and political ideologies (imperial and oligarchic) emerged as a direct
consequence of social and economic change.
30
The habitat of original kin-based residential units of production was incorporated in to
larger territories. The gaama (graama) or the early kin based production-consumption unit
prevailed since the Vedic period. The Buddhist Vinaya texts define a gaama consisting of
one or several kuti (or thatched houses). Conglomerations of gaama were incorporated
and constituted the janapada and later mahajanapada. In the south, ceri and kudi were
incorporated in to the naadu.
Around 6th century BCE larger settlement units known as nigama (nir + gaama > ‘to move
in and out, meeting, coming together’) and nagara emerged as new production-distribution
and population centers in north India and uur in South India. These dynamic new habitats
represented an alternative ecology as opposed to the jungle/forest tract. Thus in North India
nigama and nagara stood opposed to aaranya or vana and in South India uur represented Donation of Jeta-vana
Bharut railing panel. 1st Century
the opposite of kaadu.
BCE.
Post 6th Century BCE witnessed the proliferation of larger settlements known as
maha-nagara (great city) and pura (fortified city) (Allchin 1995). Buddhist texts also record
a further hierarchy, such as, kudda-nagara (small towns constructed with wattle and daub
or mud bricks), and shaakha nagara or satellite settlements. Uur, gaama, mahagaama
and nigama maintained a symbiotic relationship with each other and its urban economy
including its social milieu. Anatomy of the city represented settlement hierarchies, nucleated
and habitation clusters that completed the composite urban whole.
The city represented the new habitation center with an urban ethos and a dynamic
cosmopolitan culture. Cities were often managed by a council guild (e.g. Taxila nagara-
nigama) and even issued its own currency. It was essentially a stratified habitat where
residential areas were socially and politically demarcated and hierarchized. New
nucleated settlements were densely populated with urban residents, service groups
(including beggars and prostitutes) and workers engaged in various crafts and services.
6th Century BCE proto and early historic city grew haphazardly (e.g. Bhir mound at
Taxila). By 1st Cent BCE the city had developed hierarchically, constructed on a chess
board grid settlement pattern, often fortified with protected walls and moats (Rajagrha,
Kaushambi, Taxila-Sirkap, Pataliputra, Sishupalghar). A political capital that consisted
of urban planning and strategically fortified cities (pura) with ramparts (praakaara) was
recorded in the Buddhist texts and in the archaeological excavations. Mahaparinibbana
sutta records the construction of the strategic fortification at Paataligaama by King
Ajatasatu in his offensive against the Lichchavi state. Slightly later such scenes are
described in the Kutiliya Arthashastra and depicted in early sculptured art at Sanchi
and Bharut presenting urban settings. A simile in the Milindapanna describes the
planning of the grid-based city recorded in a discourse between Thero Nagasena and
King Menander (Milinda). This is reflected in the brilliant outlay of the citadel and city of
Sirkap at Taxila, which is a testimony to advanced urban planning of a metropolis and
Strategic location of ancient Rajagrha.
C. 6th Cent. BCE enclosed by seven hills. multicultural commercial hub. Nigama settlements were located as satellite habitats and
Archaeological Survey of India
gradually transformed in to corporate bodies close to Maha-nagara and nagara.
31
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Cities were spatially demarcated for various types of work/industrial quarters, market places and even leisure areas such as
gardens and forest groves or parks. Buddha often resided in such sanctuaries (e.g. Jetavana forest grove donated by merchant-
banker Anatha Pinndaka) located in close proximity to the nagara of Savatti. The city consisted of the citadel (upper city) and
lower city. The urban ethos was represented by use of the script, regulated measurements, a cash nexus, and its commercial
vortex and monumental structures (especially Central Place of Worship, a slightly later development) including the location of
designated cremation grounds of the elite to the east of the city (vide Mahaparnibbana sutta).

Process of incipient urbanism spread to Peninsular India and Sri Lanka around 4th/3rd Century BCE. It is evident that ideas on
the city and its culture percolated down to the subcontinent through the movement of North Indian social ideologies (Buddhism,
Jainism and Ajivakism) and other religious groups, long distance luxury trade and pilgrims. Sri Lanka was a recipient of the North
India Imperial culture and it was acculturated to its dynamic forces of transformation that unfolded a complex and diverse island
civilization. Taxila-Bhir Mound Unpalanned city. C. 6th Cent BCE.
Pakistan
(Archaeological Survey of India; Allchin 1995:234)

Taxila Sirkap. Main Street and urban grid plan

(1st Century ACE) Indo-Greek metropolis.
Planned City.

City of Sirkap in Taxila (1st Century ACE)

Indo-Greek metropolis
(Archaeological Survey of India; Allchin 1995: 287)

Nagarjunakonda. Andhra Pradesh. India.

(Archaeological Survey of India; Allchin 1995: 307)

Great fortification wall of Kaushambi. Sanchi Sculpture depicting

C. 6th Cent. BCE fortified city or pura
Archaeological Survey of India (C.1st cent. BCE)
Archaeological Survey of India

Buddha statue at apsidal temple. Nagarjunakonda

32 33
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Early City centers at strategically located places. Such centers were known to 3rd Century

City Plan of Anuradhapura ?
Anuradhapura Ran-Masu uyana Tantric Universal map. 6th Cent. ACE
in Sri Lanka
Emergence of the early city in Sri Lanka did not occur in a vacuum or as a sudden
external impact. It was a combination of internal and external socio-political,
material, technological and cultural factors that gradually merged in to a dynamic
process during the Early Iron Age (C.1000 BCE to C 4th Century ACE). This fusion
provided an impetus for the rise of the pristine city in Sri Lanka and its complex
development in the post Christian era. The urban history of Sri Lanka is well
documented by a voluminous collection of sources found in the archaeological
record, classical texts and inscriptions.
Sri Lanka, owing to its central strategic location within
the Indian Ocean Rim, witnessed the confluence of
people, cultures, ideas and technologies for over
thousands of years commencing from the Pre Historic
Stone Age culture (C. 30,000 BCE). It was succeeded
by the Early Iron Age village culture (c. 1000 BCE), or
the Formative period that provided the proper social
and material matrix for a pan island culture. The Early
Duvegala (Polonnaruwa District) 1st
BCE inscriptions as “nagara”. These were not quantitatively large habitation sites Cent, BCE Brahmi
in comparison with those in 6th Century BCE north India, but as simple CPD inscription with single-mast ship
centers. Such nagara are recorded as Aba nagara, Cita nagara, Tavikiriya nagara
etc. and there were over several other nagara mentioned in pre Christian Brahmi
inscriptions (Manatunga 1977). The Dhatuvamsa records nagara settlements of
Siva, Giri and Soma in the eastern region at Seru-rattha. There were also satellite
craft villages adjacent to the nagara. Such centers were dominated by regional
centers of power wielded by rajha and parumaka chieftains.
By the dawn of 1st Century BCE with the emergence of the pristine state, larger
hydraulic management and the fusion of a commercial vortex connecting with the
Indian sub-continent, the Mediterranean and the Far East triggered off advanced
urbanism in Sri Lanka as nagara (city), pura (fortification) and pattana nagara (port
city). These Early Historic cities set the benchmark for the subsequent urban ethos
Paranavitana 1970: plate 270
that stamped its personality all the way until the Colonial period.
Nagara recorded in Pre Christian Brahmi inscriptions
Primary Port–City. Mahatirtha
(literally “the Great Port”). Mantai.
The international Port City

Historic Period (C.400 BCE) witnessed the arrival of

Buddhism and other North Indian social ideologies
and long-distance trade complemented with a money
economy, extension of agriculture and construction
of the early monastic complex. The Middle Historic
Classical Period, saw the introduction of

spectacular works of monastic complexes, sculptured art, architecture, complex hydraulic engineering and water garden
scapes and composition of learned texts and the culture nurtured by Buddhist and Hindu traditions. All these factors
combined in the formation of an urban culture in the pre Christian era and complex urbanization in the early Christian era and
after. This epoch witnessed the emergence of inland and port cities where Sri Lanka was a portal and major stake holder in
the Indian Ocean trading vortex and its cosmopolitan culture.

The earliest city in Sri Lanka was a result of a conscious selection of conducive ecosystems that had the carrying capacity to
Port City fortified with dual ramparts and double
sustain larger demographic centers and convenient location for intra movement of strategic resources (see maps). Between moats with canals connected to the Gulf of Mannar
C. 1000 BCE and C. 4th Cent. BCE, the littoral, inland plains and the lower montane region had established networks of (Fernando 2017: 40)
consumption-production-distribution (CPD)
(Manatunga 1977)

34 35
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 The Historic City:
The metropolis represented by the Citadel of
Anuradhapura (covering approximately 400 Sq. acres)
has a rough square pattern with the Malwatu oya skirting

Its Morphology its eastern precinct. Its micro location presents a higher
elevation than the rest of Anuradhapura and may have

and Anatomy
Cities in Ancient Sri Lanka had commonalities with each other while presenting characteristics
peculiar to each site. Anuradhapura, Sigiriya, Polonnaruwa are the main cities taken up in this study.
There are also over many dozen urban sites such as Mantai, Vijitapura, Kalyani, Mahagama, Seru
etc. From the pre Christian period to the arrival of Colonialism, Sri Lanka possessed varying urban
cultural formations spread in time and space.
Spread over three thousand years, Anuradhapura provides the best example on the morphology
and anatomy of the Pre Colonial city in Sri Lanka. No other pre-Colonial city in this country
survived in history that length of time and also the scale of its vertical cultural accumulation and
horizontal spread. The 4th Century ACE Mahavamsa narrative on the construction and planning of
Anuradhapura, is an idealized version of the c. 3rd Century BCE Indian city which is also recorded
in the Kautiliya Arthashastra. The Mahavamsa plan included royal precinct, city-gates, streets,
royal gardens, four suburbs, reservoirs, cemeteries, foreigners’ resident area, and several other
been a factor favoring site selection as a protected
natural habitat. Its vertical spread reaches a depth of
about 50 feet. below surface level with the prehistoric
layers dating to C.5000 BCE. Cumulative habitation
represents the Early Iron Age (Megalithic) culture around
C.1100 BCE and the earliest nucleus of the settled
village culture having domesticated plants (e.g. Oriza
Sativa) and animals (e.g. Bos Indicus) including house
holding crafts (e.g. Voortz steel). The earliest village
settlements formed multiple clusters in the Citadel area.
By C. 4th Century BCE, the habitation clusters formed
a single settlement conglomeration presenting a larger
habitat evolving in to the proto city.
Archaeological Survey of Sri Lanka
Citadel of Anuradhapura. Deep excavation

places of worship and sacred groves and spaces, water bodies and residential quarters of different
occupational groups.

Anuradapura citadel stratification

Early Historic (3rd Century BC)

2m
Late Iron Age (600 BC)

Early Iron Age (1000 BC)

Archaeological Survey of Sri Lanka

Prehistoric (5000 BC) Citadel of Anuradhapura Expansion
of the Habitation site
Bed-rock
Digital elevation model
Deraniyagala 1972 of Anuradhapura Citadel,
Survey Deparment of Sri Lanka

36 37
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 The proto city coincides with the development of
Anuradhapura as a portal of production-distribution
drawing in strategic resources such as mineral and
gem stones and silver, mica and copper including
spices from regions located in the hills, the southern
and eastern regions. This period also coincides with
a relatively well developed exchange nexus with
Eastern, South and North India and connecting West
Asia, South East Asia and the Far East. The advanced
metropolitan city at Anuradhapura emerges around C.
2nd/1st Century BCE and coincides with the formation
of the Early State, construction of larger reservoirs,
intensification of agriculture and production-distribution
based on craft specialization and the development of
long distance luxury trade and a cash nexus. A route
network was already in place connecting the city to
the north, west and eastern littoral and the hills. 1st
Century. The emergence of Mahatirtha (literally the
Great Port City) was the main Gate-Way Port City for
City Plan of Ancient Anuradhapura
Anuradhapura. Plan of Urban Clusters
38
Anuradhapura and primary conduit for the export-import
oriented agrarian economy of the Middle Historic Period.
It was the portal connecting Sri Lanka to West Asia,
the Mediterranean and India (see map on Mahatirtha).
Mineral resources from the east and Gokarna and
several ports in the east coast were connected to
Anuradhapura (see map on Seru-rattha). Similarly, the
movement of resources from the central hills moved
through the Dambulla-Kala oys basin.
The Early Historic period also witnessed the emergence
of larger monasteries in and around the city, better civic
planning and even the shift over from open canals to
subterranean water cisterns in the citadel. . Excavations
indicate the existence of dvara-gama (satellite craft/
market/service villages), monasteries, gardens, canal
systems and water bodies that dotted the parameter
of the city including the planning out of monasteries in
designated quarters in the suburbs.
Cultural-resource & urban landscape
of Seru-rattha North- East Sri Lanka recorded in the
Dhatuvamsa
The above schematic plan is derived from the
narrative provided in the Dhatuvamsa. The text
is date to C. 8th Century ACE. The information,
however, was derived from a pre-existing text,
dating to the 1st Century BCE. It provides a listing
of the landscape covering the donation made by
King Kavantissa to the monastery at Seru. It is a
useful description providing the location of natural
resources, flora, rock formations, mineral resources,
ports, villages, towns, cities (e.g. Sivi-nagara, Giri-
nagara and Soma-nagara), and highways (e.g.
mahacharika magga, the highway connecting
the east coast with Anuradhapura). (Seneviratne,
1994). Resource movement from the central
montane region during the Pre Historic period to
the early Christian era is depicted in the chart given
below. This schematic chart presents the dynamics
of resource movement within a chronological
context where resources were funneled from
the hills to Anuradhapura and coastal port cities
(Seneviratne, 1996).
Ancient Dambulla - Kala Oya Economic Zone
The Dambulla-Kala oya economic zone in the Early Historic Period gradually turned out
to be a strategic production-distribution-storage facility. Significantly, this region also
overlaps with the modern day Dambulla Dedicated Economic Center. Ancient
routes moving in from the hills converged in this region.
Pre Christian inscriptions record: Nagara guta (City superintendent); Kotagarika
(keeper of stores); Ganaka (keeper of accounts; Dhaniya (banker/creditor); Gana
(corporate/mercantile body); Manikara (lapidarist/jeweler); Kolagama (village of
metalsmiths); Barasala (store house); Tota-bojaka (controller of the Ford); Shatada
dhana (fifty coins); Puga (corporate/mercantile body); Jeta (alderman); Mahatavara
(President of corporate body). Matu-kada (exchange point/toll gate); Upari-kada
(exchange point/toll gate located at the upper reaches). (Seneviratne, 1996)
39
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Centripetal and
power and hegemony located with the main city. This
epoch also represented power, opulence and conspicuous

organnic City
consumption. By the emergence of the early feudal order
(c. 4th Century ACE), a network of ritual centers connected
to the central place of worship established a center-
periphery dynamic of power and hegemony. This dynamic
Anuradhapura essentially represented a dual city. The proto and of overarching power and hegemony moved vertically in a
pristine city formed a single conglomeration and, slightly later, downward direction while surplus and allegiance moved in an
the developed metropolis having clustered segments. Clusters upward direction.
were organically associated with the multiple stupa complex and If the early phase of Anuradhapura was an organic
Middle Historic urban landscape of Anuradhapura The Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic (Gedige)
the landscape combined with natural and planned waterbodies development, by the early Christian period it became the At the Citadel of Anuradhapura
associated with gardens and “forest tracts” (e.g. Mahamegha- planned city. As against the haphazardly evolved original
vana, Jeta-vana). These represented organic segments of the clustered city, the developed (fortified) city was horizontally,
city and integral components of the total whole. As against vertically, architecturally and spatially more proportionately
this, Sigiriya and Plonnuruwa present a linear formation with a organized with civic order and power. Sigiriya and
higher degree of exclusivity and less space allocated to non- Polonnaruwa perhaps represent a complex organization of
elite habitats and functions. All three cities, however, present power and space. “The elaborate planning mathematics
a common trait of sharing a designated sacred space and demonstrated in the overall Sigiriya layout show a brilliant
also an embedded apex of power. The city plan and its spatial combination of geometrical and symmetrical concepts and
arrangement run parallel to hegemonic considerations. organic and natural features” (Bandarnayake 2012:214).
The important segments in all three urban plans were: upper
and lower city, designated spaces for the residents, street
Schematic plan of the historic city
grid, gardens, internal drainage systems and water bodies,
ritual centers, craft sectors, road ways, fortification to mention Theravada center of the earliest Central Place of worship.
sacred space and Mahayana center.
a few. The city was also a center of power and social
central place of worship. Abhayagiri cetiya
hegemony. The central place of worship emerged as the ritual Suwarnamali cetiya
center and primary sacred space. City plan, both vertical and
horizontal, evolved in conjunction with that spatial arrangement.
Convergence of secular and ecclesiastical power through the
ritual center disseminated social hegemony from the center
to the grass roots level. It is useful to charter the process of
economic and social control with the evolution of the city in Sri
Lanka similar to places elsewhere in the world.
With the rise of the advanced state (post c.3rd Century ACE),
it ran ideologically parallel to the rise of the concept of the God
King (e.g. at Sigiriya) and the king representing the Bodhisattva
persona as the custodian and protector of the Temple of
the Sacred Tooth Relic at the Citadel of Anuradhapura and
Jetavana. Central place of worship. Jetavana Mahastupa (night view)
Polonnaruwa. This was the embodiment of ritual and political
Bandaranayake 2012 Mahayana center. C. 4th Cent. ACE

40 41
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 The Sigiriya Landscape

Plonnaruwa “Sacred Quadrangle” housing the

Temple of the Scared Tooth Relic

“Idealizing Knowledge”
Statue of sage Pulatisa. Polonnaruwa

Sigiriya. Linear city plan Sinhagiri: Scales of power and space

Vaijayanta Prasada. Palace of Parakramabahu 1 Polonnaruwa city plan 11th Century ACE
Central Cultural Fund Pulatthinagara. Polonnaruwa. Linear urban plan
Central Cultural Fund

42 43
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Historic
Eco and
Green City
Anuradhapura Jetavana. Monastic site plan
Central Cultural Fund

The historic city in Sri Lanka presents an amazing ecological

balance based on a trajectory connnecting material culture,
nature and technology. The emergence of the cosmopolitan Anuradhapura. Vessagiri pabbata vihara. Landscape view
international city (c. 4th Century. ACE) at Anuradhapura and
Sigiriya present some of the most sophisticated city planning
hitherto seen in the island. ROCK A

Monastic layout at Anuradhapura, Sigiriya and Polonnauwa

represent the formalized presentation of built environment
and its social, ritual and political function. The historic city
in its presentation was nevertheless elitist. Yet, it presented
some of the most novel features of social, environmental and Anuradhapura Abhayagiri Monastic site plan
technological expressions. It was indeed an ecological whole. Central Cultural Fund
Some of the aspects in city planning and presentations fine-
tuned were: ROCK B

• Landscape planning and spatial arrangement

• Health (wellness/hospital) and sanitation
• Water and hydraulic management
• Garden architecture
Location of Water garden (Ranmasu-uyana), Isurumuniya
• Infrastructure and conveyance systems
and Vessagiri pabbata vihara (southern end of
• Mega monumental planning and construction Anuradhapura)
• Architectural and sculptured art
• Inclusive religio-cultural presentation ROCK C

• Centers of learning
Time & Space expansion: Vessagiri Evolved pabbata vihara
Vessagiri pabbata vihara: Late phase. Site plan
Jetavana monastic landscepe Earliest phase
Central Cultural Fund
44 45
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 These developments coincided with advanced state formation
(and unification of the island), construction of mega stupa (e.g.
Abhayagiri, Jetavana) and spectacular hydraulic systems of vast
reservoir (e.g. Kala vapi, Minneriya and Parakarama samudra)
and an extensive canal systems (e.g. Jaya-ganga), mega
monasteries, garden complexes, multi-cultural and multi- religious
urbean community (e.g. Hindu and Christian places of worship),
intensive cash nexus and luxury trade and sophisticated urban
Ranmasu uyana water and leisure garden management. Anuradhapura population. This period also witnessed some of the most innovative
garden and built environment planning fusing nature, water,
Elite mansion, Stucco relief Lankatilaka Polonnaruwa 12th Century ACE
forest, mountain and the city (pabbata and aranya vihara, water
management system). These were complimented by aqueducts,
ornamental ponds and a sophisticated sewage and sanitation
Abhayagiri Monastry Eth pokuna Anuradapura system. The city was also equipped with hospital and wellness
Mega storage pond and regulating facility for water
systems standing at par with anyother world city in antiquity.
distribution through underground conduits to the monastery

Urban sophistication. Imported luxury ware. Jetavana Museum

Sigiriya fountains functioned on landscape gradient Urban affluence and social stratification at Affluent urban couple. Isurumuniya
Sigiriya water garden probably with Chinese or Anuradhapura. Elite female and retinue of maids Local & Imported beads
and pressure. Palace and garden planning and water
West Asian influence? Symmetric and a-symmetric planning Jetavana Museum plaque c. Jethavana Museum
management
3rd Cent Ace

46 47
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Mihintalaya

Inclusive and multi- religious Anuradhapura

& Polonnaruwa
(Central Cultural Fund) Nestorian Cross originally retrieved
from the Citadel of Anuradhapura
C. 6th Cent. ACE?
(Archaeological Museum. Anuradhapura)

Mihintalaya hospital

Abhayagiriya and
Archaeological Survey of
Sri Lanka
Central Cultural Fund
Monastic water management system
and aqueduct
Anuradhapura urban sanitation systems Polonnaruwa. Museum
Hindu cultural remains. Polonnaruwa

Forest hermitage. Example of forest walk Conveyance systems: Stone Bridge. Near Mihintalaya
path used by meditating monks
Kalawewa. Jaya Ganga Exercise for body and mind
Ritigala

48 49
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 End note: garrison characteristics. Yapahuwa, Kurunegala and Dambadeniya, typical of such inverted urban features. As against this,

Late Historic urbanisim

the external personality was reflected at port cities that had a vibrant and cosmopolitan population inhabited by local craft
people, local and foreign merchants and a multi- ethnic and multi- religious population. Chilaw, Colombo and Galle may be
cited as good exaples. The tri lingual inscription (Chinese, Arabic and Tamil) installed at Galle by the Chinese admiral Zeng He
Urban and demograpic shift from Early to Late Historic Period is a testimony to the cosmopolitan character of a Pre Colonial port city in Sri Lanka. Contemporary literary texts, such as the
Sandesha-kavya, provide a graphic description of such vibrant port cities.

Some Pre Colonial Capitals

Tri lingual (Chinese, Tamil, & Arabic)

inscription AC 1411 of Admiral
Early & Middle Historic Late Historic Zong He. Galle (1911)
(Bandaranayake 2012: 236-237)

Following the decline of Polonnaruwa and Mahatirtha port in particular and Rajarata economic
and cultural zone in general, an economic, political, social and demographic shift occurred in
the post 13th century. The move was towards the maritime belt, the northern peninsular, the
South West wetland and the montane region. This was a major shift to an ecological zone
relatively different to the heartland of the Dry Zone or North Central Province. This shift seems
to coincide with the rise of the Arab and spice trade including Far eastern trade, the decline of
extensive tank irrigated agriculture, limited luxury and commodity production. Bandaranayake
identifies this process as the “Second Urbanization” (2012).

The anatomy and morphology of urban centers evolved, both, internal external personalities.
The internal personality was largely embedded in the feudal structures culturally nurtured by (Bandaranayake in Seneviratne 2011:44)
Buddhist and Hindu including other indigenous religio-cultural traits. The city itself was more
restricted as a political center and with limited commercial activities and displayed more National Museum. Colombo

50 51
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Kandy, the With the consolidation of the

Last Bastion
Imperial project in Sri Lanka, Kandy
became a stake holder of the
Colonial planation and entrepreneur
commercial enterprise that
Senkadagala or Kandy, a 3rd Century BCE pre urban habitat diluted the preexisting ideological
had by 16th/17th Century., evolved in to a seat of power, sacred foundation, social fabric and cultural
and ritual space accompanied by the market town. It had its high mosaic. As a consequence, the
water mark before the British conquest. Kandy was the logical preexisting environmental base
conclusion and final development in the feudal order with the and socio-economic structure of
Dalada Maligawa and the city as the epi center of power and Kandy and the Central hills were
hegemony spread through a plethora of deities integrated in to transformed in to a different rubric
the Bodhisattva cult connecting the city with the village. and personality in a dependent
society and economy under
Spilbergen’s journey to Kandy 1602
Colonialism (Peiris 2019).
From Pre Colonial to Colonial City

Colonial Synchronization

1815 map of Kandy after John Davy 1819

(Bandaranayake 2012: 241)

Hiarachial Gradation of cultural Landscape

Galle Dutch Fort

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/0c/54/43/0c54437cdcf729ab357c060bea97c323.jpg

British rule over Ceylon

Memorial plaque.
St. Paul Church. Kandy.
Kandy: Schematic Profile. East to West (Sudharshan Seneviratne) The Scared space.
Complex of the Sacred Tooth Relic. Kandy

52 53
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Human History is lined with Cities of Glory and Fall.. both in the East and the West..from
Anuradhapura to Rome….through in-fighting, internal political decline, famine, economic decline,
foreign invasion, religious suppression, growth of competitive cities etc.
The Fall of the City
“We had a city also. Hand in hand
Wandered happy as travellers our own land.
Murmured in turn the hearsay of each stone
Or, where a legend faltered, lived our own.
Soon the barbarian swarmed like locusts blown
Between the flood and spasm of our stone.
Grunted to tug their huts and marble sties
Where friezes broke like foam in the blue skies.
Murderous world. That town that seemed a star
Rose in our soul. And there the ruins are.
(DECLINE AND FALL. John Fredrick Nims)
Adapted from:
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poetrymagazine/
poems/26390/decline-and-fall
54
EPILOGUE
to Pre Colonial to Post
Colonial City History
The above narrative unfolds the historical memory of city
planning, urban culture and landscape management that
was essentially part of Sri Lankan history and material
culture including its inclusive aesthetic values. It indeed
was a brilliant history.
Almost all aspects presented indicates a sophisticated
cosmopolitan and urban eco city culture in Historic Sri
Lanka. Continuity and change is a dynamic that merged
with the Colonial period. Integral component of the city in
the past made its presence felt in modern city planning as
a thread connecting both epochs and as a people-friendly
determinant. The common denominations may be identified
in city planning, spatial arrangement, health and sanitation,
ecological balance, hydraulic management, aesthetics,
infrastructure and conveyance system, inclusivity and
multi- religious and cultural cosmopolitan identity etc. These
aspects formed the ecological and cognitive whole that
represented the City in history and continued to be part of
the revitalized contemporary urban ethos making a definitive
presence in our contemporary society.
The revitalized urban planning in the post War period needs
to be contextualized within a living culture of the people of
Sri Lanka and their ability to take up new challenges and
innovative thinking and action, even in face of adversity.
The city itself presented a mirror of the prevailing culture of
determination and its futuristic aspirations.
Our urban culture in the past and in the present celebrates
inclusivity and shared heritage. It provides us with
necessary ingredients to evolve an island culture with great
sophistication and also an appreciation of each other’s
aesthetic values presenting ourselves positively to the
global community.
The benchmark period of urban revitalization of 2009-
2014 has drawn the best of such traditions from the past
classical urban culture and synthesized it with the present
for a mission and vision plan as a gift to the next generation “Pathway leading to higher aspirations”
repreenting a brave and new Sri Lanka. Sigiriya. Central Culture Fund
55
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 ...with past in the Present and Present in the Past

Sri Lanka Rising...

....emerging from ashes and anarchy towards Urban Revitalization of Colombo.

History of Colombo
and its Historic
Diyatha Uyana. Sri Jayawardenepura. Kotte

Part 2 Town Planning

Initiatives from trading
post to garden city to urban
Anuradhapura Jethavana stupa conservation 2008 Colombo Racecourse pavilion
anarchy

56 57
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
Independence Hall. Colombo
 History of
Colombo
History And Background
The first Settlement of Colombo can be traced to
the the Ancient Kingdom of Kelaniya in 3rd Century
BC, 6 Km from today’s city, 3 km from the Kelani
River Estuary. Such Capitals of Kingdoms, being
located a few Kilometers away from the estuary
were common in South, East and South East Asia in
India, todays, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, China
etc.

Folklore also records a visit by the Lord Buddha to

settle a local dispute and the Kingdom of Kelaniya
is also historically traced to the despath of Vihara
Maha Devi as sacrifice to appease the marauding
sea to the Kelaniya Temple, perhaps the first ancient
reference to a modern Day Tsunami.

There is little subsequent literary reference to

Kelaniya perhaps due to the greater emphasis of the
dominant Anuradhapura as the Capital but there is
strong evidence to point to a local sub-kingdom in
the area that later began to be associated with the
Kotte Kingdom of 16th Century.

58 59
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA

The Citadel of Kelaniya and
Kelaniya Temple today
The subsequent story of Colombo is
enmeshed with the history of occupation of
Sri Lanka by foreign traders, assimilation of
locals and countries over seven a centuries
from 1400 A.D to today .
If we trace the changing nature of Colombo’s
Fort and Pettah districts we can trace the
origins of the earliest city structures before it
expanded to become the conurbation and
commercial capital it is today, and a society
that os perhaps most cosmopolitan of Asia.
It is that cosmopolitan nature, acquired
through interactions in the city of Colombo
that has lead to Sri Lankans being one of the
most assimilative migrating populations the
world over.
In its earliest days Colombo was a trading
port and fortification, not the capital of the
country. The island’s capital shifted many
times over many centuries depending on
the country’s rulers who shifted the capital
between inland locations of Anuradhapura,
Pollonaruwa or elsewhere as decribed in the
preceding chapter.. Colombo’s status as
capital came with the introduction of foreign
trade and the need for a deep harbour and
port to collect and transport the highly valued
spices to international destinations.
60
Colombo possesses a natural harbor at the mouth of
the Kelani River and has been known to traders from
India, Greece, Persia, Rome, northern Africa and
China for over 2000 years whose inland capital was
in Kelaniya well within the navigable part of the Kelani
River. Arab & Chinese traders had begun to settle in
Colombo around the 8th century mostly because the
port helped them control much of the trade between
the Sinhalese kingdoms and the outside world.
With availability of ships of greater depth, the port
perhaps shifted away from the Kelani Estuary
southward to the protected bay of what we call the
Port of Colombo.
There is little consensus about the origins of the
name Colombo but what is certain is that the name
represents the many influences experienced by
the inhabitants of the early settlement. Traveller Ibn
Batuta who visited the island in the 14th century
referred to it as Kalanpu. Kolamba is a Sinhalese
word taken from the Veda language and dating
back to the 13th century meaning harbour and may
be the source name of Colombo. It is thought that
when the Portuguese arrived in 1505 they may have
been struck by it similarity to the name Colombus
and introduced Colombo as the official name of their
settlement. There are also similarities to the Tamil
words Kolumpu or Kzohumpu meaning ‘where the
land bends’ and Kola-amba-thota which means
‘harbour with leafy mango trees’.
The Portuguese sometime after their first arrival in
1505, established Colombo as their headquarters,
occupying and building a fortress around the area
that is today the Fort, with its natural high ground and
Pettah districts for nearly one hundred years.
Portuguese
1505 – 1602
Portuguese explorers, led by Dom Lourenco de
Almeida, first arrived in Sri Lanka, known up to that
time by the outside world as Serendib. Explorers were
attracted to Sri Lanka because it was the natural focal
point at the southernmost part of the sea routes that
connected Asia with the Mediterranean.
During their initial visit they made a treaty with the King
of Kotte, Parakramabahu VIII (1484–1508), which
enabled them to trade in the island’s crop of cinnamon,
which lay along the coastal areas of the island, including
around Colombo.[17] . In an effort to protect the coast
from invaders made a treaty with the Portuguese giving
them the right to trade cinnamon and other spices from
the island, and receiving full authority of the coastline in
exchange for the promise of guarding the coast against
invaders. Within a short time the Portuguese expelled
the Muslim inhabitants and began to build their fort in
1517. Perhaps the first Western Genocide in Sri Lankan
Territory.
The Portuguese realized that control of Sri Lanka was
necessary for protection of their coastal establishments
in India and they began to manipulate the rulers of
the Kotte kingdom to gain control of the area. After
skilfully exploiting rivalries within the royal family, they
took control of a large area of the kingdom and the
Sinhalese King Mayadunne established a new kingdom
at Sitawaka, a domain in the Kotte kingdom.
Before long he annexed much of the Kotte kingdom
and forced the Portuguese to retreat to Colombo, which
was repeatedly besieged by Mayadunne and the later
kings of Sitawaka, forcing them to seek reinforcement
from their major base in Goa, India.
61
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Dutch 1602–1796
Following the fall of the kingdom in 1593, the Portuguese were able to establish complete control over the coastal
area, with Colombo as their capital. The Portuguese built their administrative and commercial buildings in the area
now known as Fort. The Dutch United East India Company - Vereenigde Oost
Indische Compagnie - went to Ceylon to trade rather
Portuguese missionaries brought Catholicism to Sri Lanka and ruins of some early Portuguese churches still exist
than settle. The company, whose VOC emblem appears
in Colombo and other parts of the country, along with remnants of the many forts the Portuguese built, usually
everywhere, was given a monopoly of all Dutch trade
reconstructed by the Dutch, the stronghold master-builders of the period.
in the east by the Dutch Government. The VOC were a
The Portuguese capital city of Colombo was a single unit which included within its fortifications both those areas business organisation run on business imperatives and it
now called Fort and Pettah. Beira Lake with seven islands, lay along the city’s southern edge was much larger at began to build a ring of settlements and forts around the
that time and is now considerably reduced by land reclamation. Despite this, the general shape of Portuguese coast to enable them to control import and export.
Colombo can be easily reconciled with the present-day map.
The Dutch were gradually taking control of all Portuguese
settlements, except those in the north, and laid siege
on 21st October 1655 to Colombo with a large army of
5000 to 6000 men. In simultaneous attacks on the land
front, from the Lake and upon the harbor they suffered
disastrous repulses and heavy losses. Starvation and
disease killed civilians by the thousands. The garrison
was reduced so that they could no longer man the
ramparts properly. After a siege of nearly seven months
with heavy losses the VOC rushed the battered bastion
St John and on 12th May 1656 and the Portuguese
surrendered. When 73 Portuguese soldiers staggered
through the gateway the Dutch took them prisoner.
The Dutch captured the fort of Colombo from the
Portuguese after a period of vehement fighting and much
bloodshed in 1656. The VOC altered the fortifications
and also the streets which they laid out in a more regular
grid pattern which is still visible today. The VOC divided
the city into two parts - the Fort being reduced and
confined to the western portion and the present Pettah
Dutch copy of Portuguese map c1655: Plan of the Bay, Town and Fortifications. From which the (referred to as the óude stad’ by the Dutch)
Comprehensive Atlas of the Dutch United East India Company because they found this to be the active residential
part of the city when they took it over and from which
The competing Dutch East India Company forced the Portuguese out of Colombo in 1605 and replaced its
they later removed the walls and fortifications. The
fortification with a modern and stronger fortification around the Fort area only.
name Pettah is thought to have derived from the Tamil
word Pettai, and Anglo-Indian word meaning a suburb
62
outside a fort. The key to mastery of Ceylon was to be
found in just three Forts in a short strip of coast, forty-
five miles long and a mile deep. Colombo was near its
centre, Negombo at its northern end and Kalutara at the
southern end. The river pattern enabled them to secure
their position through just three principal inland Forts, all
on the Kelani Rover upstream in a line from Colombo – at
Hanwella, Sitawaka (Avissawella) and Ruwanwella.
In 1638 the Dutch signed a treaty with King Rajasinha II
of Kandy which assured the King assistance in his war
against the Portuguese in exchange for a monopoly of
the island’s major trade goods. The Portuguese resisted
the Dutch and the Kandyans but were gradually defeated
in their strongholds beginning in 1639.[19] Although
the Dutch (e.g., Rijcklof van Goens) initially restored
the captured area back to the Sinhalese kings, they
later refused to turn them over and gained control over
the island’s richest cinnamon lands including Colombo
which then served as the capital of the Dutch maritime
provinces under the control of the Dutch East India
Company until 1796 When the Dutch came to refortify
Colombo, they did it according to the latest designs and
refortified the western end of the city, less than half the
former extent. The outer town at Pettah developed into a
fashionable residential suburb. From a Dutch painting by
Casper Steiger circa 1710, now held in the Rijksmuseum
in Amsterdam we can see Colombo from the sea with
the imposing Governor’s residence with two long rows
of windows, end balconies and dormer-windowed
roof with the usual Dutch decorated gables and the
Fort Church complete with elaborate high gables. The
painting shows a straight line of warehouses with, in the
centre, the Breakwater Gate, now lost. The warehouses
join onto Battenburg Battery at the northern end of the
harbor. In the painting Battenbug Battery is hidden behind
Waterpas, which occupies the site of the first fortress
built by the Portuguese in Ceylon in 1518
63
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Artist Impression of Colombo Fort - Re-constructed
from Dutch Descriptions and Paintings
The Dutch Fort was a single unit in which the Fort’s military force was concentrated and was less than half the size of the Portuguese
citadel. It was conceived and constructed in the years of expansion and consolidation from 1660 to 1690 when the Dutch were the
masters of the east and expected to remain so. Steadily they built a town just as they wanted it to be with the sea, the lake and the
ditch completely surrounding it and a fortress erected with nine bastions, connected by strong ramparts fringing the city.

Dutch records tell a story of how a wild elephant swam Beira Lake at night, killed the sentries to the Dutch Fort, forced his way
through the Gate and for some hours roamed the streets freely before escaping out to sea at dawn (Anthonisz, Dutch Records,
quoted Brohier).

Christoph Schweitzer writes of Colombo in 1681 “on the landside from east to south there is a broad channel – the present Beira
lake – that runs all round it, where crocodiles are seen in abundance every day… the Castel contains about 40 acores of land. The
governor, all the merchants officers and soldiers have their dwellings within; and without the walls between them and the sea are the
little huts of straw and leaves where nearly 4000 slaves belonging to the company rest at night…there is a little well-built hospital…
and not far from that an orphanage, in which many Dutch children are reared…”

The Delft or east Gate was the most important entrance to the Fort in Dutch times. In 1985 the remains of the gate came to light
during excavations for the foundations of the Commercial Bank building. The arch of the gateway has been restored and is now
accessible to the public (photo).

The road which started from the eastern gateway of the fort traversed the óude stad’ and continued out through the city gate. The

64 65
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 British 1796 – 1948
road was named In 1817-18 there was a rebellion in parts of Kandy
Konig’s Street and against British rule but it was crushed in perhaps the
corresponds identically second known western massacre of the locals.
to the present Pettah While the later part of the 1600s was broadly a period of
expansion for VOC, the 1700s were the years of increasing In the 1860s, with all local opposition supressed by
Main Street (photo).
decline, with exhaustion breaking the strength of the a dominant military might, the demolition of the fort of
The old Dutch Company through wars in Europe against the French on Colombo began in order to accommodate the
warehouse buildings land and the British at sea. By the end 1700s the Company Burgeoning population and modernisation of the
have been repaired had slipped into impending bankruptcy, the end coming the
and painted white and French troops invaded the Netherlands. The British took the island’s city and harbour.
have been converted opportunity, after futile negotiations, to attack the Dutch in
The British built roads rather than Forts and the
into the naval museum Ceylon.
construction a few years later of the military road from
(photo).
On 16th February 1796 the unfortunate Dutch Governor, Colombo to Kandy put an end to its hill inaccessibility.
Situated in Hospital with the support of his Council, capitulated to his far more The growth at the end of that century and the early years
Street in the heart of powerful opponents and the former possessions of the of the 19th century of a civil service with an affection for
Colombo’s fort is the Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie of Doelenstraat, the country and its people did much to heal the breach.
Dutch Hospital built in Amsterdam, passed to the British East India Company of
The opening of the Suez Canal and development of
the early 1690s’. It was Leadenhall Street, London.
the planting industries helped still further. In 1833 they
completely restored
Although the British captured Colombo in 1796, it remained a introduced wide-ranging reforms, English was made the
by the Department
British military outpost until the Kandyan Kingdom was ceded official language and the administration was reformed.
of Archaeology in
to them in 1815 and they made Colombo the capital of their Slavery was abolished in 1844 but the word Slave Island
the early 1980s and
newly created crown colony of British Ceylon and no major yet to remain within the local vocabulary as part of the
is a unique building
building effort was put in. Central Business District.
occupying over an
acre of land. It appears In the early 19th century the British created large
Unlike the Portuguese and Dutch before them, whose
to be the only surviving plantations for growing coffee. Import duties on coffee in
primary use of Colombo was as a military fort, the British
hospital built by the Britain were reduced and coffee drinking became more
began constructing houses and other civilian structures
VOC that still stands common. Exports of Sri Lankan or Ceylonese coffee
around the fort, giving rise to the current City of Colombo.
in any of their colonial boomed and large numbers of laborers from India were
territories. The hospital The British East India Company had difficulties in the early brought to work on the plantations. However, from the
was able to handle an years and the British Government intervened in 1802 1870s the coffee crop was devastated by the slow
intake of 3000 patients turning the coastal areas into a Crown colony. Relations spread of a fungus called hemileia vastratrix. In the late
of European origin. worsened with the independent hill Sinhalese that produced 19th century tea replaced coffee as the main Ceylonese
The British continued warfare and in 1803 the British invaded the hill country and crop. Rubber and coconuts were also important crops.
to use the building successfully occupied Kandy, later losing the garrison to
as a hospital for sick malaria, isolation and ongoing skirmishes. Then without their
soldiers and sailors having to seek it, in 1815 internal events in Kandy gave the
(photo). British their opening, they were able to occupy the town
without opposition and transfer sovereignty to the Crown.

Colombo Fort 1940 still reflecting Dutch Grid and Form arising from Dutch Fortifications

66 67
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 The Port of Colombo
The Port of Colombo (known as Port of Kolomtota during
the early 14th Century Kotte Kingdom) is the largest and
busiest port in Sri Lanka. Located in Colombo, on the
southwestern shores on the Kelani River, it serves as an
important terminal in Asia due to its strategic location in the
Indian Ocean.
During the 1980s, the port underwent rapid modernization
with the installation of Cranes, Gantries and other modern-
day terminal requirements.
Currently with a capacity of 5.7 million TEUs and a dredged
depth of over 15 m (49 ft),[2] the Colombo Harbour is one
of the busiest ports in the world, and ranks among the
top 35 ports. It is also one of the biggest artificial harbours
in the world handling most of the country’s foreign trade.
[3] It has an annual cargo tonnage of 30.9 million tons.[4]
The port is also the naval base for Sri Lanka Navy Western
Fleet.
The Port of Colombo was known to Roman, Arab, and
Chinese traders more than 2000 years ago. By the 8th
century, Arab Muslim traders settled in Colombo as a base
for their trade for that part of the world. Today, they make
up the local Sri Lankan Moor community.[3]
British City Building
Centuries of colonial rule had meant a decline of
indigenous administration of Colombo, and in 1865 the
British conceived a Municipal Council as a means of
training the local population in self-governance a first in
the World. The Legislative Council of Ceylon constituted
the Colombo Municipal Council in 1865 and the Council
met for the first time on the January 16, 1866. At the time,
the population of the region was around 80,000.[10] The
British initiated construction of gravel roads connecting
Colombo to other strategic centres of the island. Those
roads were set along the coast towards the south (present
68
Galle Road), on Kelani River valley to the east (Avissawella
Road), across Kelani River ferry to the north (Modara Road)
and two lines through the marshes of south east to Kotte. Early
stages of British administration identified the need for urban
growth along main arterials linked Colombo to other regions of
the country.
Similar to Dutch period, British established all its administrative
activities inside Fort and the commercial activities spread over
the streets of Pettah. After these activities were established,
they were concerned with finding suitable greenery for
administrators residences and they selected areas around the
lake close to the Fort, named Beira lake.
After that they established high class residential areas for rich
native business owners and local leaders towards the north
of pettah in Kotahena and Modara areas, towards the south
of ort in Kollupitiya and Bambalaapitiya and eastern segment
of Maradana and Dematagoda. At that time those areas
were occupied by cinnamon plantations, coconut lands and
marshes.
Northern part of Fort and Pettah grew as the higher order
business district due to proximity to the port and it also helped
to attract more population to the city from other parts of the
country.
British roads of a road network facilitate city growth by
opening up land for development. Construction of Baseline
Road from north ot south of Colombo is a landmark of
this road development. The British also contributed to city
growth by establishment of industries such as metal working,
production of coconut oil, desiccated coconut, tea production,
cardamom, areca nut, in addition to trading and commercial
activities.
During the time they were in control of the Colombo, the British
were responsible for much of the planning of the present city.
In some parts of the city tram car tracks and granite flooring
laid during the era are still visible today.
The British changed the shape and structure of Colombo to
suit their trading and administrative purposes. The first census
of Sri Lanka (1984) recorded the population of Colombo In
1865 the British regularised the administrative boundary of
Colombo with the establishment of the Colombo Municipal
council. The Housing and Town Improvement Ordinance was
legislated in 1915
Neo Classoical Phase
Precincts &
Suburbs of
Colombo
Fort is the central business district of Colombo in Sri Lanka. It is the
financial district of Colombo and the location of the Colombo Stock
Exchange (CSE) and the World Trade Centre of Colombo from
which the CSE operates. It is also the location of the Bank of Ceylon
headquarters. Along the foreshore of the Fort area is the Galle Face
Green Promenade, built in 1859 under the governance of Sir Henry
George Ward, the Governor of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) during British
colonial administration. Fort is also home to the General Post Office,
hotels, government departments and offices.
Following the British acquiring control of the Dutch-controlled
areas on the coast of the island, the fort became the center of its
administration, in 1815 with Kandyan Convention Colombo became
the capital of the entire island.[2] In the year 1870, the walls of the
fort were demolished as there was no longer a direct military threat
and were considered an obstruction to the urban development in
the area. Dutch buildings were also demolished and were replaced
giving the area a sense of British colonialism.[3]
Although the ramparts were taken down the area remained to be
called the fort. Many buildings in the fort area were home to the
British administration of the island and as more legislative power was
given to the Ceylonese, it became the site of the Legislative Council
and the State Council. As well as the heart of the administrative
capital, the fort area became the heart
of the commercial capital too. Following independence much of the
center of government was centred in this area.
However, with the expansion of the government administration, in
1980s the government began to move government ministries and
departments to Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte. This began with the
shifting of Parliament from the old State Council Building to a new
complex in Sri Jayawardenapura. The full shift of government was
never completed, as many important government institutions still
remain there.
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Hulftsdorp gardens. At present Cinnamon Gardens is the location of
the Prime Minister’s Office, Independence Hall, Colombo
Town Holland National Museum as well as numerous foreign
Town Plans
The name of the suburb Hulftsdorp is a commemoration of In 1796 the British
embassies and high commissions, located down streets
General Gerard Pieterszoon Hulft,[3] the Dutch East India captured Colombo
lined with fine trees and mansions that are home to the
Company’s Director of India and commander in chief of the and forced out
country’s elite.
company’s forces in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and on the Coast the Dutch. Over
of India. He was killed while besieging Colombo. The hill on With the development of Kotte, the most affluent suburb time the British
which he had his headquarters was named ‘Hulft’s Dorp’ though has shifted to Battaramulla – Pelawatte Axis next to converted what
during the Dutch occupation.[4] Nowadays, Hulftsdorp is the Parliament. had been a
regarded as the center of legal activity in Colombo being military and trading
the location of the Sri Lanka Law Courts.[5] Galle face Colombo
settlement by
The name of the suburb Hulftsdorp is a commemoration of constructing roads,
General Gerard Pieterszoon Hulft,[3] the Dutch East India houses and civic
Company’s Director of India and commander in chief of the buildings giving
company’s forces in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and on the Coast rise to form of the
of India. He was killed while besieging Colombo. The hill on post-colonial city of
which he had his headquarters was named ‘Hulft’s Dorp’ Colombo.
durin the Dutch occupation.[4] Nowadays, Hulftsdorp is
regarded as the center of legal activity in Colombo being
the location of the Sri Lanka Law Courts.[5] This area once
served as the headquarters of the Dutch General Gerard
Hulft during the siege of Colombo in 1656. Gale face drive club Galle face hotel

The Military Engineers’

Gale face drive club Galle face hotel
Pettah 4. General Post Office Anchor at other end – GPO in Colombo
and in Singapore the former GPO (today’s Fullerton Hotel)
Design of City Plan 5. Sea front for Naval Parade – (In Singapore the reclamation
Pettah is a neighbourhood in Colombo, Sri Lanka located
east of the City centre Fort. The Pettah neighbourhood is With any semblance of local dissent suppressed the has taken the seas 3km away from the Padan)
famous for the Pettah Market, a series of open air bazaars British Broke the Fort walls and in similarity to Penang,
and markets. It is Sri Lanka’s busiest commercial area, Singapore, Chennai – Marina, the British Engineers
established the a Garrison Town with the following
where most of the shops, textiles, buildings and many other elements
business organisations are centred.[2]
1. Major Parade grounds – Galle Face Green in Colombo
and Padan in Singapore and Marina in Chennai

Cinnamon Gardens 2. Adjacent Military Barracks – What later became the

Former Army Headquarters until shift to Akuragoda

Cinnamon Gardens Cinnamon Gardens is named from the 3. Main Colonial Visitor’s Hotel in proximity to Military –
former cinnamon plantation in this area. In the year 1789, Galle Face Hotel in Colombo or Raffles Hotel in Singapore
there were 289 acres (1.17 km2) of cinnamon trees in the

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 City Plan by Sir Patrick Geddes-19
Patrick Geddes Plan 1921 Subsequent Town Plans
Regional Plan by Patrick Abercrombie - 1948

City plans have been prepared for Colombo since colonial times. 1. The Abercombie Plan of 1948 saw the further consolidation of the
Geddes Plan
The first was made by the famous British city planner Sir Patrick
Geddes who was invited to prepare a plan for Colombo and 2. 1978 Master Plan and Regulations was a major attempt to shift
the administration to Kotte and the Lalith Muthukumarana Lead
arrived in 1921. Geddes mostly stressed the significance of larger
Kotte Master Plan is a key milestone in that regard - relocating its
development and beautification of the city and he proposed to administrative activities to Sri Jayawardanapura Kotte in the 1980s
develop Colombo as a ‘garden city’ on a much larger scale; he and continuously expanding the port function to meet international
standards and strategically exploiting its location in the middle of
called it “The Garden City of the East”. the Indian Ocean.

3. 1996 Master Plan by the UDA is to be credited with some key

The tree lined streets (Bauddhaloka Mawatha), the setting up of
parks and the zoological garden and the grid system of roads in
Cinnamon Gardens are legacies of the Geddes Plan and which
still provide the most sought after residential areas in the city. He
proposed to beautify Colombo by the incorporation of Beira lake.
Geddes saw a successful city in Colombo and he saw the
significance of the port as the 3rd largest in the Empire and 5th
largest in the world. Geddes provided for expansion to the port
as part of an expansion plan. It paved the way for the further
development of internal roads, including present day R. A. de Mel
Mawatha (Duplication Road), which was created as a relief road
to Galle road. Slums were a large part of the city, but Geddes
suggested that large scale slum clearance would be harmful and
recommended gradual execution.
Recognising the details of the configuration of the Colombo site with
special reference to its internal water bodies, (the Beira lake and the
marshy tracts) Geddes viewed the problem of harbour construction
as a very necessary step in the growth and the development of the
city. “Since the harbour is fundamental to Colombo, so must its
future extensions not only increase the town, but largely determine
its layout’. He proposed a wet dock scheme to occupy most of
the swampy areas of Koraliayawalaand Kimbulawala(an area about
165 acres, see Fig. I) with a possible extension into a second
dock to occupy the Weragoda and Urugoda marshes, east of
Dematagoda(about 135 acres). This design for an internal harbour
within the city site itself, if implemented undoubtedly would have led
to a very different spatial pattern of city growth and development. He
further envisaged suburbs with gardens.
A key paper on Planning was the 1940 S. Holiday Memorandum
4. 2008 UDA Amendments – Achieved further clarity but heights
5. 2019 – Commercial City Plan & Capital City Plan by team lead
on town planning that lead to the enactment of the Town &
County Planning act of 1947.
Key local town planners of the mid 20th Century worthy
to mention are S. Fernando, O.T.F Seneviratne, Oliver
Weerasinghe, B.L Panditharatna who pioneered the slums
clearance and industrial town concepts such as Ja-Ela,
Ratmalana, Ragama . Ratmalana new town in the time of
second Prime Minister Sir, John Kotalawala time is to be
commented for its vision. It was a visionary town plan that
6. 2014 – Port City Amalgamation – The Port city is a breakthrough
encompassed public housing, private housing, dual carriage
ways, industrial estates etc and as much as Hambantota
is criticised today for its vision, was widely criticised at that
time because it happened to be the electorate of the Prime
Minister. To this day, Ratmalana houses significant public
housing, well laid out residential areas such as Templers
Road, industry such as pharmaceutical, factories, key
government offices with dual carriageway free of traffic jams.
achievements.
a. Special Primary Residential Zone – That protects the
integrity of low rise residential areas such Colombo 7 similarity to
28 dedicated Bungalow areas of Singapore or low rise high-end
zones of Melbourne, London, Sydney etc
b. Concentrated Development Zone – That lead to the evolving
high-rise city of Colombo
based on Road Frontages etc considered a major hindrance for
creative interventions.
Source: Colombo Living High; A City in Transition, N.P Hearth &
D.Jayasundra, 2007
by Dr Jagath Munasinghe, Chairman UDA is considered a major
forward effort in creative planning and form making in the city. Key
features of the master plan are
a. Flexible FAR regime and FAR regime based on Zone factors that
encourages creation of a conducive and tapering city form with
highest density in the Middle
b. Encouragement for creative design and form making, Green
buildings etc
c. Encouragement for land amalgamation for more conducive city
form
d. Protecting Vital Vistas such as to Lotus Tower etc
concept for major expansion of the Central Business District. The
key features of the Port City are
a. Major Reclamation South of the Expanded Deep Berth Port
b. Ample Space for a Mixed Use, Marina, Social Infrastructure
c. Issues with the town plan of mono use zones
needs to be addressed and modified with steps to increase
viability

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 UNDP Assisted Colombo Master Plan - 1978 City of Colombo Development Plan 1985 Port City Amalgamation 2011 Port City Reclamation 2019

City of Colombo Development Plan 1999 City of Colombo Development Plan 2008

UDA - Colombo Commercial City Plan and Capital City Plan 2019 Port City Master Plan 2019

Other significant planning endeavours worthy of
mention are Sacred City Schemes of Anuradhapura
in 1957, subsequent plans for Kataragama,
Mahiyangana, Muthiyangana, Kelaniya, etc. by the
Dept of Town & Country Planning, Bentota National
Tourism Resort Master Plan by Geoffrey Bawa in 1968
which encompassed a public beach in addition to 8
Hotel sites, the Master Plan for rural diversification
of tourism with Kandalama Hotel as a sustainability
initiative.

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 A significant planning failure to highlight is the Finance Company lead Model of the destruction of the Wet
Zone Agricultural hinterland with land subdivision for housing that comes without social amenities, basic
infrastructure , schools located at unacceptable distances etc. In fact, some (now defunct) Finance
Companies had multiple subsidiaries doing so and was their most profitable businesses within the
conglomerate for some. Successive planners, the National Physical Planning Department (NPPD) etc.,
repeatedly acted negligently in the face of this destruction without providing alternative means to provide the
basic social need for housing, towns and community precinct or space for industry other than ad-hoc sub-
division of productive agricultural land. To this day, the fundamental deficiency of a National Land use Plan
exists. It is worthy to note that some of those land sub-dividing companies have diversified to more organised
developments such as bungalow housing within urban areas, to medium and even high-rise housing.
Such diversification without any policy direction needs to be fostered and guided for more conducive living
environments for social and work in conjunction for a more organised real estate industry that fosters. the
pristine land that is Sri Lanka.

Pettah - 2019

Urban
Anarchy
and Decay

76
Colombo Fort - 2019
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
77
 View of a South American City .......correction...It is an Aerial view of Colombo towards South West -
Bambalapitiya, Dehiwala, Wellwatte, Mt Lavinia, 2019

URBAN ANARCHY - Despite City Planning efforts from days of Geddes Plan
(1921) of an intended finest garden city of Asia to UDA’s City of Colombo Development Plan 2008

A city lacking gardens, open spaces, amenity value or urban character with resultant traffic chaos,... a result
of reactive planning to treat individual plots on their own than an Urban Form

Is that what we want all over ..including Colombo 7, Battaramulla etc in 5 years and from Colombo to
Trincomalee or Kandy in 25 years?

78 79
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA

Urban Interventions during the
benchmark period 2009 - 2014
A Capital City with
frequent floods
Part 3
Flood Mitigation
and Urban management
80
Managing Water
Preamble
Urbanization also means the continuous build up that blockages of waterways and canals critical for drainage, created a
leads to reduced percolation and absorption areas. If situation for significant flooding during heavy monsoonal and inter-
unplanned, it can lead to major urban disasters, disruption monsoonal rains.
to life. One of the main issues of the City of Colombo
and its environs from the 1990s has been urban flooding
of an unprecedented scale. The contributory factors
Such periodic disruption to public life results in low property
values and thus erosion of individuals’ wealth and savings, social
were unplanned landfills in catchment areas, lack of a
drainage system except for historically built canals and
disruptions due to relocation and major impact on productivity due
to disruption to work patterns.
developments sans back up drainage infrastructure all
fostered without a proper development guide plan to As a means of action, the Sri Lanka Land Reclamation &
match an infrastructure plan. Development Corporation (SLLRDC) was bought under the
expanded Ministry of Defence and Urban Development under
A Parliament that frequently gets flooded is a the leadership of Gotabaya Rajapaksa and Harshan De Silva, an
major national embarrassment and that was Architect by training, was appointed as its Chairman in 2010. The
the story of the Sri Lankan Parliament in the
period 1993 - 2009.
Secretary of defence and urban development took immediate action
to draw up short term, medium term and long term action to mitigate
the urban floods including Immediate steps were undertaken to
The eye opener for policy makers in terms of development improve the drainage with a joint effort between the Sri Lankan
pattern was the unplanned landfills and development Navy and SLLRDC. The long term action plan included the Metro
permits issued without consideration of downstream Colombo Development Project by the World Bank
drainage and the repeated flooding of the Parliamentary
Complex, the last of which was in 2010. It is a fact in
Asian politics that action happens only when it affects the
politicians and not the tax payers/voters. Also this flood in
a massive scale affected 36,000 households with some
of them belonging to influential segments of society.
Normally rainfall is analysed in yearly, decade-wise or
50 year floods etc. In the preceding decade there was
no recognizable change in the pattern of rainfall, thus
the only plausible reason for flooding was unplanned
developments, encroachments, illegal land fills etc without
matching drainage infrastructure. The effect of annual rain
and run-off caused silting of drains and canals, reducing
their capacity to handle flooding rains. Construction activity
and filling of low-lying areas reduced the catchment area
available for water retention and, combined with silting and
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Flooded Colombo
Pre 2009

NORTHERN DIVERSION

PARLIAMENT

MADIWELA
KIMBULAWALA

BELLANWILA

WERAS GAGA

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Drainage Engineering
measures undertaken
Work undertaken was multi-- pronged.
1. Emergency action for relief
2. Intermediary action plan under Sri Lanka Land Development and
Reclamation Corporation
3. Long term action the World bank-funded Metro Colombo Urban 2. Maintenance was undertaken and enforced as a step
Improvement Program.
The actions included
a. Overall improvement to catchment area, demarcation of
catchment areas, catchment area enhancements
b. Engineering improvements such as additional and alternative Growth Program funded through a World Bank grant to
discharged means such as the Weras Ganga regenerate waterways and drainage infrastructure.
Scheme under the World Bank project of Metro Colombo Urban
Development Project described below.
c. Enforcement mechanisms on prevention of unauthorized filling of
catchment areas
d. Design and construction of new catchment areas
e. Reclaiming of unauthorized fillings in declared catchment areas
84
Drainage
Maintenance
1. Rehabilitation of the local drainage network
was undertaken with the SLLDC restructured
for systematic maintenance also with the
cooperation of the Sri Lanka Navy..
to ensuring systematic flow of storm water to drains.
In an effort to reduce the flooding problem and improve
urban drainage, the government embarked on the Metro
Colombo Urban Development Project and the Green
METRO COLOMBO URBAN DEVELOPMENT
PROJECT – MINISTRY OF DEFENCE
AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT
Recognising Sri Lanka’s need for competitive and dynamic cities to reach its aspiration of becoming an upper-middle income economy
and a global hub the project was conceived by the Ministry of Defence and Urban Development. With the end of civil unrest, the country
is on a path of rapid urbanization. The Metro Colombo Region is the international gateway to Sri Lanka and houses most of the country’s
important institutions and services and manufacturing facilities. Therefore, there is a need to tap into the competitive advantages of the
Metro Colombo Region to accelerate growth. The Metro Colombo Urban Development Project (MCUDP) is a key response to this need
with UDA, SLLRDC as key partner agencies.
COMPLETED PROJECTS BY OCTOBER 2019
1. Construction of Bank Protection works of St Sebastian North Canal
2. Improvements to Madiwela East Diversion
3. Improvements to Drain at Devi Balika Junction
4. Improvement to Kynsey Road Drain
5. Infra Structure Development in Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte Municipal Council Package 03
6. Construction of Cycle Track & Jogging Trail at Nippon Mawatha Kotte
7. Improvements to Public Convenience Package 03
8. Development of McCallum Entrance Park at D R Wijewardena Mawatha
9. Construction of Beach Park at Crow Island
10. Improvement to Storm Water Drains in Catchment 2 & 3 of Marine Drive
11. Development of Beddegana Bio Diversity Park
12. Improvements to distributed sewerage network around Beira Lake
13. Construction of bank protection works of eastern bank of West Beira Lake - 1.2KM
14. Rehabilitation of Galle Road & R A De Mel Mawatha
15. Construction of Canal Bank Protection Works of Dehiwala Canal
16. Improvements to Public Conveniences package – 02
17. Construction of Bank Protection works of Eastern Bank of East Beira Lake - 1.2KM
18. Infra Structure Development in Dehiwala Mount lavinia Municipal Council
19. Model Zone Development in Town Hall Square
20. Rehabiltation of Main Drain, Aluth Mawatha Culvert, Mutwal Box Darin, Tunnel Inlet and Outlet
21. Walkability Improvements and Asphalt Overlaying
22. Public Convenience Package 01
ONGOING PROJECTS
1. Construction of Flood Gate with Culvert near Thalangama Tank & Construction of Culvert at Baudhaloka Mawatha
2. Installation of Flushing Gates for Water Quality Improvement
3. Plant Design Supply & Installation of Pump Station at St. Sebastian South Lock
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Regaining Illegally filled
and illegally acquired
water catchments.
Under medium term action, the Sri Lanka Land Reclamation
and Development Corporation (SLLRDC) was engaged in re-
possessing designated water catchments and reversing illegal
landfills that contributed to frequent flooding.
One plot, to the North of Colombo had been acquired by a
maverick local politician, in fact a Member of Parliament. The
MP, who, on seeing the impending action of the SLLRDC,
took immediate action to plant a Bo Tree, sacred to both
Hindus and Buddhists, to save his ill acquired wealth. He then
proceeded to complain to the President that the SLLRDC,
with the protection of the military, was about to destroy a Bo
Tree (not mentioning that it was planted overnight).
On hearing the complaining from the maverick politician
through the President, the Secretary ordered immediate action
by the SLLRDC, with the protection of military personnel, to
proceed with the reclaiming of the catchment, including the
destruction of the bogus shrine installed overnight by the local
politician.
The incident highlighted local politicians’ influence in the
destruction of the natural environment, their intimidation
and interference in the planning process and their illegal
acquisitions through sheer intimidation of the local
bureaucracy.
The message widely conveyed to the political class was that
this National Leadership was determined in their objectives
and local politicians’ previous tactics would no longer be
tolerated for self-serving interests.
86
Revitalising Colombo’s Green
Arteries and Parklands
Traditionally land reclamation is the process of improving
lands to make them suitable for a more intensive use whilst
preventing flooding. In the Western Province, reclamation
efforts included diking and provisions for draining of
marshes, reconstructing traditional canals, the smoothing
and revegetation of bund areas, and similar activities.
As the demographics change, planning for an inclusive and
diverse community should be a priority so that all people
have access to parks that will increase their overall quality
of life. Therefore, the design of our cities must evolve to
take advantage of these trends and meet the needs of the
changing population.
Cleverly exploited such exploited can become part of the
public realm with well-designed paths, walks, cycle tracks,
outdoor exercise areas, exciting and vibrant street food
vendors and organized self-employed areas as well.
As mentioned Colombo is built on marshy, flood-prone
land in an area subject to heavy rains during the annual
three-month monsoon season. The season begins in
May and can deliver in excess of 3000 mm of rain to the
capital. In addition, the city has sprawled to meet population
growth and the influx of workers from rural areas seeking
employment, without adequate drainage to accommodate
urban growth.
The city’s drainage infrastructure, including its micro
drainage channels, primary and secondary canals have
been de-silted and improvements made to the overall
drainage infrastructure. Beira Lake has been dredged
by the Sri Lankan Navy and several new lakes have
been created in the Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte area,
including Rampalawatta, the low-lying areas of Pelawatta and
Thalawathugoda. With the lakes, there is an opportunity for public
recreation, walking tracks, exercise areas, cycle tracks etc.
Gotabaya Rajapaksa, as Secretary Defence and Urban
Development, was highest level state officer responsible for the
city’s drainage improvements. The basis of his design philosophy
was his previous experience of having lived in the United States and
its vastness of open spaces and waterfront locations.
This philosophy was passed down to the drainage engineers of
the SLLRDC. Thus public parks and walkways became an integral
part of all drainage improvement works, rather than the primarily
functional, unaesthetic design approach of traditional engineers.
“ The test of the interventionist work on
the benchmark period of 2009 – 2014
came when the rains came on 25
September 2019, discharging 12 inches
of rain, and the redeveloped system stood
with Colombo City, Kotte, Nugegoda,
Weras Ganga basins were free of
flooding whereas the rest of the Western
and Southern were affected by severe
flooding. ”
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Waterfront Public Parks/
Public Health & Recreation
Colombo’s Heart
Beira Lake
Located in the centre of Colombo, Beira Lake was built by
the Portuguese when they converted marshland into a moat
to protect Colombo Fort against local invaders. The origin of
the name is unclear (although it may come from the name of
a Dutch Engineer called De Beer) but Beira Lake has been
at the heart of Colombo for over 500 years, connecting
Kelani River to the Indian Ocean. In recent years it has been
renewed and stands as a landmark of modern Colombo
signified by the Lotus Tower on its banks (the largest self-
supported structure in South Asia. Beire Lake originally a
surface area of 16 hectares but this reduced to less than
half as the city has grown around it.
88
The lake originally extended to Kayman’s
Gate (named for the crocodiles or caiman AFTER
that inhabited its waters) built by the
Portuguese to house the drawbridge which
stood over St John’s River at the eastern
end of the Fort and still present today. It
was a strategic defence position and its bell
was rung at sunrise and sunset to signal the
opening and closing of the gate.
By late twentieth century however, Beire
lake had become neglected and polluted;
its gates weren’t functioning, its
tributaries and output channels were
blocked and shanties and unauthorized
buildings on its borders had severely
polluted the water. Instead of being an
attraction, the Beire Lake had
become an eyesore.
BEFORE 2009
The Beire Lake Linear Park plays a vital role
in the city’s flood management system,
whilst also being the site of many
recreational and economic activities. Similar
developments have taken place around
Beira Lake near Nawam Mawatha and
around the Diyawanna Oya in Battaramulla.
The Pettah Floating Markets are located on
Beira Lake, built by the Urban Development
authority and opened in 2014. The UDA
beautified Bastian Street (linking the central
bus stand and Fort Railway Station) and the
adjoining canal where the stalls are located,
into a green environment. Street vendors
who had previously blocked footpaths in
previously congested areas in Pettah were
relocated and given priority for the stalls on
the Floating market.
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Beira Lake 2009

Beira Lake 2009

90 91
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 After - 2011 After - 2011

Along with restoration of Colombo’s waterways Beira Lake has been

repaired through dredging and rehabilitation of its flood gates,
tributaries and output channels, transforming the Lake to its
former glory and centrepiece for a revitalised city.

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Regaining and expanding catchment

Drainage of New Lake at

Thalawathugoda
The city’s drainage infrastructure, including its micro drainage
channels, primary and secondary canals have been de-silted and
improvements made to the overall drainage infrastructure. Beire
lake has been dredged by the Sri Lankan Navy and several new
lakes have been created in the Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte area,

Saint Sebastian Canal including Rampalawatta, the low-lying areas of Pelawatta and
Thalawathugoda.

BEFORE

94 95
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Mutuwal Tunnal &
Aluth Mawatha Culvet Drainage
Canals
Nawala to
Wellawatte

Colombo’s Drainage canal network is part of a canal system that ran from
Puttlam in the North to Devundara in the South. It was once part of a
system of inland goods transport and city drainage. Originally built by the
Dutch Colonial rulers based on the home country experience of Canals,
the entire system had become disused and blocked due to neglect,
encroachment, lack of policing etc. In their glory days, these canals were
the inland transport route of priced commodities such as Cinnamon and
other Spices to Ports of Galle, Colombo and Puttalam (Dutch Bay)

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Urban Lifestyle mixed with unconducive spaces lead to decay in
health standards of its People while conducive spaces lead to a more
contended living environment
A coincidental improvement to Colombo’s drainage
improvements were its reservoirs, marsh catchment and
embankment parks and plazas.
Parks provide a great benefit to citizens, both those
who live nearby and tourists. In addition to their many
environmental benefits, including preserving plant and
animal habitats, decreasing air pollution, and water
filtration, parks create an economic benefit for both
governments and individuals. Creating well planned parks
and preserving sufficient land for them can generate
financial returns that are often many times greater than
the money initially invested into the project, even when
maintenance costs are factored in.
In developed cities, home buyers prefer homes close
to parks, open space and greenery. Proximity to parks
increases property value, thereby increasing property
tax revenue. Research has shown that a 5% increase in
property values for houses within 500 feet of a park is a
conservative estimate of the change in property value due
to proximity to a park. In a knowledge based economy,
companies often choose to be located in communities
that offer amenities such as parks as a means of attracting
and retaining top-level workers.
Depending on their size, parks can draw visitors from
near and far, bringing local and tourism revenue to local
restaurants, hotels, snack shops and stores. The water’s
edge development is one such example. Parks can host
festivals, concerts and athletics events, bringing additional
boosts to the local economy.
Parks and their associated greenery decrease health costs
and support productivity by encouraging exercise and
reducing air pollution. A park’s plants absorb air pollutants
such as nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, carbon
monoxide, ozone and some particulates, reducing the
impacts they have on people’s respiratory systems. Parks
provide low or no-cost recreation and encourage exercise.
They bring people into nature, make outdoor recreation
more accessible and provide safe and attractive places for
individuals and families to exercise and play.
While we focused on economic benefits, it is not meant
98
to diminish the importance of the environmental and social benefits
of parks. The following benefits are both tangible and intangible.
Economic benefits of biodiversity include
• Land conservation
• Benefits of trails
• Benefits of smart growth and costs of reducing sprawl
Whatever their constitution, today’s parks need to be versatile
and able to be used for multiple purposes and has to be 24 hour
accessible.
An open lawn in a park, they could be used for city center concerts
once a week, but also become a refuge for workers at lunchtime,
an oasis of green for residents living nearby, and be used for group
classes, like yoga or aerobics, increasing awareness of the benefits
of physical exercise.
A park can also be used for a local gathering place where business
people conduct a meeting, friends and families meet or where
residents happen to bump into each other during evening walks.
Successful parks usually have five elements associated with them.
They are
• engaging,
• adaptable,
• authentic,
• connected and
• iconic.
They should be designed to provide comfort, convenience and
enjoyment, fostering social interactions and physical connectivity.
Furthermore, that design should create an engaging space that
attracts people every day and most hours of the day and should be
adaptable to support a variety of programming.
Parks located in a downtown area need to attract people 24 hours
a day, seven days a week, year-round. They need to be authentic,
celebrating the unique identity, heritage and culture of a particular
place and contribute to the quality of life of the neighbourhood or
city. They must be connected to a larger amenity infrastructure of
sidewalks, bike paths, green spaces, streetscapes and mixed-use
environments that connect neighbourhoods, employment centers
and cultural districts.
Finally, waterfronts and parks should be iconic, creating a
distinctive and transformative experience where they shift the
occupancy rates around these parks and public spaces.
paradigm and redefine their community and the city’s image itself As cities compete to attract new businesses and residents,
Traditionally in the UK parks were fenced used to be designed
parks increasingly have been utilized by business and
marketing strategies for towns and cities. Businesses are
to be largely green and to be a pastoral setting for the primary
purpose of providing an oasis or respite from our lives. But attracted to amenities and activities often found in the public
parks are essential places for play in the “live, work and play” realm. These businesses realize that many of the professionals
environment that cities across the world are striving to provide. they wish to employ are looking for communities that have
As a result, people expect more from parks. They must not just well-managed and maintained parks and public spaces. In
be green and provide relaxation, as well as offer entertainment,
no city is more visible than Colombo when one examines the
social interaction and unique experiences and activity spaces
such as walking and cycling tracks etc. They must incorporate all large real estate investments that are illustrated in Part 5, some
the elements a highly diverse population of users desire with even of them of highest global standard.
elements of food added.
Related Benefits
“Cities need to create spaces
that are conducive. It is the
- public health &
duty of the state to provide
recreation the resources to do so and
was a key sub objective
While the intangible benefits of parks are wonderful for
people’s quality of life, there are quantifiable economic of the drainage and flood
mitigation works in the period
benefits for the return on investment and a city’s tax base
that urban planners and designers are seeing. So, for every
rupee invested, there is generally a 10 times greater return
on the investment.
2009 - 2014. Analysis of
Well designed amenity infrastructure is so critical as it helps
the creation of the parks
potentially undesirable areas to transform into hubs of and urban upgrading of
activity and redevelopment. In many cases, the creation
of any type of park space on a vacant or under-utilized benchmark period 2009 –
2014 clearly shows that urban
parcel can lead to new residential, mixed-use or retail areas
around these parks, all of which increase the quality of life for
residents and visitors to that community.
beautification is not just a
Thus how does communities justify the use and investment
in parks, public spaces and the associated programming?
matter of beatification but has
They use quantitative elements, such as increased tourism, major economic spin-offs to
increased resident and visitor spending, increased property
greater society””
values adjacent to parks and public spaces, increased
number of jobs to meet tourism demands and increased
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 BEFORE 2012

Quantifiable Benefits IT IS A PRIMARY

While the intangible benefits of parks are wonderful for people’s

COMMUNITY NEED TO
quality of life, there are quantifiable economic benefits in the
return on investment and a city’s tax base that urban planners
and designers are seeing. So, for every Rupee invested, there is HAVE CONDUCIVE PUBLIC
generally a Rs 10 return on the investment.

Amenity infrastructure is so critical that it helps potentially SPACES THAT ARE

undesirable areas transform into hubs of activity and
redevelopment. In many cases, the creation of any type of park
space on a vacant or under-utilized parcel can lead to new ACCESSIBLE, FREE, AND
residential, mixed-use or retail area around these parks, all of
which increase the quality of life for residents and visitors to that
community. WITHIN EASY EACH AND
As cities compete to attract new businesses and residents, parks
increasingly have been utilized by business and
marketing strategies for towns and cities. Businesses are attracted
IT IS THE DUTY OF THE
to amenities and activities often found in the public realm. These
businesses realize that many of the professionals they wish to
employ are looking for communities that have well-managed and STATE TO DO SO.. AND
maintained parks and public spaces.

So, how do communities justify the use and investment in parks, IN THE FUTURE SHOULD
public spaces and the associated programming?
They use quantitative elements, such as increased tourism,
increased resident and visitor spending, the increase in property BE PART OF ANY MAJOR
Wetland Park Nugegoda
values adjacent to parks and public spaces, the increase in jobs to
meet tourism demands and the increase in occupancy rates around
these parks and public spaces.
DEVELOPMENT EXERCISE
(Former Weli/Sand Sellers’ Park)
In the 1970s, the Wetland Park was low lying cattle grass field and green leaf vegetable field.

In the 1980, the Kotte Urban Council – Later to become Kotte Municipal Council - made it an raw garbage dump that was full of odour.
The Council subsequently top it up with land fill finishing layer and in the 1990s and early 2000 was the parking ground of Building sand
lorry based vendor who transacted their business from there.

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Being an unplanned, non-systematic garbage land fill it was unsuited for any
building or development activity. Nuegegoda lacked a public open space as AFTER
well. It was also dangerous build due to likely methane build up etc.

The SLLRDC also informed that it was not part of the city’s flood retention.

The UDA was directed by the Secretary Defence and urban Development to
come up with a plan to convert the disused land fill to an Urban Park,
that has since become a vibrant public space for all ages living near the vicinity.

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Diyatha
Uyana
Battaramulla

One of the landmark Urban Improvement Projects - from an encroached marsh to a landmark public space constructed in a landfill
using material excavated from recreated flood catchment reservoirs that integrated primary functions of food catchment, public open
space of walkways and cycling space, Hawker (self-employed) relocation and giving them permanent place of business (example
flower pot sellers that obstructed traffic Nelum Pokuna Area) and new opportunities for others, public and child recreation such a
aquariums, high-end restaurant in waters edge outdoor cafe, affordable food centers, organised parking with adequate security.

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Diyatha
Uyana

106 107
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Diyatha
Uyana

BEFORE

AFTER

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 BEFORE AFTER

110
Kimbulawala walking path 111
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 BEFORE AFTER

Under the Weras Ganga Basin Storm Water

Drainage & Environment Improvement Project,
the dredging of the Weras Ganga was coupled
with improvements to the drainage system of the
Bolgoda Marsh as well as the development of
several canals.

Improvements to the drainage capacity of the major

waterways has made it possible to create new

Weressa
parklands and open spaces for the community.

Beddagama Wetland Park and Kotte Rampart Park

are marshy areas along Diyawanna Oya, within the

Project
Sri Jayawardenepura Kotta precinct, and popular
for bird watching and nature lovers. These areas
have been progressively improved as part of the
Colombo parkland system and are attractive to both
locals and international visitors.

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Colombo has seen several waves of
government investment in public housing to
address the ever-present shanties and slums
that have built up within the city over many
years. People living in these communities
are driven by economic circumstances and
have often come to Colombo in search of
employment, education and a better life. Large
areas of poor housing have sprung up on
government owned land along railway lines,
canals, water courses and vacant land, in some
cases building on flood prone land reducing
its effectiveness to drain the surrounding area.
These are often precarious places to build a
dwelling and bring up a family, with people living
in poverty and unhealthy and unsafe conditions.

Earlier public housing projects to reduce slum
living were undertaken by the government at the
Sahassapura complex in Dematagoda early this
century, while the complex at Gunasinghapura
was set up even earlier.

The project by nature does not result in Political
Advantage, it is more an means of cleaning
up the city. The relocated slum dweller will
complain on high mortgage cost, (minute sum),
legally paid water bill and power bill vs no
payment due to illegal tapping of utilities.

Projects undertaken have shown that the
dwellers are quite happy with the facilities they
have received.

These projects, to relocate people living in
slums to new public housing projects were able
to be funded by allocating the valuable land
liberated through relocation for development
activities, or derelict city land such as Colombo
Commercial Property.

Urban Low Income Housing

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Underserved came to the Attention of the then Secretary
Defence & Urban Development in 2010, when taking action
against urban flooding especially the flooding that made the
Parliament Flood.
In Developing world cities, urban rural migration is common with
Urban slums and encroachments.
But Colombo is one example of a city that does not fit the
usual text book models; no massive sprawling slums on the
periphery of the city, no rampant in migration to the city and
very few houses which could be classed as extremely poor
due to progressive social welfare carried out by successive
governments whether centre left or centre right.
Therefore, terms like “squatter settlement” and “shanty town
” may not apply to the situation in Colombo. In this case,
Underserved Settlements is a better term to address all
settlements identified as both slums and shanties in Colombo
and was coined so by the UDA in 2011.
With the increased migrants to the city in 1950s, for export
processing and their subsequent generations the supply
of housing began to lag behind the demand and became
unaffordable to the low-income communities. The expansion of
shanties mainly took place based on vacant state lands such as
railway southern reserve at Slave Island, along rail lines along,
canals and Kelani river reservations, where low income families
who migrated to the city in search of employment opportunities
and could not afford houses from standard residential areas, built
their shelters with temporary materials which subsequently made
more permanent but low quality.
The Central Part of Colombo became a predominantly low-
income residential area with many slums, and the Northern and
Eastern parts of the city were
occupied by shanties.
Recent survey by UDA, SLLRDC and the Military under the
auspices of the Ministry of Defence and Urban Development in
2011 found that the household numbers to be 68,812 and the
number of settlements to be 1499.
The dependence on public services is often higher
amongst poorer settlements and the acute shortage leads to
inappropriate and illegal construction of toilets. This creates
problems such as pipe blockages and sewerage overflows,
diversion of sewerage systems into canals, which in turn create
health related problems especially for children. Drainage issues
come to the forefront because many of these settlements
are situated on marginal land, such as marshes and canal
reservations that are prone to flooding.
116
The highest concentration of underserved settlements is within
northern and central parts of CMC area. 900 acres accounting
for 9% of the total land extent of CMC area are found to be
covered with underserved settlements. The population of the
settlements are often third or fourth generation residents, hence,
a very low level of in-migration is prevalent. Issues faced by in-
migrations such as constantly expanding of the slums are not
faced in Colombo.
It was found that 57% of occupants not having freehold rights
to the land.
As most of these settlements were built up as unauthorized
constructions mostly within state lands or privately- owned
estates, they often do not have legal basis and are
categorized as illegal housing that do not meet the
housing regulations and/or do not have the right to
Slum
the land they occupied.
Negative social impacts resulted due to existence of
By the
underserved settlements also can be viewed in two aspects
such as impacts on dwellers of underserved settlements and
overall impacts on society and City Image.
Side of
Rail way
tracks
1. Relatively High Probability
of Spreading Diseases among
Underserved Settlement Communities
The Locations Poor health conditions within the settlements are caused due to
the proximity to stagnant canals, breeding grounds for mosquitoes which
for identified cause diseases such as filariasis. Furthermore, the
Housing congestion, high population density, and the close proximity
Development of the housing structures, facilitate and accelerate the spread
of the disease.
Projects
High concentration of Dengue.
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 2. Poor Living Conditions
of Underserved Settlement
Community
Lack of Sanitary facilities
• Overall 41% of settlements have common toilets
• 8% have no toilet facilities
• 28% of settlements of underserved settlements have
serious problems in respect of safe disposal of sewage;
only 50% are connected to the city’s wastewater network
Deficiencies in Pipe-borne water supply
• 33% of underserved settlements have no metered
water connection
• 33% either use common facilities or rely on outside
sources
• 5% of communities need safe drinking water and
levels of service are rated as a serious problem in 8% of
underserved settlements.
Lack of street lighting & Illegal Power tapping Improper
Solid-waste disposal Lack of tarred roads and improper
access.
Constrained space within the settlements, reflected by
the size of housing units and lack of public space, is
considered the critical negative feature of the underserved
settlements. At the community level, the lack of space
inhibits recreational activities and movement and
intensifies the spread of disease, while at the household
level there is lack of space for social occasions (i.e.
funerals, weddings) and undertaking home-based
income-generation, as well as limited privacy.
118
3. Relatively high occurrence of
illegal activities within
underserved settlement
areas
It has been found a spatial relationship between the crime
incidences and locations of underserved
settlements in Colombo.
The main reasons for this particular correspondence can
be identified as the relatively high poverty and low
education levels of underserved settlement communities,
marginalization of undeserved settlement community as
a lower social strata of Colombo society, higher prone for
abuse of drugs and alcohol and especially spatial
arrangement of underserved settlements having enclosed
enclaves, narrow alleys which provide ideal conditions
to carry out illegal deals.
Abuse of drugs and alcohol can be considered as a factor
that worsens the conditions of the urban poor. Addiction
is often viewed as a main cause of low wellbeing for
individuals and house-holds. In addition, they are more
prone towards marital instability, crime and domestic
violence. A livelihood assessment con-ducted for World
Bank in 2012 (UNHABITAT et al., 2012) in low income
settlements in Colombo revealed that alcohol use by family
members is a reason for insecurity within the household.
The study also revealed that use of drugs and alcohol
cause fear outside the house.
However, this higher tendency of occurrences of illegal
activities in association with under-served settlements
created a huge negative impact on the image of these
areas, leading to gradual deterioration of these areas while
discouraging future potential investments
and developments.
Negative City and
Environment Impacts
due to Existence of
Underserved Settlements
There are few negative impacts on environment caused
due to existence of underserved settlements. These can be
elaborated as follows.
(a) Flood Occurrences due to Blockage of Natural Drainages
by Unauthorized Constructions Underserved settlements are
often located in low lying lands and flood plains thus become
automatically exposed to floods.
(b) Degradation of city visual quality due to existence
of Underserved Settlements Physical appearance of
theunderserved settlements, especially the ones which are
constructed with temporary materials in a haphazard manner
reflects a negative ambiance of the city which in return makes
a significant negative impact on the image of the city as an
international financial hub. The unpleasant environments
associated with underserved settlements largely deteriorate the
visual qualities of the area and at the same time decrease the
land values as well as discourage potential investments and
modern developments.
(c) Pollution of water bodies linked with underserved
settlements. As majority of the under-served settlements are
located in canal, river and coast reservations, they significantly
contribute to the pollution of water bodies. The main reasons
for pollution of inland water bodies are direct disposal of
sewerage and waste water through unauthorized
Negative Economic
impacts due to existence
of Underserved
Settlements
Associated with the above discussed issue of deteriorating
environmental visual quality due to underserved settlements,
emerges another issue which is the reluctance of investors
to invest in new developments in the areas in vicinity of
underserved settlements. Also, as most of these
underserved settlements are located in prime locations of the
city, these lands are of high value and have the potential to
be developed with high economic returns. However, when
considering the present land values of City of Colombo,
it can be observed that there is a large disparity between
values of lands located at a same radius from the city centre.
It has been found out that the land values of north Colombo,
where relatively high concentration of underserved
settlements can be observed is around LKR 3,000,000 per
perch whereas the land values of areas towards south of
Colombo located at a similar radius from CBD are above
LKR 6,000,000 per perch. It shows the significant impacts
of underserved settlements on city land values.
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Upgrading low income housing,
by nature does not result in political
advantage; it is more a means of
selfless politicians cleaning up the city
rather than the traditional approach
of appeasing to a voter bank. The
relocated slum dweller will complain
about high mortgage costs (a minute
sum) and fail to pay water and power
bills due to illegal tapping of utilities.
It in fact costs votes. It was with
this knowledge that the Ministry of
Defence and Urban Development
under the direction of Gotabaya
Rajapaksa undertook work to relocate
the low income settlements to
permanent housing estates, given the
massive citywide impact such urban
clearance will have on the overall
economy.

Transition
2012
120 121
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Replacement
Housing Rising
Amidst Slums

122 123
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Ministry of Defence and Urban Development’s
Intervention on Underserved Settlements in City
of Colombo through the UDA
Urban Regeneration Project is one of the current major constructed the second lot of relocation housing mostly in
interventions on underserved settlements by Urban Borella and Colombo North Area. The tendered price/offer by
Development Authority. The project was launched with the UDA was approx. USD 22,000 per unit considered one
the intention of relocating underserved settlement dwellers of the most cost effective low income resettlements of high
of City of Colombo into modern houses in new housing urban quality in Asia.
schemes (mainly high-rise apartments) with standard facilities
while ensuring the transformation of Colombo into a world As per the current status review of the project, around 4,900
recognized city with a clean and pleasing environment. housing units have been already completed and 13,200
housing units have been commenced with
The relocation projects were undertaken with vigour by the construction accounting for around 18,100 housing
then Secretary of Urban Development and Defence with units in total.
vigour and carried out subsequently by the succeeding
government.Deshabandu Dr. Surath Wickremasinghe had Even though, this project attempts to relocate majority of Helamuthu Sewana Block Plan - Henamulla
originally proposed this strategy of recovering important land underserved settlements, with practical limitations, it has
parcels in 1990s.Thus, a planning intervention is required to been revealed that relocation is not the ultimate or the sole
view the issue of underserved settlements with a different solution and future housing is encouraged to be carried out
perspective and propose innovative Interventionist solutions. more in the core city for a more equitable population
A 45 sq.m 2 Bedroom unit was evolvedand subsequently mix in the city
amended to 50 sq.m.
At the same time, it is required to integrate the Urban
Finally adopted in 2009 after the war, the main concept Regeneration Project with the city development by
of the project is to liberate 900 acres of lands covered incorporating the rehousing projects and proposing programs
with 1500 underserved settlements including around to get the optimum benefits of liberated lands.
68,000 households and to allocate 150 acres of lands for
reservations, landscaping and open spaces for improvement
of city environment, 300 acres of lands for rehousing (for
resettlements) and 450 acres of lands for investment
purposes.In this regard two pronged strategy was adopted.
1. PPP Model where the Developer would build an pre 3D view of the Housing Unit
agreed quantum of resettlement housing units and the UDA
will in return provide fee development rights to the developer
on an adjacent land. This will not result in relocation of
communities – Example Tata Housing, Destiny Towers by
Imperial Builders Karachchi

2. UDA direct building through tender – Local Construction

groups such as Sanken, Access Group etc tendered and

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Sathhiru Sewana - Henamulla

Master Plan
for Henamulla
Low income Housing

Helamuthu Sewana - Henamulla

126 127
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Low income Housing
Work in Progress - 2014

128 129
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 01 DEMATAGODA HOUSING PROJECT 03 CIRIL C PERERA MAWATHA

02 MALIGAWATHTHA 04 Wanatha mulla 54-66 waththa

130 131
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 05 EDIRISINGHE WATHTHA 07 FERGUSON ROAD

06 HENAMULLA 06 HENAMULLA

08 KOLONNAWA

08 KOLONNAWA

132 133
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Urban Management
Issue of Garbage
Collection
At the point of takeover of the Ministry of Urban Development
and Defence as Secretary by Mr. [AA1] Gotabaya
Rajapaksa, garbage collection as a major issue.
Most of the island wide contracts had been handed over to
the private sector with an intent of obtaining better level of
service to the rate payers. Abans Group and few other local
service providers by competitive tender for private sector
handling. But it was found out that no effective action was
taken and the city remained fairly uncleaned.
A meeting was called, chaired by the Secretary of Defence
and Urban Development, where the purported conversation
between the Vendor can be recorded as follows.
SD (Secretary Defence) – Madam, why is the garbage
collection so bad?
Director of Service Provider (DA) – Mr. Secretary, we are
doing our best
SD – But that’s not enough
134
DA – BUT Mr. Secretary, we have manpower issues, the labour are
ex-council workers not used to systematic work BUT Mr. Secretary,
the vehicles are not ours BUT we got them from the municipality
and often breaks down, BUT Mr. Secretary the garbage is wet. IF
Mr. Secretary the garbage is not wet. [AA2] BUT Mr. Secretary…..
SD – (Turning to his aide seated closely) – can you bring the
contract and see whether these words BUT & IF exists in the
contract.
The meeting ended shortly thereafter, and the City of Colombo and
the Environs became known as the cleanest in South Asia without
any further action needed.
(There were obviously no words such as “BUT” or “IF” in the
Contract)
The moral of the story – liberal [AA3] means of managing public-
private contracts are a myth and strong and decisive decision
making was and is needed to move the private sector as well as the
public sector taking the rate-paying public to a ride.
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 In fact in 2016, a landslide on the Southern slope of the dump

Meethotamulla Garbage Area

killed 120 nearby residents. These tragic deaths would have
been avoided if action was taken to follow up on the disposal
plan conceived under the Direction of the Secretary Defence
and Urban Development by the ministry’s arm, Lanka Logistics.

The system included the following.

a. Collected garbage will no longer be heaped in Colombo

Arawakkalu Limestone Quarry being readied as landfills b. Garbage will be sorted at source and in Colombo
c. The disposable elements will be transported by sealed

Garbage disposal
trains running on the Puttalam Line to Aravakkalu where the
deep disused lime stone quarries will be scientifically filled and
used as landfill.
d. It was estimated that Aravakkalu Quarries had sufficient
Once the garbage was collected, there was no effective way volume to last a few decades
of waste handling and disposal.
The disposal method is currently unresolved. Currently, the
They were dumped in huge dumps in Colombo North, widely method of transportation to Arawakkalu is in a dispute amongst
known as the Meethotamulla dump. In suburbs the nearest current stakeholders..
marsh was randomly filled. Sri Lanka’s waste management
issues had never been scientifically addressed. Several
failed attempts were made in the past to implement such a
landfill site. In 1997, the government attempted to establish
a landfill in Meepe with World Bank funding, but the project
was stalled due to public protests and opposition. In 1992 a
French funded incineration project was abandoned due to the
environmental lobby. In 2007, the government made a second
attempt through the Ministry of Environment. Many steps had
been taken to initiate the landfill projects but these were stalled

Understanding that disposing of garbage at dumping sites is

no longer tenable, the solution as the government saw it was
to construct a solid waste sanitary landfill in a chosen area.
The Ministry of Defence and Urban Development in 2014
initiated the project through its arm Lanka Logistics to and
formulated a scientific landfill site in Aruwakkalu, Puttalam to
provide a long-term solution to Colombo’s issues on waste Arawakkalu landfill concept
disposal.

The project was to see the transfer by train of solid waste

in sealed containers from the still to be established transfer
station in Kelaniya to the engineering sanitary landfill site to be
built in Aruwakkalu in the Puttalam District.

136 137
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Environmental
police
Environmental Police ,is a legal entity that exists in
many countries.
An environmental police officer duties may include
providing a law enforcement presence regarding the environment, public safety and
related educational
activities within an assigned geographic area;
performing basic duties of environmental management.
With the end of the war, there was excessive cadre of Police as well as dire need to bring
discipline to the city in terms of haphazard waste disposal and irresponsible
social behaviour. Thus, Environmental Police was created in 2010 as a separate division
within Sri Lanka Police with responsibility for law enforcement with regard to enforcement.
Environmental Police Officers enforce all general laws of
on the protection of natural resources waterways,
environment, garbage disposal
“Sri Lanka’s Inspector General of Police (IGP) has said that its Environmental Police Unit
has filed 4,212 cases against environment polluters in Colombo so far in September.
IGP Mahinda Balasuriya told the media Thursday that a
total of 4,585 cases were reported during the past six months with the highest number of
cases being recorded this month.
Balasuriya also noted that the Environmental Unit is taking action against unhygienic food
outlets in the main cities. Four public health inspectors are also currently attached to the
Environmental Unit.” Island 15 October 2012
With effective enforcement action, the city of Colombo came synonymous with any other
clean city in Asia such
as Singapore, a feat achieved in no less than a year, with emergence of a society that
became well aware of its responsibilities to the community in terms of keeping
their precincts clean.
138
Funding Urban Renewal
Reviving a dormant city with low income housing through
interventionist planning with the limitations of state funding is by
no means easy.
It is known that a capital city growing at 7% per annum can
pull the entire nation up by another 5%. One of the greatest
handicap to create a vibrant city was its dilapidated encroached
low income settlements, which needed upgrading through
interventionist planning.
For financing and creation of urban low income and
underserved settlements multiple funding modes were explored
and adopted by the UDA in the benchmark interventionist
period 2009 - 2014.
a. State land swaps for development in lieu of
development rights – Example Dynasty and Tata Housing
b. Lease of State Land for larger developments to finance Rajapaksa. With the Shangri La inflows the current liability
low income housing – Example – Colombo Commercial stands at Rs 17 Billion, solely caused by low demand for
Company lands for Altair and Colombo City Center etc.
c. Bond was raised by the UDA under the direction negated the state bailout of the UDA currently standing at
of the Ministry of Defence and Urban Development to raise
Rs 10 billion by listing some of the assets of the UDA. The
“Defence Bond” for utilization of payment of cost of Urban
Settlements was funded by the banking sector.
In summary, the UDA’s 2011 overdraft of Rs 2 Billion was wiped
out by the lease of 2 acres of land at the Colombo Commercial
Company Premises to construct iconic Altair. By 2014 the total
accumulated bank debt was Rs 14 Billion partially off set by
Crown Casino, Colombo City Center, ITC Land Leases.
In 2015 this liability had risen to Rs 29 Billion, mostly caused
by funding low income housing settlements. With the regime
change of 2015 and the cumulative negative actions such
as stopping the Port City Reclamation, rampant devaluation
resulted in poor rather zero demand from investors for urban
land. At that point UDA was spending Rs 4.5 Billion on annual
interest to banks.
With no realistic demand for urban land by foreign or local
developers, the state treasury took over the responsibility
of funding the urban local income settlements with treasury
commitments of Rs 8.5 Billion in 2016, Rs 17.5 Billion in 2018
and a further Rs 8.5 Billion in 2019.
However, the sale of the reminder of Colombo Commercial
Land of 6 Acres to Shangri La for Rs 12 Billion in 2018 and
another lake front property for Rs 2 Billion mitigated the need
to totally draw the entirety of treasury allocation. Shangri La
was an exception, in bidding for a larger land due to the
positive actions of the Colombo Shangri La Hotel and One
Galle Face development in land allocation facilitating by
removing of the military headquarters to Kotte by the former
Secretary of Defence and Urban Development Gotabaya
land caused by prevailing negative economic sentiments. A
properly managed urban development scenario would have
Rs 20 Billion with interest which is now expected to be paid
for by the tax payer. Had the urban interventionist actions of
the benchmark period continued this spending of tax payer’s
money would not have been necessary and would have been
paid for developers, who were gaining by from clean and
vibrant city and better economic climate.
139
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Restructuring the UDA
A planning system shapes new development all over the
Country, making sure it’s positive for people, the economy
and the environment.
The planning system exists to ensure that development is in
the public interest, weighing up its economic, environmental
and social benefits and drawbacks. Most often at the hands
of a lethargic bureaucracy and a political leadership without
a vision it has loses its mission.
“ A planning system
plays a key role in
making sure the
places where we
live and work are
attractive, vibrant and
well designed and
remain Visionary. ”
The planning system can make sure that development supports
regeneration which meets the needs of local communities.
It can support the development of affordable housing. It can
make sure that new development in historic areas considers its
surroundings. And it can prevent development where it would
cause unacceptable environmental damage.
140
The planning system aims to ensure that all views on new
development are taken into account.
By 2009, the UDA had descended to a depth of inefficiency
and corruption and of paralysis where no visionary development
was possible. It was gazetting copycat rules from the west with
no relevance to Colombo
Under the Direction of the Secretary Defence and Urban
Development steps were taken to initiate a Corporate Plan for
the UDA. The study was undertaken by Ministry Of Defence
arm Lanka Logistics Limited with the Co-opting of York Street
Partners and Design Team 3, Singapore.
A system was evolved under the Direction of Board of Directors
where the following was activated.
1. Large and significant projects were fast tracked with the
UDA issuing an early permit to do Pilling Pending Building
Approval
2. Waiver Process was revived and restructured for Board’s
vested powers could been effectively used in visionary
proposals such as Altair
3. Land Sale process was restructured so that State Land
Parcels such a Colombo Commercial Company Site can be
leased for Bonafide Developers
4. Rent collection and income stream were streamlined
resulting in nearly RS 1.5 Billion in rent arrears from State
Property being collected. A Live, Work and Play City in Formation - Facilitated by a
Another active measure was the co-opting of the Military for the restructured UDA with Apartments, Office Developments,
Projects Division of the UDA where all projects highlighted here Hotels Constructed in Core City of
was carried out with the assistance of the Military.
Union Place Axis - Post 2011
141
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Transport to
Support City
Growth - Uniflow sytem
With its close proximity to the international airport,
an expanded and upgraded port,
and much improved land communication
infrastructure including an Outer Circular Road
and Expressways to other large cities, Colombo
will become a true commercial and economic
hub. This is an essential prerequisite for fast-
tracking our economic development

In terms of road development, a lot of work is

being done to improve the infrastructure within
the city limits. Examples of these include the
upgrading of Galle road, the completion of Marine
drive, and the expansion of the one-way system.

In this light the future multi-- modal transport

hub in fort that interacts with Rail, Elevated
highway, light-rail/tram, Bus, taxi services with
relocated pavement mall. The central bus station
will be integral & will be relocated within and
will be provided better facilities. Through these
measures, the use of land in the Fort area
will be rationalised. More open spaces will be
introduced, and historic buildings and other
Galle Road after introduction of one way system with signalised crossings,
landmarks will gain greater emphasis.
Handicap/Blind Friendly pavements, proper drainage etc

142 143
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Public
BEFORE

Amenities
The decay or lack of care for public amenities is
AFTER

to be expected in a country at war. Regaining and

reconstructing them is not always a priority, but
correctly directed such improvements form a major
part in process of regaining the public realm.

Public
Bus
After...
Public Toilets
Stop Urban Amenities, run by the local
council is an essential part of any
conducive city. The Ministry of Defence
and Urban Development, under the
specific guidance of the then Secretary
Bus Transport is the means of travel of the
Gotabaya Rajapaksa undertook
common man never of the Politician and
the affluent in Sri Lanka. Directions were AFTER under the UDA & with the
Assistance of the Armed forces
issued by the then Secretary of Defence
to provide such Amenities.
and Urban Development to the Colombo
Municipal Council and the UDA to design
BEFORE
and construct global standard bus stands.
The design incorporated space for cost
of construction and maintenance cost
recovery measures such as advertising
space for Council revenue, free poster
space as a means of reducing street
graffiti and posters, thus encouraging
a more orderly urban environment. The
design provided for convenient shaded,
rain protected, night time lit spaces for all
weather use.

144 145
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Place-Making and Urban Upgrading
From Fortified Guarded City to International Gateway to a clean city of admired beauty
Urban Interventions 2009 - 2014 The Fort area of Colombo has a history going back to
Portuguese, Dutch and British years of colonial rule as a fortress
protecting the city from internal invasion and from attacks from
Breaking the
the sea. The area inside the Fort was the earliest settlement.
Gradual expansion arising from stability with no competing
foreign power or a suppressed local population meant a
natural expansion. The first uses included barracks, parade
grounds, warehouses, the premier hotel for colonial visitors,
Psychology of
churches and residential areas of the local elite. While the Fort
settlement adapted according to whichever colonial power
redevelopments converted the Fort landmass to Department
Stores and bank buildings with the elegance required to display
the status of commercial and financial power, namely premier
a Fortified City
banks, departments stores etc. With the original structures of
the settlement taken over by commercial interests and land
consolidation what remain today are historic buildings are the
late Colonial Period Commercial Buildings, which by the end of
were either used as part of the security establishment or totally
Part 4
encumbered with
derelict.
It was no longer the glorious Colombo and last recollection of a
stable capital city would be 1983.
a siege mentality
Visiting Colombo during the 1980s, 1990s and early 21st
century, the military and police presence was an obvious feature
for visitors and people living in the city. Nowhere was this more
clear than in Fort and at Galle Face Green, (High Security Zone)
where the military installation of Navy faced the Indian Ocean
with Interventionist Planning
surrounded by the Presidential Palace, Army Headquarters
and seat of key elements of Government such as the Treasury,
Central Bank, Presidential Secretariat. Fear and threat of attack
for Place-Making and Urban
from the ocean, air and ground was always prevalent and in fact
did occur periodically with Galadari, Central Bank bombings and
2008 attempted aerial attack being worthy reminders . The years
Upgrading
after the civil war provided the opportunity to reconsider the
need for a military fortress facing the sea and to instead open up
this area for new activities.
The psychology of the fortress prevailed everywhere, at schools,
hospitals, markets. It was a society that lived with the imminent
threat of terror attacks and that had an inbuilt attitude for fortified
structures at every scale and level of the built environment.
In fact, all it lacked was fort walls of the scale of Galle Fort,
which would have served no purpose as the adversary was a
modern day terrorist. It was a society that had buttressed itself
against imminent attack, where a parent did not know whether
146
a child would arrive safely after school in a single piece due to likely
terror attack. In such an environment, nation building was not the
priority but survival was. It was unfathomable to think of organized
city building of scale encountered in Sri Lankan history. Some the
country’s best talent had migrated for comfortable lives overseas
and foreign investment and vibrant tourism was a fare fledged
dream. It was a society professionals went to greener and safer
pastures and parents wished children lived overseas.
The habits of 30 years of war would not be easily changed. In fact,
it was a generation that had gone through a life of living in practical
hell of waking up to reality of getting blown up. It was a case of
10% minority holding 90% of general population to ransom with
backing of Foreign Powers for their domestic political considerations.
In fact, worthy to recall the April 29, 2009 attempts by the then
British Foreign Secretary and French Foreign Minister to prevent
the conclusion of the war due to local UK Political Considerations
in marginal UK parliamentary seats with abysmal disregard for
plight of 20 Million Sri Lankans and a nation’s wellbeing and the
strong stand taken by President Mahinda Rajapaksa of Sri Lanka
to categorically reject such demands. It is the courage of President
Mahinda Rajapaksa to resist such pressure that saw the end of the
war 20 days later, on 19th May 2009 and dawn of peace. It is that
political courage of President Mahinda Rajapaksa that paved the
way for the end of the war and the follow-up rapid development
and beautification of the city of Colombo.
To change the “ fear psychosis and fortress psychology” would
perhaps have taken another generation as the adversary would
resurface without any notice. After the end of the war, breaking that
psychology of a fortress needed vision and interventionist action
and actions right from the top with the confidence that the adversary
is unlikely to rise again to attack elements of civil society such as
Police Stations.
There was no conscious plan to rehabilitate and entire society out
of that fear phychosis nor was ever talked about, the effort was
focused on war ravaged areas, the military etc and not the rest
of the landmass or the capital city or the general population. One
would not expect the security establishment to do so either as a
random attack in the archaic administrative system prevalent in Sri
Lanka would seek to punish such an initiator of a relaxation and
thus nobody in responsibility would dare. But a symbolic action was
needed and it came about in the form of an incident at a Police
Station
147
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Colonial Building and Precincts
Cinnamon Gardens
Police Station Enhancements
Due the psychology of war, any police station or defence
institution was a fortified entity. The Cinnamon Gardens Police
Station in the City’s core was no exception.
In other jurisdiction at internal peace, despite threats of random
domestic terrorism, a police station is a welcoming, accessible
part of civic community space. Despite the end of the war
in May of 2009, Sri Lankan police stations continued to be
guarded, fortified and heavily barricaded. The Cinnamon
Gardens Police Station was no exception.
At the end of one of his usual office days, the former Secretary
of Defence and Urban Development was on his way from his
office to his residence a kilometer away. As a Secretary incharge
of that time decided to do a surprise random inspection in
a police station. The well protected convoy, stopped at the
nearest most secure location, the Cinnamon Gardens Police
Station.
On his way out, he noticed a huge stack of waste behind
the front wall; years of waste from lunch packets and more,
discarded daily by off duty police personnel. By habit, the
police personnel had been throwing the garbage behind the
wall, unseen to passerby and within the sanctuary of their own
domain, only visible to occasional visiting distraught member of
the public.
The incident clearly displayed the need for
strong vision and individual leadership to
revitalise the city, whereas those in positions of
authority before had simply hidden behind a set
of rules and regulations no longer fit for the age
148
On getting to the depths of the issue, the Secretary, based on criteria
of three considerations, gave a direction to break the boundary wall
of the Police Station.
1. Practically - Breaking the wall no longer give the police personnel a
space to openly throw the garbage behind the concealment of a wall
2. Symbolically – While the war was over, the war psychology
prevailed. Breaking the defensive wall of a fortified Police Station was
one symbolic way to express a sense of openness to society again
3. Urban Design - Opening up the beautiful colonial architecture of
the colonial era police station that was symbolic of the area, led to
the rejuvenation of the entire Precinct as a low rise civic district of
colonial character and regaining of the public domain.
There followed a series of events to beautify the entire Reid
Avenue, RG Senanayake Mawatha, Independence Precinct under
the interventionist planning of the Ministry Of Defence and Urban
Development under the guidance of Gotabaya Rajapaksa that
ultimately has brought the Independence Square Precinct to match
any world class precinct in the world.
Cinnamon Garden police station after upgrading and demolition of wall
149
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Unwalling the National Archives
Immediately following the Cinnamon Gardens Incident, the
Secretary undertook a review of the immediate neighbourhood
of the Cinnamon Gardens Area. Across the road including the
high walled National Archives.
Incidentally, planning laws only permit a boundary wall of a
height of only 1.2 meters or 4 feet.
The Military and the UDA were engaged in demolition of the
boundary walls of the Archives to open up the vast lawn as
public domain when the Secretary got a call from his brother
– the President, Mahinda Rajapaksa – summoning him to the
Presidential Secretariat.
At the meeting, the Head of the National Archives was
complaining to the President that she now had no way of
protecting vital national documents. It is worth reminding the
150
reader that the National Archives or Museums holding vital treasures
of mankind are often secured in buildings with no boundary walls or
often abutting the street in London, Washington DC, China, Australia
among others.
The meeting concluded with the Secretary of Defence and
Urban Development remarking to the President that the Head of
the National Archives should be advised to purchase a stronger
padlock.
The public of Sri Lanka regained a vital space for the public domain,
what earlier through years had become privileged private domains of
a few.
This incident set a precedent for future events that aided in the
transformation of a formerly fortified city to one of the cleanest and
most attractive cities in South Asia.
The Taj Samudra Wall
In the times of War, the Taj Samudra Hotel occupying
11 Acres of Prime Waterfront space in Galle Face was
considered a secured , walled safe haven in the city but a
monstrous wall from outside. It was called FORT KNOX
of Colombo. The war had ended and Taj was undergoing
a management change.
In 2009, the war had ended and Taj had undergone change in
its management.
In 2010, a new General Manager/ Regional Director arrived,
who had previously served in Bentota, and had been initially
reluctant to take up the post with war time check points,
barriers, vehicle checking, occasional explosions and
more. On arrival, he found a clean and vibrant city free of
checkpoints, where once dilapidated buildings were renovated
with fresh coats of paint.
Having settled down to a more vibrant business
environment, one day on his strolls through the lobby,
he noticed a visitor who arrived in a large convoy.
As customary, he chatted to the visitor who quipped.
“How nice would your hotel be if this massive
wall in front is lowered”. He did not take much notice, treated
as any remark a guest would make.
Two days later, passing by from his Ministry Office,
the same person, Gotabaya Rajapaksa arrived
and made the same remark. Don’t you think - If this wall is
removed how nice this Hotel will look and how nice would
this hotel look, how much more people would appreciate
your beautiful hotel.”
Again, he treated it as a typical guest remark. Guest
Remarks in a hotel would include a variety of matters and
General Managers are used to such remarks.
Later in the week the same visitor arrived who this time
was terse, brief and precise.
“If you do not lower this wall, I will send my
Team to do this”
The General Manager, was advised by his Concierge
staff that the Guest was none other than Mr. Gotabaya
Rajapaksa, Secretary Defence and Urban Development
spearheading the UDA’s effort in removing the war
mentality and fear psychosis and beautifying the city
and regaining the Public Realm.
(Under the Planning law, the boundary wall height is
1.2m and this wall was 3m high)
Within days, Taj moved into action the wall came down
and the City again a vital extension of the
Visual Boundary of Galle Face Green.
151
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Breaking
the Fear
Psychosis

Fortified and Decayed City - 2009

Armed Sentries, Bunkers, Guard Houses, Dilapidated buildings

152 153
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Visionary outcome AFTER

BEFORE

A Historical and the Public and derelict property in Sri Lanka belongs to individual

“sense
One of the easiest and common
Newly revitalized
departments. There is no singular point of responsibility at
the UDA nor the Urban Local Authority, unless directed at the
ways to break the fee psychosis
Colombo
highest level to improve the urban ambience or quality. Non-
performance by relevant office holders in this regard is also
and the fortress mentality was to
“
not an offense of any sort. In any first world jurisdiction it shall
be the duty of Council Officers. In Sri Lanka, the significance rehabilitate the city for adaptive reuse.
of work of interventionist planning gains importance due to
Gotabaya Rajapaksa, 2013
Of course, Colombo has many historic buildings and
this administrative deficiency and the resultant lethargy. Having
places that tell the story of the city’s past, both its colonial
stated so it is also important to appreciate the admirable
past and independence. The historic Fort area has long
actions of the officers of the UDA, SLLRDC, the SL Navy
been at the center of Colombo’s history, dating back
and some of the urban local authorities in Urban Renewal
over 500 years to the original Portuguese inhabitants
on directed to do so by the then Secretary of Defence and
and then the Dutch and British. Walking around Fort one
Urban Development, Gotabaya acting on behalf of the
can learn the early history of Colombo and still see the
minister, namely President Mahinda Rajapaksa. Without such
original structure of this early settlement. Preservation and
interventionist and hands-on involvement, the transformation
adaptive reuse of the buildings, streets and waterways
of Colombo would not have taken place.
in and around Fort is now part of city planning and will
remain intact for its inhabitants, property owners & future
visitors to enjoy.

154 155
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Dutch AFTER

Hospital
Refurbishment of the Dutch Hospital is a fine example
of preservation and clever re-use of Colombo’s remnant
history. The Dutch Hospital was part of the original Dutch
settlement living in Colombo Fort and the Hospital has
been in this location since circa 1616, with the building
as it stands today dating back to 1771, in fact the oldest
surviving Dutch Hospital of Asia.

Ensuring its survival was retaining vital part of retaining

that heritage of 17th Century Architecture in Asia and the
Social Infrastructure of the Dutch Settlements.

Over the years, the Hospital fell into a state of disrepair

BEFORE
and continued had a life as Police Station,
Police Barracks etc

When entering this beautifully symmetrical building

you come to the central courtyard which was originally
surrounded by wards on three sides and a surgery on the
fourth. North of the main ward were the dispensary, staff
quarters and storage areas. The hospital also boasted a
garden where medicinal herbs and various remedies were
grown. In one end was the Chapel and at the Northern
end bordering appropriately named Hospital Street was
Verandah of classic Dutch Period Architecture.

In 2012, the Urban Development Authority, under the

personal direction of then Secretary of Defence and
urban Development the renovated the Hospital complex,
transforming historic buildings on the verge of collapse
into facilities with a new lease on life. This transformation
of the long neglected Dutch Hospital created new public
open space and carefully restored buildings now used for
high-end shopping and restaurant facilities.

156 157
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 BEFORE AFTER

Colombo Town Hall

Colombo Town Hall is a magnificent Neo Colonial Addition to the city in 1931 as its Central Civil
Administration Hub. By 2009, the building was dilapidated the dome was in state of needing major
repair. The UDA and the Sri Lanka Army undertook major restoration work from 2010 -2012 to bring
2019 Dilapidated and neglected building back the glory of the magnificent structure forming a vital part of the Vihara Mahadevi Park Cluster

158 159
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Located in Cinnamon Gardens, Colombo Racecourse
BEFORE was opened by the British in 1883 and was home AFTER
to the Colombo Turf Club with its own clubhouse
and grandstand. In 1922, a totalisator was installed,
making it the first racecourse in the East to have one.
However, betting was banned in Sri Lanka in the 1950s
and horse racing stopped some time thereafter, and
sitting on leased land the Racecourse fell into state
ownership.

The Racecourse was converted into an RAF air field in

1941, including a single runway, station headquarters
and officers’ mess and was serviced by a military
hospital on the premises of Royal College. The airfield
played an important role in defence of the city on Easter
Sunday in 1942, when the Japanese air force bombed
Colombo but passed over the Racecourse airstrip
without realizing it was there (and the bombs in fact
hitting the adjacent mental asylum killing 6 inmates).
This allowed the RAF squadrons time to take off and
intercept the Japanese raiders.

In 2012, it was redeveloped by the Urban Development

Authority to become the first International Rugby Union
ground. Previous administrations had considered
demolition. The older buildings, including the original
Grandstand, were renovated with foresight and
planning has seen the Grandstand and Colombo Turf
Club buildings renovated as part of the revitalization of
Colombo. New building in similar style was added as
the office of the Ministry of Sports. These buildings now
house modern retail and hospitality activities serving
the community and the spaces around the historic
buildings have been opened up as public spaces for

COLOMBO
walking and public gathering.

RACECOURSE
GROUNDS
160 161
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 AFTER

BEFORE

COLOMBO
RACECOURSE
GROUNDS

162 163
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 BEFORE AFTER

Arcade
The derelict and disused buildings of the old mental asylum,
Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation were rehabilitated as a
retail anchor of the racecourse axis of Independence for both
locals and foreign tourists and forms the Southern Activity
anchor of the Independence Square – Race Course precinct.
The administrators of the UDA from 2015 to 2016 failed to
appreciate the concept of the development and has since
failed function to its full potential.

164 165
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Work in progress with Highest level monitoring & Direction

166 167
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 The Defence College is
a centralized school for
the Children of Personnel
of the Sri Lankan Armed
Forces, built under the urban
upgrading program
by the Sri Lankan Armed
Forces from 2009 – 2013.
It was located in the former
Ministry of Education site,
revitalizing the historic early
Colonial structure and new
structures added in the
same architectural language.
Facilities include indoor
sports, swimming pool etc.

The Defence college forms

part of the Slave Island
Precinct with
Sri Lanka’s only surviving
trading shop houses that
need to be conserved and
revitalized at any cost.

Defence College
168 169
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Gafoor
BEFORE AFTER

Building
The Gafoor building was an iconic urban structure of expressive
Colonial architecture, originally used as office building in
the Colonial era and steps were undertaken in 2014 for its
revitalization as a boutique hotel. It has since been deferred
and needs to be reassessed and revitalized to fit the needs of
travellers in close proximity to the city’s core.

BEFORE

Tripoli Market
Tripoli
Market
The Tripoli Market, formally the
City’s Main Vegetable Market, is a
PPP initiative of the UDA for interim
conversion to IT and Incubator
space instead of demolition.

170 171
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 A shopping
Circuit
A key element of any vibrant city is a mixed and varied retail
experience. Colombo was an Asian Capital City that was yet to
define its retail footprint. Examples such varied footprints are

a. Hawkers and Self Employed –Pratunam/Pahurath in Bangkok,

or Tekka Market in Singapore

b. Tourist markets – Asiatique, Bangkok or China Town Singapore

c. High End – Siam Square and Centra World Bangkok or

Orchard Road/Marina Bay Sands – SHOPPES

With the emphasis on creating a vibrant city a cohesive plan

was executed to expand retail activity and create ample
employment and self-employment opportunities for the street
hawkers. The opportunity also arose to look at a series of
shopping experiences to cater to all segments of society
.These were undertaken both in newly released UDA sales
sites as well as on a series of spaces previously occupied
by wholesale trade. First and short term priority was urban
rejuvenation while the larger malls were to realize with foreign
investment in the UDA lease sites.

a. High end – Shangri La, Colombo City Center, Cinnamon Life,

totaling 1.1 million sq..ft in a city where no concept of modern
mall existed

b. Medium end, Tourist, City Recreation for families – Arcade,

Race Course, Marina Mall, Lotus Tower

c. Hawkers and Self Employed – Floating Market, Diyatha Uyana,

Weras Ganga, Chalmer’s Granary

d. Relieving bottlenecks and expansion – Gold Market, Floating

Market, Self Employed Resettlement

e. Boutique – Altair, Dutch Hospital

172 173
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Markets to serve a growing
city and easing
Commercial bottlenecks
Moving the wholesale markets
Fresh food wholesale markets are essential to the life of any
city, providing a place for produce to be taken for wholesale
and distribution across the city and rest of the country. The
agricultural hinterland depends and a ready market and
distribution chain for its’ fresh produce and on the reverse it
is a the city can’t function. The Pettah area of Colombo has
been the traditional marketplace since the time of Portuguese
rule and possibly even earlier. The fruit and vegetable market
have long been located at Pettah, part of the central city core
area, for daily delivery and sale of produce.
The initial upgrading of this area was undertaken in 1980 by
the UDA. In the years of war, the area gain fell to ruin and
anarchy through unplanned growth and low maintenance.
Another project taken on by the authorities has been to
relocate these central markets away from the busy center of
the city to new locations with more convenient access. This
has been another rationalization of valuable space within the
city to redesign the city and improve its function and image.
With this objective, St. John’s fish market and the vegetable
market has been located to Peliyagoda. where a modern
market facility has been built.
The traditional gold vendors area was the adjacent sea street,
domain of the ethnically Tamil merchant class, yet where all
communities of Sri Lanka went for their wedding jewellery,
which in the 1960s had the ambience that would similar to
any clean vibrant retail street of a capital Asian city like Hong
Kong or the T’Nagar Bazar of Chennai. The gold and jewellery
sellers’ street in the war era had dilapidated and with no space
to expand. The building which has been freed up as a result
of the fish market moving further out has been readopted to
174
as an indoor gold and jewellery trading venue of multiple vendors
and branded as Gold Center after renovation by the UDA.
Manning market, which is the wholesale market for fruit and
vegetables, was also moved to Peliyagoda, to reduce the need
for heavy truck traffic to access the center of Colombo. These
markets are located close to the Outer Circular Road providing good
access for produce and market stall holders. Peliyagoda is poised
to be a central location with the construction of the Outer Circular
Road without traders being compelled to travel through Colombo.
Another initiative being taken for a similar reason is to establish a dry
port in Paliyagoda. By constructing a rail-link between the Colombo
port and this container terminal, it will be possible to dispatch cargo
from Colombo to the rest of the country without container trucks
passing through the city.
By using this road, heavy vehicles that transport goods from these
wholesale markets to retailers will be able to avoid entering the city
limits unless required. By creating rail links between the Colombo
port and a container terminal, in addition to a dry port being set
up at Paliyagoda, it will also become possible to drastically reduce
container traffic entering Colombo.
The land freed through the relocation of the Manning market will be
used to establish a commuter center that will provide convenient
shopping facilities for people using the adjacent rail and bus stations
in Fort and IT/business space as new IT/business space in the city
in the main Transport Axis.
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Gold Center AFTER

SEA STREET

The Sea Street Gold Shopping Street is a

dedicated shopping precinct for those purchasing
jewellery, especially for weddings. It has overgrown,
run down and no longer the authentic, iconic urban
space of some the authors recall of the 1960s.

With the shifting of the Fish Market to Peliyagoda

the opportunity arose for a space for the expansion
of the sea street within the precinct. Its potential
needs to be rejuvenated by creating precinct
BEFORE
improvement and linking up with Sea Street
through coherent urban design policy.

176 177
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 AFTER
When driving down from
Maradana to Olcott Mawatha
no one realized that there
was a fairly large water body
on its downwards slope
towards Pettah Central bus
stand. It was only visible
to the air. At the time the
entire Pettah area was being
assessed as observed from
one of his Helicopter rides
the then Secretary of Urban
Development realized the
BEFORE
importance of the water body
and directed the UDA to
create appropriate means for
its revitalization.

The idea arose for linked

space linking the pedestrian
flow from Lotus Tower to
Pettah Bus stand as a
conducive, vibrant waterfront
retail space to relive the
congestion of the Pettah Bus
Station.

It needs to be upgraded in
line with the pedestrian flows
that will arise with the opening
of the Lotus Tower.

Floating
178
Market URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
179
 Street Hawker
BEFORE
Urban (self- employed) Relocation
Urban Hawkers are part of Asian Culture. In fact, in Singapore, Hong Kong
and Thailand Hawker food is now part of intangible national heritage.
Even in ancient times street taking was widely encountered in city life
Sri Lanka was no different to street vendor hawker culture,
minus the element of food.
By 2009, the pavements of Fort, Pettah, suburban towns like Nugegoda
were congested to such as degree that the legal shop owner’s premises
were effectively blocked and the mafia of local politicians were controlling the
Pavement Hawkers.
It was also understood that a large segment of the population depends
on Hawking as. Means of Business. It is not an activity to be banned but
regularized for
a. City enhancement
b. Better opportunity for the Hawkers (Self Employed)
c. Fair visibility and access for property owners who had been denied
Fair access and visibility of their generation’s old businesses
In this regard relocation was undertaken in key locations
a. Fort and Pettah key projects included Floating Market,
Chalmers Granary relocation
b. Colombo General Hospital Surroundings
c. Nugegoda Town
d. Borella Junction
AFTER
180
Chalmers
Granary
Pedestrian
Self-Employment
Vendor Relocation.
Proposl for Chalmers Granary
The encroached pavement spaces from Pettah Central Bus Stand to
Fort Railway Station is the business space for 5,000 self-employed.
Subsequent to a visit by the then Secretary of Defence and Urban
Development to Kunming, it was determined that the pedestrian mall
of similar concept be developed to house the entirety of Self
Employed Traders in a single location with a mix of retail. Food,
relaxation space for travellers. The Plan was not implemented with
the change of regime and needs to be reassessed and activated an
integral part of the multi-- modal transport hub.
Delkanda weekly market
Weekly market/
Fair/Pola
Upgrading
Sri Lanka has a great tradition of hawker for self employment
tradition of weekly fair/market/pola in established location on
selected days. Example Sunday fair, where hawkers or village
producers sell their produce to generally to town dwellers. This
activity was generally done on roadside and generally caused
traffic chaos.
The UDA undertook meaningful steps to create this intangible
tradition of the nation in nearby relocated locations in newly
constructed permanent spaces that provided protection from
elemants and relieved nearby traffic congestion.
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Expanding Beach Park Matara
to Provinces
Urban renewal in the Provinces
The urban decay had not only happened in Colombo but encompassed
all parts of the island and no parts were exempt, including World
Heritage Sites such as Galle Fort.

The work undertaken in Matara

included the Sea front
Promenade,
Nupe Market, Matara Fort,
Matara Church.

182 183
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 BEFORE AFTER

Jaffna
Fort
Second only in size to Galle Fort, of
Asian Dutch Fort Heritage, the LTTE
had destroyed the fort as symbolic
gesture against Colonial occupation
and to prevent a defensive location
for Sri Lankan Armed forces. Action
was taken to restore the Jaffna Fort
as part of restoration of historic
monuments of Sri Lanka.

184 185
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 BEFORE

Galle AFTER

Fort
Urban Renewal and revitalization was undertaken in
Old Dutch Hospital which was dilapidated government
buildings in Galle Fort with Adaptive reuse as Food and
Beverage outlets.

Galle Fort, is the largest Asian Living Fort of the Dutch

Era. Work was already undertaken in parts under
the Dept of Archeology, yet parts, especially under
the ownership of the state were neglected or grossly
under-utilized and needed intervention at higher levels
of the state machinery for interventionist rejuvenation for
conversation of more relevant use.

Since renovation it has continued to function as a series

of high-end food and beverage spaces for visitors.

Provincial Towns
Street and public works upgrading was
undertaken in local towns such as Narammala,
Haratharaliyadda, Imaduwa,
Galagedara, Trincomalle, Rattota etc.

186 187
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Revitalizing
Colombo’s
Green Arteries
and Parklands
In addition to the Wetland Parks arising from upgrade of drainage works in
and around the Beira Lake, Kotte area- revitalization of Water’s Edge (Diyatha
Uyana) in Battaramulla from a golf course to public parkland with markets-
Beddagama Wetland Park and Kotte Rampart Park are marshy areas along
Diyawanna Oya, Pelawatta and Thalawathugoda, areas under the Weras Ganga
Basin Storm Water Drainage & Environment Improvement Project, with boardwalks,
self -employment vendor stores and picnic areas which has proven incredibly
successful with thousands of people using the facilities on a daily basis there was a
program progressively to improve Colombo’s parkland system and make them
attractive to both locals and international visitors.

188 189
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Independence Square AFTER

Independence Square, located in

BEFORE Cinnamon Gardens, houses the
Independence Memorial Hall
built to commemorate the
independence of Sri Lanka
from British rule in 1948.
Located where the formal
ceremony marking self-rule took
place in 1948, it also marks the
opening of the first parliament of
Sri Lanka and is where the annual
National Independence Day
celebrations were held.

The Memorial Hall was designed

by Tom Neville Wynne-Jones and
is based on the Magul Maduwa
(Celebration Hall) the Royal
audience hall of the Kingdom of
Kandy.

The Hall is built entirely of reinforced concrete and was an advanced building
technique for a building of this size at the time.The revitalization of Colombo has
seen works at Independence Square to reconfigure the space to improve public
access and open the space to the public. Walls obstructing views and access
have been removed and walkways and cycle paths created, night illumination
provided to transform it into a high-quality public space that residents of Colombo
can use frequently. These recent works have given

Independence Square new life as part of the modern era of the city
and as a Central Green Heart of the City.

Place making

190 191
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 before - parks with fences to
become a sanctuary for nefarious
activities and not for city dewellers- a
British planning inheritance - done away
with visionary leadership
BEFORE
It has since become a vital piece of City’s Recreation Infrastructure for all classes of society, events, exercising, walking,
cycling etc for groups, families, individuals, lovers etc with the National Tennis Center, National Museum, the National Art
Gallery, Nelum Pokuna National Theatre, Self Help Street Art vendor market forming one precinct, linked on the North to
the town hall.
192
Vihara Maha Devi was the Princess of the Kalyana or Kelani Kingdom the
predecessor to modern Colombo, in 3 rd Century BC, and mother of the AFTER
legendary Sri Lankan King Dutugemunu.
The city’s Central Park, therefore appropriately called the Vihara Maha Devi
Park is for Colombo in City Context is the City’s Main Park and Landmark
Public Open Space and similar in context to
a. Hyde Park in London
b. Lumbini Park in Bangkok
c. Centennial Park in Sydney
d. Carlton Garden/Royal Park in Melbourne
It was a fenced off green space, notorious for tnefarious activities,
considered unsafe by regular users. It needed Interventionist thinking to
regain it for public domain.
The Ministry of Defence and urban Development under took rehabilitation
of the park co-opting UDA, the Army
and the SLRDC.
In considering the design options, an idea was mooted by Harshan De
Silva, the Chairman of SLLRDC that the fence be removed based on a
conversation he had with one of the authors Athula Amarasekera, based
on his experiences of City of Melbourne that Public Parks in Melbourne
are fenceless. With such concepts as open park spaces, incidentally
Melbourne ranks as one of the top three places for living in Global City
Viharamahadevi Park
Reviews together with Vienna and Vancouver. The Secretary Defence and
Urban Development immediately took the clue from Harshan De Silva and
directed redevelopment of the park as a Fenceless Central City space.
It was a case of clear bold interventionist ground breaking decision
making that made a Century old fence come down so that the General
Public of the city could reclaim ownership of a vital public space from
those engaged in nefarious activities.
Place making
193
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 BEFORE

Parliament
Grounds
The Parliament ground was the axial core space of
the Parliament in Kotte. At its creation it was a core
space where even national Day Parades were held.
With successive attacks on Parliament, from 1986
first by Sinhalese Insurgents and subsequently
during the war, this space became a fortified
entrance to Parliament.

With the end of the war and the renewed

confidence to instil public confidence this park was
re-laid and regained as the public domain with
the National War Memorial forming a part of the
Precinct..

AFTER

Place making

194 195
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Galle Face
Galle Face Green was the Military
Parade Ground of the British Rulers
and major social space in evening
for its Colonial elite. It is a unique
space in its context of an Ocean

Green and
facing public promenade in the
World with its original design by
British Engineer’s Regiment following
a uniform pattern of town planning in

its Precinct
Singapore, Chennai, Penang etc.

Today, Galle Face Green and its

Environs are a vital part of city’s
green lung and
open space and its most expensive
real estate fronts the Green.

After Independence it became a

major public space for all ages,
segments of society and the
national parade Grounds.

No different from other major public

spaces, with the adjacent military
headquarters, it became a fortified
space with limitations in parking,
part limitation in access, poor
maintenance.

Steps were undertaken to

rehabilitate the Galle Face Green
including the Main Round about
near the Presidential Secretariat
for a more Majestic Display of
Urban Space, with reconfigured
landscape, defined self-employed
vendor space, parking, public
amenities, restaurant space etc.

Place making

196 197
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 A unique Asian Waterfront
public space for all seg-
ments of society trans-
formed from a fortress of
bunkers and check points
back to city dwellers

Galle Face Green and its Precinct

198 199
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Economic Benefits of
Urban Renewal
A conducive environment leads to attraction of Investors,
Emerging
Businesses, Tourists and sightseers. With a growing urban
middle class of a salaried or gross income of USD 80,000
a year, there is a massive global travel demand and a
visually pleasing city is always an attraction for a nation to
Colombo
attract visitors. This is exemplified by of successes in airline
industry such as Emirates, Qatar Airways etc who carry a
vast amount of passengers between the passenger’s home
city and global destinations. That travelling world of the global
as South
middle class had explored Thailand – Bangkok, Pattaya &
Phuket, Bali, Singapore etc. and there is an opportunity for a
new Asian Destination.
Part 5
Asia’s World
There is no doubt that investing in infrastructure is good for
economic development. Indeed, two of the main goals of
the quality infrastructure investment initiative that is currently
being main streamed through the G20 process are to
City & Economic
maximize the economic impact of infrastructure and create
a “virtuous circle” of economic activities stemming from
infrastructure. A virtuous circle in economic theory occurs
when there are positive and mutually reinforcing interactions
Benefits
between public investment and economic development.
When one increases, so does the other.
In an industrial model, public investment and ready land
supply leads to rapid production growth, which strengthens
employment, tax bases and increases revenue, which in
turn creates opportunities for more investment in support
sectors. Post 1978 China is the best example. In a fiscal
model, public investment leads to economic growth, which
strengthens tax bases and increases revenue, which in turn
creates fiscal space for more investment. In a trade model,
public investment in connectivity increases trade, which
induces private investment by reducing transaction costs,
which leads to more trade. In a socioeconomic model,
public investment raises the productivity of private capital
and improves services and the environment, then direct and
induced feedback loops attract firms and workers, leading
200
to more growth and investment. These are in fact different
windows on a common set of factors.
It has long been common economic wisdom that public
investment in infrastructure attracts private investment, which
in turn leads to economic growth. Going back to the early
1900s, economists understood that firms choose least-cost
locations, and their decisions could be affected by providing
better transportation facilities. Growth was a simple outcome
of building to attract more businesses to a city or region. To
the extent that economists thought about other benefits like
better infrastructure services or an improved environment,
those were likely seen as consumption benefits. And financing
infrastructure was generally regarded as a public responsibility
in any case, so the potential increase in tax revenues was not
a prime motivation. The circle was not yet complete.
Gradually, economists began to understand that economic
development progresses more organically as public
investment allows firms and households to make more
efficient use of their labour, capital, and natural resources.
These benefits attract more private investment from firms
and households, and their increased output grows the tax
base and increases revenues, allowing a new round of
public investment. The virtuous circle of quality infrastructure
investment thus relies essentially on increasing economic
efficiency by complementing private capital and labour. There
are many ways that public infrastructure development can help
increase the return on investment for private capital.
It is this light that the urban upgrading and beautification works
and the approvals for new projects assumes importance.
The low income housing upgrading, the one way system, the
urban rejuvenation, urban management to achieve cleaner
streets are all part of that massive public sector effort that
helped in the creation of a city attracted global investments like
the Shangri La etc to Colombo.
201
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Quality infrastructure always offers
strong return on investment
Quality infrastructure lowers production costs and increases
returns to investment. It increases business efficiency
by saving time, improving reliability, and providing higher
quality services and thus supporting economies of scale and
making agglomerations of economic activity more productive.
Quality infrastructure also helps labour markets to become
more efficient and flexible, and spurs competition and trade
by opening up markets and cutting costs.
These benefits in turn attract more private investment and
workers. Think of the decades-long boom in aerospace
and high tech sectors as people fled the declining Rust Belt
for the suburbs and freeways and universities in the new
American west. There is also a cautionary tale in this example
– it should also be noted that vicious circles of economic
decline can be created through under-investment and
deferred maintenance.
First, a 1% increase in public infrastructure investment can
augment GDP by an average 0.4% in the same year and
1.5% over 4 years. Second, public investment does not
Contribution of the Military
The end of the war in 2009 saw the then Secretary of Defence
Gotabaya Rajapaksa assuming the additional role of Urban
Development. The war had resulted in a massive expansion of
the Sri Lankan armed forces, who needed to be integrated to
a society without the threat of an imminent war. With the same
effective head, it was seamless than otherwise. The situation
has to be imagined where a military force that had faced real
battles needed to be reintegrated back.
202
substitute for private investment but rather crowds it in. Third,
employment increases by up to 0.3% for the same level of
investment. And fourth, in well governed cities and regions,
that investment can reduce public sector debt-to-GDP ratio by
up to 4% in the first four years. The evidence from developing
economies tells a similar story, but is much more variable than
in advanced economies, with estimates tending to be lower.
That last point is very important, as it suggests that economies
grow more than the level of spending required to increase the
output, and possibly also that governments use their increased
tax revenues to pay down existing debt. The implications for
tax growth and tax revenue are thus likely to be positive for
debt sustainability in developing economies. There is a very
rich literature on these questions, with varying estimates of
impact, but a general consensus has emerged that virtuous
circles exist and can be supported through public investment
policy. The supporting roles played in infrastructure planning,
financing, and governance are thus crucial determinants of the
economic development path.
The officers were mobilised to supervise and coopted for
supervision tasks only while only the civilian units recruited
specifically only for civil works were used for construction
works.
Officers of the Sri Lanka Navy was attached to the SLLRDC
and the officers of the Sri Lanka Army played a key role
in the UDA. The fighting force were never deployed for
construction work
Creating the Conditions for
Stability and Growth
Despite the negative effects of natural and man-made
disasters on Colombo, the years since the civil conflict
have provided an opportunity to re-imagine the structure of
Colombo as a city of international standing and the hub for
economic renewal in the country. Over the past decade the
national Government has launched into a comprehensive
urban renewal program and created a new vision for Colombo.
At the heart of this program was an understanding that national
economic growth and improvement to the lives of its people
is dependent on regeneration of the nation’s capital as the
economic engine house of the country. The strong drive for
self-determination and national recognition has been the
hallmark of the decade since the end of the civil war and has
seen significant impacts on the shape and nature of the city. A
city capital that grows at 12% per annum can pull a country up
Land Alienation Policy – Balancing National
Interest Vs Foreign ownership
Land Alienation is a key administrative policy and facilitator
of urban development and major city development in today’s
context cannot happen without Direct Foreign Investment
and alienation to global investors. They need to be enticed,
nurtured and facilitated in an environment that is smooth and
conducive to smooth land facilitation, planning approval,
construction process. Such an environment leads to major
new developments. It is also a sensitive national issue.
The 30 year war meant that the administrative system was not
geared to deal with sudden influx of foreign investment. The
war time land leases had been short term of 30 year industrial
leases by BOI. The state administrative officers and had no
set land alienation policy. The following considerations were
non existent in terms of sale/lease for FDI
a. State leasing agency
b. Tenure of Lease
In the light of this lack of process and a lack of proper
advisory capacity in the administrative mechanisms the first
major investment of the benchmark period of 2009 -2014 of
Shangri La Mixed Development was offered as freehold land
sale by the Ministry of Finance. To this day it is controversial
but has to be judged in terms of the exposure of the
by 7% per annum as the recent data from China shows.
Changes the Sri Lanka Government made during this
2009 - 2014 period focused on making space for new high
rise building in central Colombo, relocation of government
operations, heritage conservation, investment in waterways
and flood mitigation and establishing public-private
partnerships which utilized government assets to attract
investment.
The financial mechanism also cannot be ignored . The
Governor Ajith Nivaard Cabraal and the Monetary Board
ensued a stable growth oriented fiscal policy of comparatively
low interest rates and a stable currency that encouraged
foreign direct Investment. (FDI)
officialdom at the time to similar global situation and their poor ability
to advise the political masters.
Subsequently, on the direction of the Secretary Defence and Urban
Development a policy was evolved by the Board of Management of
the UDA for all state land leases as follows.
a. There shall be no sale of UDA Land.
b. There shall be only land leases.
c. The leasing agency shall be the UDA
d. The maximum lease tenure shall be 99 years
e. Price shall be either tendered or based on valuation by the
Chief Valuer of the State
f. In case of Residential Land use components in the development
the UDA will sign a tripartrite agreement with the buyer of the
unit and the developer where the residential unit holder will have
freehold title to ensure compatibility with the rest of real estate
market.
g. All conveyance issues etc. shall be cleared by the UDA through
the judicial system prior to release of lease
The iconic developments of Altair, ITC and other developments were
facilitated by
203
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 New Vision for Colombo
The years 2009-2015, Colombo has been through an era of re-thinking the structure of the
city and re-organizing key land use activities to make space for investment and renewal.
Government intervention in the shape of the city and public investment has been a trigger
for commercial and international investment. The city beatification, one way system, drainage
2011
works, a clean city had set the stage. Many of the Colombo revitalization projects undertaken
from 2009-2014 have included improvement to pedestrian access by repairing and replacing
footpaths, creating walkways along watercourses, removing fences around parks and generally
making it easier for people to get around and enjoy the city are listed in the previous sections.

Leadership and support of Government has been intrinsic to key decisions to relocate
government activities away from key commercial areas to open up land for international
investment and development. In keeping with the visions following summarizes the key aspects
of the vision.

1. A city free of floods, clean and free of traffic snarl.

2. A city with high quality living environment for all with all low-income houses upgraded as listed in part 3

3. High-quality public amenities like parks listed in part 4

4. A commercial city and commercial spaces for all – from Pavement Hawkers to High end malls as listed
in part 4

5. Mixed Developments with multiple components

a. Cinnamon Life
b. Shangri La – One Galle face
c. Colombo City Center

6. High quality, medium quality and low income housing,

a. Shangri La (One Galle Face)
b. Altair
c. ITC
d. Cinnamon Life
e. Destiny

7. Office Buildings with Ample parking

a. Parkland
b. Access Tower 2
c. Shangri La
d. Cinnamon Life

In this regard some of the developments can be described as landmark catalytic development
for others to follow. All of these and subsequent developments that followed are multi- use
projects with minimal 2 land uses and 4 land uses in case of Shangri La. Such a mix shall in the
near future give the city a vibrancy and life not seen before in the City. Opening up established 2019
areas within Colombo has allowed new commercial and residential development into bring
in International designers and architects, such as Moshe Safdie (Altair) , Gensler (Sapphire
Residences), Aedas ( Colombo City Center), Design Team 3, Singapore (Access 2, Cinnamon
Red, Onthree20) and International Structural and Mechanical and Electrical Engineers.

204 205
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 A Live, Work and Play in
Formation -
Galle Face Cluster
with Port City Reclamation
Beyond - 2019

206 207
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Moving the Military Headquarters
to Administrative Capital Kotte
Seat of Government Reinstated Modernist style. This is one of Bawa’s most impressive and
well-known projects and the Sri Jayewardenepura precinct,
- Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte due to its long visual axes and extensive water features
draws comparisons to other international capital precincts
such as Washington DC and Canberra.
Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte, commonly referred to as Kotte,
is the official administrative capital of Sri Lanka, a municipality It also consolidated government offices at Kotte and built
within Colombo. Kotte was built as a triangular fortress in further stages of the Sethsiripaya administrative complex
the 13th century at the confluence of the Diyawanna Oya nearby at Battaramulla. This series of high-rise office
and Kolonnawa Oya, with the third side of the triangle buildings which house key government departments achieve
the goal of rationalizing overall land use by centralizing
built as a moat. In 1391 Kotte was given the name Sri
administrative functions at Sri Jayewardenepura. marshlands
Jayewardenepura, meaning resplendent city of growing
of Diyawanna Oya. The roofs Of Bawa’s Parliament House
victory as the capital of the ancient Kingdom of Kotte.
are typically Kandyan style but the buildings themselves
Issues of City congestion arising from an inorganically grown
trading and outpost needed Interventionist action to relocate
the administrative capital, with successive governments
making alternative plans. The initial plan called for a city near
the Kaduwela- Biyagama basin using a large land bank to
the east of the city. A desire of the then head of State to
preserve his name resulted in a closer location, which each
successive rain has been proved to be wrong planning
decision made at the behest of political leadership behest on
personal glory.

Yet, as a major piece of city building Kotte was converted

into the home of the Sri Lankan Parliament in 1982, when
renowned Sri Lankan architect Geoffrey Bawa was asked
to design a new Parliament House. Bawa’s vision of a
garden capital surrounded by water and parks recaptured
the grandeur of the ancient Kotte capital in its design and
setting of an island made of reclaimed land surrounded by a
massive lake formed by dredging the reflect Bawa’s abstract

Military Headquarters under construction December 2014 Military Headquarters October 2019

208 209
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Moving the Military
Headquarters Originally intended to be
completed in 2016, it has
Keeping the Military Headquarters in a Commercial
Hub is never wise, more so in Colombo where it taken nearly 7 years
was in the old garrison town location of a Colonial
Administration no longer relevant and surrounded by an to achieve by
ever expanding commercial city seeking to enhance its
vibrancy and deserving to be upgraded a global city for
the economic betterment of its people . Progressive
2020 due to inefficient
governments globally has done so, Singapore,
Australia, Malaysia, UAE etc. The request by the
planning of the succeeding
Shangri -La group for prime land for a USD 800 million
investment with the highest land price paid at the time
government, the National
for a land at the time, the government embarked on
building a central Defence Headquarters Complex
ethos that even if a
further inland at Akuragoda to house the headquarters
of the Army, Navy, Air Force as well as the Ministry of
scheme is logical and
Defence, which in fact was the original location for the
Defence HQ in the 1980 master plan for Kotte.
appropriate a government
By shifting its military defence from Galle Road to the change will put it
to the backburner. The end
new suburban location, the Government opened up
prime real estate for redevelopment and investment

result being by end 2019,

by the Shangri-La Hotel Group which purchased 4
hectares to build an international standard hotel as
the first of a wave of new high rise buildings taking
advantage of this central-city foreshore location the Military Headquarters
overlooking the ocean. This key investment provided
impetus for further development as the property Operating in nearly 25
industry saw the value of growth in Sri Lankan tourism.
locations, with likely
completion of the
Defence HQ by 2020.
Military Headquarters October 2019

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 ICONIC
CENTRAL
CORE CITY
PROJECTS
212 213
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 BEFORE 2012

Shangri-la Hotel - One Galle Face Mixed Development

Category – Mixed High-end Residential, Retail, Office & Hotel Development (Government Land sale)
Investment- Estimated total cost of US$ 700 million (Completed)
Number of employee in operation- 4,000 including office 2,000 workers
Apartment Units – 400 premium residential apartments
Retail Mall area – 350,000 sq. ft
Office Area – 250,000 sq. ft
Hotel Rooms & Hotel Data – 466 Guest rooms in 5-star Shangri-La Colombo in a 23-story tower, atop a 4-story
podium. Hotel amenities include over 48,000 sq. ft. of function space spread over three floors including a 20,000
sq. ft. Grand Ballroom. The hotel also features seven restaurants, a fitness centre, spa, pool deck and two outdoor
tennis courts.
Gross Floor Area – 3.1 Million sq. ft
Architects – Handel Architects LLP, USA ( Hotel and Master Plan), Chao Tse Ann & Partners, LRF Designers

The Shangri La Hotel Group are owner-developers and
operators of Global Hotels ( with Shangri La, Jen and Traders
Hotel brands) under the Hong Kong Based Kuok Group, whose
core business is commodities trading under the Singapore
listed entity Wilmar, whose Chairman is 94 year old Robert
Kuok is a compatriot and close associate of the Late Singapore
Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew and Malaysian Prime Minister Dr
Mahathir Mohamed.
The development and introduction of the two Shangri La Hotels
to Sri Lanka, One in Colombo and other in Hambantota, is
an interesting story as illustrated by my Mr Kuok Khoon Ean,
the then Chairman of Shangri La Asia Hotels at the Sri Lanka
Business Forum held at the Four Seasons Singapore on 2
March 2018.
That was a surprise to the President, ..The President pondered
and said can you wait a few minutes and he called someone to
come to his meeting. A person, whom I did not know at that time
came ( later I came to know as Secretary Defence and Urban
Development Gotabaya Rajapaksa) and the President told him..
“The Gentleman wants your Army Headquarters to build a Hotel.”
The Secretary, pondered a few moments and said.. “OK, IF YOU
HELP ME BUILD A NEW ARMY HEAD QUARTERS AND THE
MONEY MUST COME FOR THAT PURPOSE, I AM READY TO AFTER
MOVE THE ARMY HEADQUARTERS.”
We discussed.. in a few days a price was received, USD 75m
… again the highest price for a land transaction at that time.. we
thought reasonable, we paid within 10 days and now we have
invested USD 800 million for Colombo and Hambantota and are
investing another USD 400m for the land next to Altair for another
development High-rise Development.

“ One day in 2012, I was in Beijing.. I received a call from Today, the Shangri La development stands as an iconic
Director of our Associate Company in Colombo.. The caller said development that puts Colombo in a high pedestal equal to
– The President of Sri Lanka would like to see you for us to build competing global cities.
a new hotel… I inquired.. there was a Direct Flight. I took it..

I went to see the President,. Mahinda Rajapaksa. He said,. We

would like to invite you to build a Shangri La Hotel. We knew
peace had dawned. We wanted to explore.. So, the President
said where would you like to build it.. I said. Let me explore.

I went back the following day.. The President asked. Have you
decided?.. I said yes.. I want the Army Headquarters..( Pauses
and laughs and quips – Here is Singapore perhaps I would be
in jail for asking that)..

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Shangri-la Hotel & One Galle Face

216 217
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Lotus
Every City needs an Icon.a visual center... Kuala Lampur has
Investment- US$ 104 million KLCC, Paris has the Eiffel Tower, Sydney has the Harbour
Number of employee in operation- 300 Bridge ..Colombo to establish its credentials needed an

Tower
Area- 30600 square meters Icon..and it came in the form of IT and Broadcast Tower..

Lotus Tower, is 356 m (1,168 ft), expected to perform as the

Iconic City Center for Colombo, covers 30,600 m2 (329,000 sq
ft) of floor area.

It also reflects the symbolic landmark of Sri Lanka, is currently

the tallest self-supported structure in South Asia. It was first
proposed to be built in the suburb of Peliyagoda but later the
Government of Sri Lanka decided to shift the location.

The lotus-shaped tower will be used for communication,

observation and other leisure facilities, with construction costing
$104.3 million, funded by EXIM Bank of China. It is visible
throughout Colombo, its suburbs and most major highways
radiating from and around the city.

The design of this building is inspired by the Lotus flower. The

lotus symbolizes purity within Sri Lankan culture and is also said
to symbolize the country’s flourishing development. The tower
base is inspired by the lotus throne and the tower’s color is
planned to alternate between pink and light yellow by smooth
transition- an effect achieved by coating the glass.

Lotus Tower’s main revenue sources will be tourism and antenna

leasing. It will function as a radio and television broadcasting
antenna for Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting and Digital
Video Broadcast support structure for 50 television services,
35 FM Radio Stations and 20 telecommunication service
providers,[9] and will house a variety of tourist attractions. The
tower has four entrances, a telecommunications museum,
shopping space and restaurant on the ground floor. The tower
podium consists of 6 floors.[10] The first floor of the podium will
Accommodate a museum and two exhibition halls. The second
floor will be utilised for several conference halls with seating
space in excess of 500 people. Restaurants, supermarkets,
and food courts will be situated on the third floor. A 1000-seat
auditorium will be located on the fourth floor, which will also be
used as a ballroom. The fifth floor will include luxury hotel rooms,
large ballrooms, and the seventh floor will host an observation
gallery. The landscaping is planned in the form of a large water
park and will form a vital stop city’s shopping and
attraction tour of the future.

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 BEFORE 2012 AFTER

220 221
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Altair
AFTER

Category – Mixed High-end Residential & Retail Development

(UDA Land lease)
Investment- Estimated total cost of US$ 250 million
Number of employee in operation- 180
Apartment Units – 406 premium residential apartments
Retail Mall area – 35,000 sq. ft
Gross Floor Area – 1.1 Million sq. ft
Architect – Moshe Safdie Associates, USA in association with
Design Team 3, Singapore

The Colombo City Core by year 2009 has many left over elements
of its Colonial past and the Colonial Economy. A key segment of that
Colonial Segment was its Tea Industry and its support infrastructure.
The support infrastructure was anchored by the Colombo Commercial
Company, occupying over 20 acres of Prime City Center land facing
South Beira Lake, derelict to the core, while expansion was hampered
of core city spaces through this mammoth white elephant sitting within
the core city. Successive governments had failed to arrive at a master
plan or alienate for more productive use, some efforts even stopped
by unscrupulous business magnates with spurious court cases to
prevent legal bids

Thus by 2010, despite end of the war, this prime land that could
anchor a vibrant city core, was a derelict piece of state land with
BEFORE 2012 broken downand disused buildings.

Sri Lanka or Vietnam?

The Rameswara Group and its partners in India were looking at a
location expansion for their real estate business beyond India. They
had shortlisted two countries, Vietnam and Sri Lanka to do a major
development beyond their base in India. At a meeting in Kolkata
attended by one of the authors Athula Amarasekera, a member at
that time of the Commonwealth Games 2018 – Hambantota bid
committee, who subsequently became the Detailing Architects and
Qualified Person for the project, the following conversation took place.

Board Member – Athula has come here from Kuala Lampur, where
they submitted the Commonwealth Games bid … If they are serious
bidders for Commonwealth Games, that where should be”

222 223
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Altair

CONSTRUCTION IN PROGRESS

224 225
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Altair SOUTH ELEVATION
Colombo won the argument at the Board and it can today at that the highest price paid in the area in Total RS 2560 million or
take a bow.. in competition with global cities like Dubai, USD 25 milion equivalent and wiped off the total overdraft of the
Beijing, Singapore Guangzhou etc due to Altair. UDA with State Banks in one night.

UDA Delay in response to the investor The Developer proceeded with the Development, a Moshe
Safdie Iconic Design that puts Colombo’s skyline within the global
The developer based on studies and advise therefore competitions for iconic skylines. With such iconic structures,
decided on Sri Lanka. After a few visits and feasibility today Colombo has reached travel sites naming Colombo as most
studies and working with Architects – Design Team 3 of photographerable cities in the World in 2018/2019 due to
Singapore – and due to lack of a proper water front site presence of such Iconic buildings.
for a genuine proposal for an Iconic Vision that deserved
a prominent city forming site, a proposal was submitted The irony is the Bureaucracy in Sri Lanka needed such high-level
to the UDA to secure a portion of the derelict Colombo intervention of a Secretary who has the entire war winning
Commercial Company land. The UDA duly notified the then mechanism of a military as backing to move the lethargic, sleeping,
Secretary Defence and Urban Development, Gotabaya inactive, grossly incompetent, insulated chief valuer to move.
Rajapaksa of the receipt of an investor proposal at a
Coordination meeting in 2011. As per accepted norms of
the Place, matters went to hibernation hidden in the lethargy
and bureaucracy of the UDA. The investors were waiting for
a valuation to pay due land costs and commence an iconic
development.

One fine day, 3 months after the submission, under matters

under review, not in the agenda, the Secretary Defence and
Urban Development, Gotabaya Rajapaksa inquired on the
status of the Investor’s Proposal.

The Chairman, UDA at the time, responded. “ Sir We are

waiting for the Valuation”.

Secretary – “When did you send it”

UDA – “Sir 3 months ago” UNIT PLAN
Secretary – “How long should it take”
UDA – “May be 2 weeks”
After Pondering
Secretary – “Bring the Chief valuer to me
immediately for a meeting” and the intent of expeditious
action notified.

The Valuation came in 3 days, The Developer paid in 6

weeks after due process at a rate of Rs 8 million a Perch

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 GROUND FLOOR PLAN PODIUM FLOOR PLAN - LEVEL 5

LEVEL 63

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Sapphire
Category – Mixed High-end Residential, & Hotel Development
with Boutique Retail (UDA Land lease)
Investment- Estimated total cost of US$ 400 million

Residences
Number of employees in operation- 800
Apartment Units – 132 Premium Sapphire Residences
Area of apartments 2700 sft -19000 sft

and One
Amenity spaces 40000 sft +
Hotel Rooms & Hotel Data –
ITC One Hotel - Total keys 352

Hotel by ITC
Hotel room sizes 540 sft - 6300 sft
F& B outlets 10
Retail 30000 sft +
Office 45000 sft +
Gross Floor Area – 1.8 Million sq. ft
Architects – Gensler Associates Architects LLP,
USA with Philip Strac Interior for Apartments

Sapphire Residences and the adjacent ITC One hotel are the first developments in
Sri Lanka of WelcomHotels Lanka (Private) Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of
ITC Limited. ITC Limited is one of India’s foremost private sector companies and a
diversified conglomerate with interests in Fast Moving Consumer Goods, Hotels,
Paperboards and Packaging, Agri Business, and Information Technology. With a
market capitalisation of more than US $50 billion and gross sales value of over US
$10 billion, ITC Limited has been ranked amongst the top 10 ‘Sustainable Value
Creators’ in the consumer goods segment.

The development, currently under construction with completion expected in 2021,

comprises a 224-metre-tall residential tower – Sapphire Residences, set alongside
a 140-metre-tall 5 star ITC One hotel. Connecting the buildings at the 19th and
21st levels is a 55-metre long sky bridge, which incorporates a stunning jazz bar
and lounge on the lower level with spectacular lake, city and ocean views, above
which sits an exterior pool and sunbathing deck. Situated between Beira Lake and
the Galle Face Ocean front, Gensler - one of world’s leading architectural firms, has
thoughtfully designed each tower using an innovative triangular plan to maximise the
uninterrupted views across the Indian Ocean and the city. Elegant offices available
for lease or rent and high-end retail complete the mixed-use facilities on offer.

UNDER
BEFORE 2012 CONSTRUCTION

230 231
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Sapphire
Residences
and One
Hotel by ITC
The hotel is crowned by a helipad (the only one being built in the vicinity) that can
be used by VIPs, guests, residents and also be used to meet medical and other
emergencies and evacuation needs in the area. The helipad facility in the prime
business district serves to upgrade Colombo’s urban infrastructure on the lines of
what is available in premier cities across the world.

The spectacular interiors of the residences have been designed by YOO inspired
by Starck. Responsible for numerous interior design projects around the world,
visionary creator Philippe Starck has drawn inspiration from the island culture
and the serendipitous nature of Sri Lanka for his work at Sapphire Residences.
Appropriately named ‘Sky Mansions’, these enormous residences average 5,500
sq. ft. living areas (the penthouses are over 9,000 sq. ft.), large enough for a
whole family - with staff - to live in spacious and unhindered luxury.

The development is symbolic of a modern Sri Lanka which remains true to its
roots. Accordingly, the ITC One hotel and Sapphire Residences are modern
skyscrapers with a futuristic illuminated exterior wrapping around each tower while
the interiors draw inspiration from the rich architectural history of Sri Lanka and
incorporate elements of local architecture and vernacular practices.

232 233
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Colombo
City Center
Category – Mixed High-end Residential, Retail, & Hotel Development (UDA Land lease)
Investment- Estimated total cost of US$ 200 million
Number of employee in operation- 900
Apartment Units – 192 Premium residential apartments
Retail Mall area – 200,000 sq. ft
Hotel Rooms & Hotel Data – Next Branded Hotel with 250 Guest rooms,
Function and a Grand Ballroom.
Gross Floor Area – 2.1 Million sq. ft
Architects – Aedas

BEFORE 2012

Developed under UDA Lend-lease Program, the

components includes retail, 192 apartments and a 4
star hotel.

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Destiny Mall Tata Housing
& Residency Category – Mixed High-end Residential, Retail, Office & Hotel Development
( UDA Land Exchange in lieu of Developer built Low Income Housing)
Investment- Total cost of US$ 700 million (Completed)
Category – Mixed Residential & Retail Development (UDA Land exchange In lieu of Developer Number of employees in operation- 5,000 including office 2,000 workers
built Low Income Housing) Apartment Units – 600 premium residential apartments
Investment- Total cost of US$ 200 million (Completed) Retail Mall area – 450,000 sq. ft
Number of employees in operation- 400 Office Area – 250,000 sq. ft
Apartment Units – 600 residential apartments Hotel Rooms & Hotel Data – Two Hotels of 250 and 400 Guest rooms, function
Retail Mall area – 50,000 sq. ft space spread over three floors including a 20,000 sq. ft. Grand Ballroom. The
Gross Floor Area - 1.1 Million sq. ft hotels will also features six restaurants, a fitness centre, spa, pool deck
Architects – Sadaat Associates, Pakistan Gross Floor Area – 4.1 Million sq. ft
Architects – Michael Greaves Architects LLP, USA

Part of urban rejuvenation program of the

UDA, under the Ministry of Defence and Urban
Development the concept involved a developer New Social
providing the city urban low income settlements Housing
in lieu of Urban land for development.
New
Accordingly, Imperial Builders, Karachichi was Social
Housing
awarded a piece of encroached property
for redevelopment with the arrangement of
swapping of low income housing for land parcel
BEFORE 2012 development.
Development
site

The second major project of urban rejuvenation program of the UDA, under the Ministry of Defence and
Urban Development the concept involved Tata housing providing the UDA, 400 high-rise city urban low income
settlement units in lieu of Urban land for development.

Accordingly, Tata Housing was awarded 4 Acres of encroached property for redevelopment for a
Micheal Greaves designed mixed development of Apartments, Retail mall, two Taj Banded Hotels.

236 237
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
IN PROGRESS
 Cinnamon Life
Cinnamon Life
Cinnamon LifeLife
Cinnamon
Cinnamon Life
Category - Mixed High-end Residential, Retail, Office & Hotel Development
Investment - Estimated total cost of US$ 900 million
Number of employee in operation - 6,000 including office 2,000 workers
Apartment Units - 427 premium residential apartments
Retail Mall area - 400,000 sq. ft
Office Area - 150,000 sq. ft
Hotel Rooms & Hotel Data - 800 Guest rooms, 100,000 sq. ft MICE/function
space spread over three floors including a. Grand Ballroom. The hotel will also
features six restaurants, a fitness centre, spa, pool deck
Gross Floor Area - 3.1Million sq. ft
Architects - Belmont Studio, UK

Cinnamon Life, is three Million sq.ft

integrated mixed use development, is a city
within a city, with the luxury apartments, an
office tower , 800 Hotel rooms, 500,000
sq.ft retail mall.

With the mix of uses, there needed to be a

visionary approach to resolve issues that
arose with regulations and a master planned
project approach was needed and facilitated
through the Ministry of Defence and Urban
Development utilising the powers vested in
the UDA Board under the UDA act.

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

238 239
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
14
14 URBAN REVOLUTION
REVOLUTION OF
OF SRI
SRI LANKA
LANKA 15
15
URBAN
 Access Tower 2
Access Tower 2
Category – “A” Grade High-rise office Development
Investment- Estimated total cost of US$ 70 million
Number of employee in operation- 2,000 office workers
Office Area – 200,000 sq. ft
Gross Floor Area – 300,000 sq. ft
Architects – Design Team 3, Singapore

Alienated through the state lend-lease program for urban

rejuvenation of the city core, Access Tower 2 was the first
A Grade Office building to be built after the war. Consisting of
Ground Level Food and Beverage, 300 carpark lots, 200,000
sq.ft of A Grade Office space, and first sky level city club in
Colombo, is part of the UDA’s strategy to create a
Central Business District.

240 241
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
1414 URBAN
URBANREVOLUTION
REVOLUTIONOF
OFSRI
SRILANKA
LANKA 1515
 OnThree20
Onthree20
OnThree20
Category – City Centre Economy, Highrise Condominium
Investment- Estimated total cost of US$ 90 million
Number of employee in operation- 200 workers
Category – City Centre Economy, High-rise Condominium
Apartment Units – 475 Economy Condominium residential apartments
Investment- – Estimated
Gross Floor
Category AreaCentre
City total
– 700,000 cost
sq.
Economy, ft ofHighrise
US$ 90Condominium
million
Number of employee in operation- 200 workers
Architects – Design Team 3, Singapore
Investment- Estimated total cost of US$ 90 million
Apartment
Number ofUnits – 475in Economy
employee operation- Condominium
200 workers residential apartments
Apartment Units – 475 Economy
Gross Floor Area – 700,000 sq. ft Condominium residential apartments
Gross Floor Area – 700,000 sq. ft
Architects
Architects– –Design
DesignTeam
Team 3, Singapore
3, Singapore
HISTORICAL LIPTON
FACADE REMAINING

HISTORICAL LIPTON
FACADE REMAINING

RESORT
The first major high-rise condominium development in the city after war, LIKE FACILITIES
developed by John Keels Holdings, the development sought to encourage city IN THE CITY
core living vs commuting to suburbs. Designed as a economy condominium
with resort like facilities it also retained one of the two remaining iconic facades
of the tea economy of the colonial era, the grand facade of Lipton Tea, at that
RESORT
time the global leader in branded tea for consumers.
RESORT
LIKE FACILITIES
14
The development required waivers on number of carpark floors, retaining the
LIKE FACILITIES
IN THE CITY
heritage facade and the UDA Board intervention through the Ministry of Urban
IN THE CITY
Development was required, using powers vested in the Board under UDA Act HISTORICAL LIPTON
to faciliate its approval in the light of prevailing archaic rules. FACADE REMAINING
242 243
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
14
 Port City
Port City Colombo is a brand new city development built as an
extension of the Central Business District of Sri Lanka’s commercial
capital, Colombo. Spanning 269 hectares of reclaimed land from
the sea, Port City Colombo will be South Asia’s mixed-use premier
residential, retail and business destination, offering unmatched
planned city living along the warm waters of the Indian Ocean likely
to be the most livable city in South Asia when amalgamated with
existing heritage and water front city Colombo to be jointly called
“New Colombo”.
China Harbour Engineering Company (CHEC) made a proposal
in 2013 to develop the most livable city in South Asia, on a new
reclamation adjoining Colombo Fort to the UDA, who appraised the
then Secretary of Defence Gotabaya Rajapaksa on the application.
Adoption of such ideas is time-consuming in Sri Lanka but was
handled with speed and vision by the then Secretary, when the
project’s phase 1 of reclamation and handover to state successfully
concluded with 153 Hectares of reclaimed prime land was handed
244
Moving forward, built on sustainable values,
a healthy environment with future-ready
over the Sri Lankan Government on 28th Oct 2019, 3 years infrastructure to enhance living convenience it is
behind original schedule. It is worthy to record the cause of an exemplary city providing the highest quality
delay as the subsequent government of 2015 - 2019 put this commercial, entertainment, medical, education
vital project on hold in 2015 but permitted recommencement in and lifestyle opportunities. It will be a catalyst for
2016 at the public expense of USD 150 million compensation to growth, a place that fuses the culture and energy
the Investor and lesser comparative land allocation to the UDA. of a nation with international best practice. . The
development will comprise
According to the revised agreement reached between the Sri
Lankan government and China Harbour Engineering Company
(CHEC) Port City Colombo, all 269 hectares of reclaimed land
will be owned by the Sri Lankan government, with 91 acres for
public use, 62 acres of commercial use and 116 acres to be
leased by the UDA to CHEC Port City Colombo on a 99 year
lease for further development. The transaction was completed
on 29th October with UDA obtaining free of cost 153 Hectares
or 378 Acres of reclaimed land, valued at USD 3.3 billion
calculated at an average discounted base rate of Rs 10 million a
perch allowing 40% land for parks, roads etc.
245
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Morale
of the Story On the basis of fearless
positive interventions
The Urban Interventions under the direction of Gotabaya described ahead, the stage
Rajapaksa has been decisive and Interventionists with is set for Positive and
positive outcome.
Decisive Action on a
It was opposed to a concept of
paralysis by analysis. countrywide basis for
Paralysis by Analysis describes group process when over analysing or over thinking a situation can cause forward motion or decision-
positive outcome and sets
the stage for proactive
making to become “paralysed”, meaning that no solution or course of action is decided upon.

A situation may be deemed as too complicated and a decision is never made, due to the fear that a potentially larger problem may arise.

actions that sets the stage

A person may desire a perfect solution, but may fear making a decision that could result in error, while on the way to a better solution.

Equally, a person may hold that a superior solution is a short step away, and stall in its endless pursuit, with no concept of diminishing

for Visionary Outcomes in

returns.

Typical action of a Bureaucracy or third World Government often gets bogged down in Paralysis by Analysis.

Typical of most city planning decisions, paralysis by analysis is when the fear of either making an error, or foregoing a superior solution,
outweighs the realistic expectation or potential value of success in a decision made in a timely manner. This imbalance results in
suppressed decision making in an unconscious effort to preserve existing options. An overload of options can overwhelm the situation
Land use, Planning,
and cause this “paralysis,” rendering one unable to come to a conclusion.

It can become a larger problem in critical situations where a decision needs to be reached, but a person is not able to provide a
Town Planning and
response fast enough, potentially causing a bigger issue than they would have, had they made a decision.
Development.
THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT OF SRI LANKA PRIOR TO 2009 HAD REACHED THAT PATHETIC STATE.

246 247
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Your Majesty, The birds that
glide the skies and the animals
that roam the forest have an
equal right to live and move
anywhere in this country as
A Sustainable you have. The land belongs to
Future the people and all other
living beings. You are
only its trustee.
- Arahat Mahinda to
King Devanampiyatissa at Mihintalaya - 250 BCE

248 249
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 “ Sriglobal
Lanka is at the threshold of a fast-changing
scenario. The urban nucleus and its
mind set will set the rhythm towards this
transformation and the rural sector will not just be
an auxiliary dependent sector of the urban
Sri Lanka’s National dynamic but a key contributor in moving forward.

Development for Visionary This book, having chronicled that the recent
Outcome and A New benchmark actions from 2009 to 2014 in
changing the City of Colombo and the Provinces has a history going
National Land use Plan - back to ancient Sri Lanka will now provide
a thread that will give us the insight to navigate our
A Sustainable path through retaining and
Part 6
marriage for a Pristine
enhancing tradition to modernity. ”
Sri Lanka of its nature,
rural & urban habitation,
transport, planning and
balanced development

“ conscience,
A land use plan for a land ruled with a social and environmental
not with mere greed for some but for contended
living for all and visitors alike
”
250 251
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Preamble - URBAN & SUBURBAN ANARCHY | Land Use Plan

Urban Anarchy
Chaotic
COLOMBO CITY Unauthorized
SCENERIO 2010 Partially illegal encroachments with city
turning its back to water bodies

Uncontrolled development along roads

A TYPICAL TOWN
OF RIBBON Chaotic traffic scene
DEVELOPEMENT
2019 No amenity value
(Unplanned Urban Growth along
streets with no urban planning or
infrastructure planning) Purely functional
Seen from air

Chaotic

SCENIC ROUTE Blocking vistas

2019
No protection for vistas

Green/Shaded Walkways/Pedestrian safety

Organised & Convenient

COMPARATIVE
Optimised Land Use
INTERNATIONAL
Well Designed and Aesthetically Pleasing
BEST PRACTICES
Green/Shaded Walkways/Pedestrian safety
Seen from air

252 253
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Visionary Development Outcome -Land Use Plan

A Pristine, Vibrant,
Conducive Sri Lanka for all
Moving forward from the historical
heritage and the interventionist
planning and infrastructure work done
in the post conflict era from 2009 to
2014, there is a need for a National
Action Plan on Land use Plan for
balanced development,

National planning and transport.

Development Sri Lanka is a country of ample rainfall and abundant greenery of

for Visionary
natural beauty with a historic multi- facetted civilisation full of traditions
and a cosmopolitan population.

Outcome
It is our duty to protect, enhance, optimise that inheritance for the
benefit of current generation and protect it for future generations.

The Work done in the period 2009 – 2014 was Interventionist with
clear results for betterment. That approach needs to be continued with Sinharaja. UNESCO natural world heritage site
vigour for achieving a contented, sustainable Sri Lanka for all. (Protected forest reserve)

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Visionary Development Outcome -Land Use Plan | Land Use Plan

Vision
1. A climate mitigated living and agricultural environment for all that protects
and enhances its natural beauty and historical heritage for contended
family life for all segments of society.

2. To provide clean and green cities and towns free of congestion and traffic
snarl to improve amenity value of its cities for residents & visitors

3. Diversified, resilient multiple economic centres that are World Class

Environments for live, work and play

4. Fast, convenient, better and safe accessibility to everybody including

road users, pedestrians, cyclists between major cities and attractions,
within towns and from village to town.

5. A policy framework, design and planning guidelines and regulatory

framework to achieve a balance between promoting visionary
development free of contrived, irrelevant, unfit for purpose outdated
general rules and regulations, legal hinderances etc and need for
protecting pristine Sri Lanka.

Retaining Pristine Sri Lanka from unplanned urban encroachment

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 Visionary Development Outcome | Land Use Plan

The Strategy

A National land use plan for optimisation and protection of resources and A land use plan that seeks to eliminate conflicting and destructive land uses,
heritage with well planned transport, nature & heritage protection, green reverses the erosion of what is Pristine Sri Lanka
energy and resource utilisation overlays.
A combined land use, planning and transport strategy will be adopted around a concept of
A Land use Plan that looks at the landmass of Sri Lanka holistically
minimised travel time, preventing ribbon development and promoting planned organised development.
and at its natural resources, population distribution, assets, growth
patterns etc and not the 1815 Colonial Definition of Provinces,
A land use plan leads to job creation for all segments of society for contended family living
Districts or Urban Local Areas.

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 Visionary Development Outcome | Land Use Plan

Land Use Plans -

International Best Practices

Land Use Plan-Australia Land Use Plan-Thailand Land Use Plan-Malaysia Land Use Plan-Singapore
source by : URD

Comparative landmass makes the Urban Areas very Population equal to Sri Lanka, large rural population, same
A land of 66 million people, one of the largest tourist destinations of the world Large Urban City State with no rural hinterland. But 1/3 of landmass is left as
small. But in actual comparison, urban areas and suburbs climate and rainfall as Sri Lanka with a large industrial
with 38 million tourists, one of the largest cities in asia of 8 million population Central Catchment for water and green cover
are controlled to achieve maximised agriculture and base. Urbanisation and suburbia limited to retain rural
in Bangkok, with massive rural to urban inflow of skilled graduate and workers.
prevent erosion of agricultural base and nature reserve “ Kampong/village life” and export bases as one of the
Also one of the largest exporters of fresh fruits and vegetable in the world and
and wildlife habitats. largest edible oil and rubber exporters.
with an export industrial base second only to China in Asia also considered the
Detroit of Asia in terms of motor vehicle production. Active prevention of erosion
of agricultural hinterland.The map shows limited and controlled urbanisation and

In Comparison - Sri Lanka

suburban spread. Active measures in place with well-designed regional towns

Urban Growth Boundaries allowing for their natural growth in a controlled manner. A well balanced land use
policy that has allowed balance of large extent of industry, massive urbanisation,
Destruction of Natural habitat and a erosion of Agricultural
as a norm to prevent yet prevented ribbon development retaining the rural
and agricultural base. hinterland through absence of systematic Land use Planning
Ribbon Development
and Lack of Urban Growth Boundaries.

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 Visionary Development Outcome | Land Use Plan

Land Use Plans - Sri Lanka - Disorganised Development

Existing Scenario Sri Lanka without any Urban Growth Boundaries

Land Use Plan-Sri Lanka Conducive Living source by : National Physical Planning Dept (NPPD)

Nonexistent Land use master plan – Only Land use Map- Livability Index by NPPD - Faulty Analysis based on misnomer of proximity to a NPPD Sri Lanka Land Use Plan NPPD Urbanization Plan
ping exits with fragmented forest cover. Urbanisation plan rail line, rainfall, ambient temperature of 30 deg. cent determines best place to live
has no relationship. without any consideration to destruction of Pristine Sri Lanka and its agricultural The NPPD’s land use plan is a manifestation of human – Absolute Disaster of Ribbon development from Colombo to Trincomalee with
hinterland. elephant conflict, endorses the culture ribbon development massive destruction of productive agriculture. With predominant wind South –
and of continuous land sub-division that destroys the West to North-East 12 months of the year, one cannot imagine the accumulated
Mapping shows uncontrolled Urbanisation with uncontrolled fostering of finance company based model of Land agricultural hinterland, without any consideration of a need vehicle pollution carried from town to town from Colombo to Tincomalee and vice
subdivision VS. Organised Development. A defective model that fostered uncontrolled fragmentation and destruction to develop conducive cities and towns with convenient versa.
of productive agricultural land without providing any alternative urban development opportunities amenities and proper infrastructure.

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 Visionary Development Outcome | Land Use Plan

Plantation based
Village Structure
Below Tree Canopy
in Wet Zone

Tank based irrigation

based Village structure
in the DryZone

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 Visionary Development Outcome | Land Use Plan

RESOLVING THE HUMAN

ELEPHANT CONFLICT
WITH BOLD SCHEME OF RESETTLEMENT OF VILLAGES
TO NEWLY IRRIGATED LANDS AND LINKING EXISTING
NATURE RESERVES AND WATER CATCHMENTS
Elephants are long-lived animals, and their survival depends upon regular migration over large
distances to search for food, water, and social and reproductive partners As a generalist mega-herbivore,
elephants consume a maximum of 150 kg of forage and 190 L of water daily. Meeting these basic needs requires
a large foraging area to provide a variety of grasses, shrubs, and tree leaves, roots, and fruits.
A typical family herd of Asian elephants (~5–20 individuals) has a home range size of 100–1,000 km2

Human-elephant conflict is a major challenge for supporting the survival and persistence of elephants
in their range countries because these are places where the development and well-being of human
communities sharing space with these mega-herbivores is also important. As humans transform the
landscape, pushing human and elephant populations to live in ever closer proximity, the likelihood of conflict
increases with often fatal results. Sri Lanka annually documents over 70 human and
200 elephant mortalities from conflict

Of the total population of 5278 (2011 statistics), 258 have been killed in 9 months of 2019 and at this the el-
ephant population will disappear in our life time. The Human toll in death and injury is as bad. Annual Elephant Deaths - 2018 Background – Fragmented Forest Cover through Chena Cultivation that
makes elephant habitat constrained resulting in frequent conflicts.

Number of elephants and humans

Recent Elephant deaths killed or injured in the conflict. 2018

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 Visionary Development Outcome | Land Use Plan

“ What happens now is we hit the elephant in his habitat..

PROTECTED ELEPHANT HABITAT

and the elephant hits back at us ”

A variety of management strategies have been developed and are practiced at different scales for preventing and
mitigating human-elephant conflict. However, human-elephant conflict remains pervasive as the majority of
existing prevention strategies are driven by site-specific factors that only offer short-term solutions, while mitigation
strategies frequently transfer conflict risk from one place to another.

Approach Resolution through Interventionist Planning that seeks to link all Key Elephant
habitats and relocate conflicting human habitats to newly irrigated areas with better
Economic, social infrastructure.
Similar approach was taken by the Ministry of Defence and Urban Development with regard to low income
slums in Colombo with many positive outcomes need to be explored in resolving the conflict.

Conceptual
Linkages Subject
TYPICAL ELEPHANT HABITAT to detailed studies
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 Land Use optimization Maximised rain water capture Singapore
92% of rainfall is captured for use
Visionary Development Outcome | Land Use Plan

through climate
mitigated irrigation
Tracing world history and as elaborated in part one, Sri Lanka had a
well-developed system of irrigation evolved from the period 3d century
BC to 12th Century AD., in fact, a pioneering culture of global engineering
mastery. The last major initiative was the Mahaveli diversions of 1977- 1983
with limited activity in the period 2009 - 2014 such as Moragahakanda and
Kalu Ganga branch of the Mahaveli. In comparison to advances in
irrigation in parts of the United States, Australia, China etc,
Sri Lanka has lagged behind in the war years of 1983 to 2009.
Sri Lanka Reservoir map - only 40% of
rainfall is captured for use
It was the 12th century AD King of Sri Lanka, Parakramabahu who coined the
saying “ let no bit of rain flow to the ocean without used by mankind”.
In a state visit in 1978, late Singapore Prime Minister was shown the
Mahaveli Diversion and made this statement of the King state policy of
Singapore in terms of ensuring water security. No engineering intervention will
be without its flaws, and there is always a defect that will arise, but in a well-
designed project such defects can be mitigated. Such defects have often
been sighted as reasons to prevent further exploration and
Implementation of river diversions.

In engineering terms and with frequent climate calamities, damage,

loss of productivity caused by frequent flooding coupled with lack of water
for irrigation as well as potable water, there is a compelling argument to revive
a national river diversion plan. Strong political will is needed to ensure this
revival.

Engineering advances are such that construction methods have evolved for
fast efficient construction and mitigation of geological risks. In this light, the
following needs to be explored to optimise the land use of
Sri Lanka. Newly irrigated lands with dual season harvesting will provide
Sufficient land supply for the relocation of villages affected by
Human-elephant conflict and ample means of living for the majority,
adequate food supply for the population as well as export agriculture while
the reservoirs will ensure flood mitigation and security of a regular supply
of potable water. In fact, in an era where we build towers rising 63 floors at
a 63.5-degree slope in Colombo, the failure to optimise rainfall in face of
frequent climate-related events and social effects caused by lack of water
supply for national use is criminal negligence.

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 Visionary Development Outcome | Land Use Plan
Establishment of a National Land use Plan that compasses A New National
1. Optimizing and maximizing the Irrigation basins and water catchments and creating a strategy for retaining Land use Plan


a global stand ard for living for 16 million Sri Lankans who live in the Villages of the Rain Fed Village &
Plantation Areas and Irrigated Basins.
A Sustainable
marriage of
a. Irrigation Zone – Tapping all remain river basins to ensure that “No drop of water that falls on land goes to the
seas without benefit to the community” and rehabilitating existing irrigation basins Transport,
b.Tree canopy – Wet Zone Agriculture zone with protection from excessive sub-division
Planning and
Development
2. New Industrial Zones in areas difficult to provide irrigation or low rainfall – Yapahuwa, Hambantota, Jaffna, Trincomalee and
adjacent to reclaimed marshes in South West Sub features to Support the National
Land use Plan
3. Commercial Cities of Colombo, Jaffna, Trincomalee and Hambantota with Regional National Cities and Connecting Towns
with Urban Growth Control boundaries.
1. Restructuring of administrative
4. Introduce lines of Urban Growth Boundaries to facilitate housing within growth areas with proper infrastructure and urban mechanism that enable land
amenities to retain productive land, scenic routes etc. fragmentation such as Coconut
Fragmentation Board to be bought
5. Western Growth corridor with Urban Growth Boundaries, under a Town Planning/Physical
Planning Authority Framework to direct
6. Urban Metro Zone – West of Colombo – Galle Highway - Colombo, its existing suburbs of Dehiwala - Mt Lavinia, Kotte, land development to match the National
Kaduwela, Kelaniya, Wattala, the New Port City, revitalization of land of Ratmalana Airport as an amalgamated city for Land use and Town Plans, infrastructure
Business, Education, Tourism & Conventions and convenient Living for Live, Educate, Work and Play and regaining land plans and prevent ribbon development.
f rom under utilization in city core for conducive development.
2. Facilitate mechanisms for sub-
7. New Urban Elevated Road and Rail system
division for natural growth to foster
8. Twin City for Jaffna on Poonaryn Side for unhindered new waterfront city for commerce, IT, Industry and residential use. inheritance rights such as sub-division
from parent to child etc., while retaining
9. Eco Tourism zone – East of Colombo Galle Highway in Kalutara – Rathnapura Districts similar to Ubud of the agricultural landmass
Bali and Chiang Mai of Thailand.
3. Introduce and concept of heritage
10. Dedicated Integrated Tourism resorts with ability to share benefits to small and medium shareholder and and scenic routes
well as low density – laid back Tourism Zones
4. Introduce Concept of Bungalow zone
11. Protecting a depressurizing Heritage Sites and Cities – Anuradhapura, Galle, Nuwara Eliya, Polonnaruwa
with Height limits of 2 floors with third
floor at 50% of largest lower footprint to
12. Protecting Scenic Routes
cover all metro areas to prevent sudden
13. Linked Natural Habitat to resolve Human – Elephant Conflict popping of medium and low-rise
apartment blocks in residential areas
14.1000 ft (300m) elevation National Highway with arterial links that also carries a line of wind power turbines
5. Dedicated high-rise zones within
15. New Airports for Passenger Traffic as well as National Security – main arteries with infrastructure and
urban amenities and only in designated
a.Two Airports to Serve Colombo beach areas

b.Mattala, Mankulam as Major Regional International Airports

c.Short Takeoff Airports – Jaffna, Batticaloa, Koggala, Puttalam, New Digana,

Retaining & Enhancing pristine Sri Lanka
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 Initiatives for Visionary
Development Outcome
Five
Given the urban rejuvenation activities of the benchmark period 2009-2014,
in order to resolve major burning physical planning issues of urban anarchy and
to accelerate economic growth following five major impact initiatives are proposed to

Major
be carried out with same interventionist vigour as in the benchmark period.

Impact
Part 7 Initiatives
With a Trans-Oceanic Heritage Convergence highlighted in part 1
that has made Sri Lankans one of the most cosmopolitan popu-
lations in the world, manifested by the ease of merging well with
any society they had migrated in the 3 decades of war, the stage
is appropriate in a globalized world to take its rightful place as
a world leader to regain its former position as one of Asia’s pre-
ferred places to live, a position it had in Asia, prior to 1970s. This
sets a basis for an emergance of a vibrant cosmopolitan distinctly
South Asian Tropical Country with a hierarchy of cities, their well
planned suburbs & sustainable rural hinterland.

Arising from benchmark interventionist period 2009-2014 a Visionary City in formation that is iconic,
a Live,Work and Play Hub of Global Standards being formed - (Photo October,2019)

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Visionary outcome 1 Sustainable Rural Life
Sri Lanka’s rural hinterland is approx 16 million people compared to less than 4 million
urban citizen. Its key features in terms of impacting urban Sri Lanka are listed as follows.
1. The villagers have strong links to the local temple, kovil, mosque or church and strong social bonds within the community.

2. A strong social welfare system of the state ensures reasonable quality free education and health within easy reach.

3. Generally, freehold or state grant land tenure that does not require a compelling reason to earn for a cash economy or
for monthly mortgage payments.

4. The land generally is lush with a mortgage-free house and with garden cropping.

5. Even if a family member works in the city, strong bonds exists with the village.

6. Preference of employment is a secure state sector job where private, construction or hospitality sector job opportunities
are the secondary options.

7. The village landmass provides, seasonal labour of all skills but in the allocation of priority is always given to social and
local needs such as harvest time before determining work priority in the city.

8. In essence a reasonably satisfied community but with a younger generation full of aspirations.

9. A strong family value system acts as a discouragement to urban migration.

10. Specific skills exist in villages that are of economic value such as craft trades etc, given the correct commercial
Infrastructure can be a major pillar of the national economy with a global reach.

11. An incredibly hospitable people, whom the President of Emirates, Sir Tim Clark recently called “the world’s most
Hospitable people”, coupled with lush landscape giving ample opportunities for developing of an authentic
Tourism product of global reputation for supplementary income without affecting the urban-rural balance..

12. A Value, a cultural and a lifestyle to be preserved, enhanced and retained.

Protecting and enhancing the Temple,

Church, Mosque & Kovil relationship to the villages
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Visionary outcome 1 Sustainable Rural Life
Sri Lankan rural hinterland is approx 16 million
people compared to less than 4 million urban citizen.

Key Objectives

1. Enhancing the Pristine Unique Village Life and

Rural Economy with

a. Irrigation – Tapping all remain river basins to ensure

that “No drop of water that falls on land goes to the
seas without benefit to the community” ensuring every
farmer has two seasons of irrigation water

b.
Aiming for self-sufficient villages that goes beyond
providing Building the basics of a house for survival

c. Economic & Supply Chain Structure for local industry,

value added agriculture enhancement of traditional
village-based skills such as traditional crafts

d. Protecting and enhancing the Temple, Church & Kovil

relationship to the villages

Upgrading rural Sri Lanka to provide satisfactory

rural living while preserving its natural environment

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 Visionary outcome 1
8. Provide an economic base for value added agriculture through
Visionary outcome 1
a. Private – Public Partnership and Industry related sets of
i. Introduction of new and value-added products,

Traditional Agriculture - Processing varieties, techniques such as

Transform agriculture
and Sale with heavy wastage 1. Green house agriculture,
to a modern,
2. Organic Farms
2. Aiming for self-sufficient villages 3. New and high valued crops efficient and high
3. Reversing the adverse effects of Agro – Chemical pollution to local water
ways through enhanced organic farming
4. PPP based system of Product Processing, value added industry
Collection network for supply to domestic & export markets
4. Preventing unplanned ad-hoc subdivision of productive agricultural land 5. Enhancing the base with lower input costs such as
5. Improving the quality of life without destroying the asset of the Sri Lankan Seeds, Pesticides & Fertiliser through a competitive
Village that is already and authentic, conducive, environmentally sustainable, Business environment

stress free living environment

6. Self-sufficient villages where the state’s role goes beyond providing building
the basics of a house for survival

7. Town Planning Provisions and Economic & Supply Chain Structure for
cheaper and economical housing including expansion space for second and
third generation within close proximity to Parents with Solar Based Power
Supply augmented by a reliable national grid

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 Visionary outcome 1 Visionary outcome 1 E-commerce in the villages

Enhance traditional village-based skills

Agrarian Sevice Center to Village E-Comerce Center

Converting the thousands of existing state property of Agrarian

Service Centers as modern E-Commerce centres under perhaps
a local community owned Co-operative set up is recommended.
9. Enhance tradition village-based skills, provide value addition and
marketing opportunities for such trades such as handloom industry, Such spaces can be modelled as Co-Working Space,
traditional crafts for tourism to promote and Create job to E-Commerce Centers, Self Service Banking Centers,
promote local craftsmanship, talent. Jobs Courier collection points for E-Commerce, etc. that takes
10. Be it arts, crafts, make it commercially viable to pass down through the rural economy and domestic production to a globally
Generations to make a living out of, while noting their skills, competitive level with Local Tea Boutiques as gathering
acknowledging the skills set with avenues for Rewarding & space for ideas, coexisting with Agrarian Service Officers.
teaching younger generations to take to traditional arts and crafts
11. Creating adequate opportunities for establishment of local businesses
by returning migrants through space provision, rural credits etc.
12. Protecting and enhancing the Temple, Church & Kovil
relationship to the villages
13. New hierarchy of social infrastructure such as enhanced School,
Hospitals within reach with rapid ambulance service with rapid
response paramedics within 20 minutes on call, shops infrastructure
14. Upgraded Roads and convenient links to town

15. Introduce low-scale and eco-tourism within as a means of a

global authentic experience

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 Visionary outcome 2 Transport
Concept
A Combined Land use, Planning and Transport strategy
will be adopted around a concept of travel time between
- Place of Residence, to work place
or to school of 45 minutes in City of
Colombo & 20 minutes in Provincial
Cities and Towns in with places of
recreation such as park and
amenities linked by safe modern one-way system
transport, cycling tracks and
water front pedestrian walks.
Details of key
initiatives
Summary
1. National Highways - A new highway
1. National Highways - A new highway system of round the is system of round the island
and Express as extension of Southern and Central Expressway as extension of
Expressway at 1000 ft elevation with arteries leading North, Southern and Central Expressway
East, South and West with drastic reduction in travel time to at 1000 ft elevation with arteries
realise the vision. leading North, East, South and
2. Heavy and Long-Distance Rail – Rehabilitate rail links to West with drastic reduction in travel
foster economic & social activities time to realise the vision.
3. Expanded Capital City Transport Links
i. A new Colombo City Inner ring Road with a combined rail trace
ii. Immediate easing of inner-city traffic with expanded
iii. Light rail on a singular trace to be reviewed to explore a tram-
based alternative for rapid, clean comfortable inner-city move
ment that covers all development corridors together with
elevated rail in city limits

- Four Hours by Road – North to South 4. Bus system – Total New Bus Planning system integrated with
Rail and other long-distance travel, including reverting to a
or 3 Hours by Road – East to West Rail integrated tram system
5. A Revitalized Colombo Airport
- Two hours by Road between Major
Economic Centres, Example – Kandy
To Galle or Nuwara Eliya
to Hambantota

Vision of medium speed intercity rail, Elevated Rail, Tram based Transport.

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 Visionary outcome 2
Transport
SOURCE: COMTRANS
Major Population shift to suburbs (1995-2019), yet no new
transport initiatives, (Kesbewa and Kaduwala the lagest
electorates in 2015 vs Colombo Central in 1977)
Light rail on a singular trace will be reviewed to
explore mix of elevated a tram-based alternative
for rapid, clean comfortable inner-city movement
that covers all development corridors together
with elevated rail in city limits
286
2. Heavy and Long-Distance Rail –
a. Existing Rail system and its Gauge to be reviewed to optimise
and economise in terms of future (Note- Sri Lanka’s rail gauge
originally envisaged for goods transport is the widest
in the world, where dead load
traction cost is the highest per
passenger per km in the region.
Review is needed to
reappraise rail gauge).
b. Steps to be taken to revitalize the
entire rail system after a systematic
study to facilitate conducive travel
experience to all segments of society,
both commuter and intercity and
economically vital tourism sector.
c. Commuter Rail system to be augmented to
run at every 8 minutes at peak and 20 minutes
interval at non-peak.
d. Key cities to be linked with frequent rail links to foster
economic & social activities
e. New traces and routes to be developed to cater and
direct preferred development patterns.
f. A new Cross Island elevated Rail from West to East and South to East
3. Expanded Capital City Transport Links–
CURRENT SCENARIO
a. Drastic steps to be taken to reduce travel times from City to
Bigger transport arteries - High Level and Horana Roads Suburbs for all commuters
- Yet Light rail on Battaramulla Corridor
i. A new Colombo City Inner ring Road that runs
over the existing Rail and Canal Reserves.
Existing Dematagoda – Dehiwala segment and
entire Kelani Valley railway from Maradana to Kottawa to be raised
to create with dual tiered rail and road system with landscaped
Pedestrian walks and cycle tracks for cycling to walk as
healthy alternatives
ii. Immediate easing of inner-city traffic with
expanded one-way system
b. Drastic steps to be taken to reduce travel times from City to
Suburbs for all commuters
i. A new Colombo City Inner ring Road that runs
over the existing Rail and Canal Reserves.
Existing Dematagoda – Dehiwala segment and
entire Kelani Valley railway from Maradana to
Kottawa to be raised to create with dual tiered rail
and road system with landscaped Pedestrian
walks and cycle tracks for cycling
to walk as healthy alternatives
ii. Immediate easing of inner-city traffic with expanded one-way system
i. A new Colombo City Inner ring Road with a combined rail trace
CURRENT SCENARIO ii. Immediate easing of inner-city traffic with expanded one-way system
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Visionary outcome 2 Transport

c. To Facilitate faster movement and take through traffic

off the roads a new highway system of a Ring Road
and Arterial Highway will be built over existing canals
and over the existing rail lines from Dematagoda to
Dehiwala via Fort and entire Kelani Valley Railway
without a need for any land acquisition. Example
such a system would take journey time much shorter
and effectively take through traffic out of local roads

d. Rail Lines is city areas to be elevated to create

parklands, public spaces, cycling tracks below them
and to create a safe and green city.

e. Light rail on a singular trace to be reviewed to explore a

tram-based alternative for rapid, clean comfortable
inner-city movement that covers all development corridors

f. A new pedestrian path – cycle track system will be

created linking the City with all suburbs using existing
canal banks and low-lying areas to enable a concept of
cycling to work free of vehicular traffic

g. The vast square footage of space created under the

ring road that also carries the elevated rail will be used
for activities that can sustain in moderate noise
environments such as
i. Social Infrastructure such as Libraries, Dispensaries
ii. Lower segment of tourist infrastructure such as Hostels
and Budget/Boutique Hotels
iii. Tourism related shopping such as handicraft arcades

iv. Relocate from core city traffic generated activities
such as Visa Centres, Dedicated and long hour
banking centres
v. Static display related shopping such as car sales,
fur niture malls, white goods Sales centres etc

h. The One-way system to be expanded to cover the entire

city to ease traffic.

SECTION 1
Elevated Road and Elevated Ring Road with buildup (1/3 segment) Elevated Multi-Tiered Corridor using state land reserves with no acquisition
cost for Park Connectors and Parks, Commercial and community spaces,
elevated rail and road for inner-city travel and connecting transport arteries.
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Visionary outcome 2 Transport Visionary outcome 2 Transport

Airport.
Shorterm
SECTION 2
n. A new Colombo Airport with following.
i. Existing Colombo Airport to be revitalised with Two New Temporary Eco
Friendly Terminals to ease congestion & to extend the life of current terminal
to 2025 with a capacity of 20 million within 8 months and subsequent use
as Second Terminal
ii. A new Terminal that is tropical in design, eco-friendly will be built to the
North of the current Runway for future capacity growth up to 100 million
passengers a year as a regional hub with Second Runway
iii. Mattala Airport will be revitalized as an Integrated Resort
iv. New Airports will be built to serve the North and Area South of Colombo
and Ratmalana will be converted to a new Medium Rise – Education-IT –
Engineering hub related to University of Moratuwa.

Longterm
a. Two Airports for Colombo
i. Colombo North - Rehabilitated and expanded Colombo at Katunayake as
National Gateway with Dual/Triple Runway and 2 or 3 terminals including a
dedicated low cost carrier (LCC) terminal
Elevated rail & road without buildup (2/3 segment) ii. Colombo South – at Nagoda - Kalutara to serve the South Of Colombo
and the South West Urban Belt up to Mirrisa, for scheduled regional, charter
and Low Cost Carrier (LCC) Terminal Examples and justification for 2 airports

4. Bus system – • Brisbane as Gateway and Gold Coast as LLC in Queensland, Australia,
• Bangkok, - 3 Airports in Operation – Suvarnabhumi, Don Mueng,
i. Total New Bus Planning system doing away
U Tapao (Pattaya) and 4th Bangkok West under construction
with 50-year-old bus routes creating
commuter routes to match the concept of • Dubai – Dubai and Dubai World
30 minutes and 20-minute City Concepts • London – Heathrow and Gatwick
from home to school or workplace,
b. Phased Expansion of Mattala with a Visa Free Integrated
including express bus routes that run on
the Ring Roads and Highways Resort within airside
ii. Bus System to be integrated with Rail and
c. Short Takeoff Operations at Digana for Kandy & existing
other long-distance travel
iii. A uniform distance-based charging Trincomalee, Batticaloa, Koggala, Puttalam, Anuradhapura with
mechanism to be explored International Private Jet entry with delegated immigra tion
5. Private Hire of Cars authority to Airport Operator

Initiative such as web-based charging d. Mankulam to serve the North, North Central,Trincomalee etc.
mechanisms designed to limit private
usage of cars to be encouraged and
regulated as a safe and convenient
alternative to Public Transport

6. Right to own a car

On improvement of road system import
tariffs to be leased to ensure right of
every family to own a car
Elevated Rail and Road over canal

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Visionary outcome 3 Abundant Supply of Industrial Land
Summary
A key Element of modern Industrial Revolution in Japan in the
1960’s, Post 1977 China, Singapore in 1990s was abundant,
easy to acquire, leased industrial land supply with necessary
Industrial Zones – Multi- Tiered Industrial Land supply and
Industrial Parks in Wayamba, South, South East and North
linked to New or Existing Ports, feeder ports and
International Airports through
292
Industrial Zone
1. Redirecting industrial areas to areas difficult to achieve
Productive agriculture but with road and services
2. Initiate land development adjacent to new towns
specific to industry and local raw materials
3. Facilitate relocation of polluting industry away
from urban areas
4. Establishing Occupational skills training centres
adjacent to Industrial Areas for Industry – Training
interactions
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
Visionary outcome 4 New World Class Capital “New Colombo”
Inclusive Magnificent City
There is in the country of the Yonakas a great center of trade, a city that is
called Sgala, situated in a delightful country well-watered and hilly,
abounding in parks and gardens and groves and lakes and tanks, a paradise of
rivers and mountains and woods. Wise architects have laid it out, and its
people know of no oppression, since all their enemies and adversaries have
been put down. Brave is its defence, with many and various strong towers and
ramparts, with superb gates and entrance archways; and with the royal citadel
in its midst, white walled and deeply moated. Well laid out are its streets,
squares, cross roads, and market places. Well displayed are the innumerable
sorts of costly merchandise with which its shops are filled. It is richly adorned
with hundreds of alms-halls of various kinds; and splendid with hundreds of
thousands of magnificent mansions, which rise aloft like the mountain peaks of
the Himalayas. Its streets are filled with elephants, horses, carriages, and
foot-passengers, frequented by groups of hand-some men and beautiful
women, and crowded by men of all sorts and conditions, Brahmans, nobles,
artificers, and servants. They resound with cries of welcome to the teachers
of every creed, and the city is the resort of the leading men of each of the
differing sects. Shops are there for the sale of Benares muslin, of Kotumbara
stuffs, and of other cloths of various kinds; and sweet odors are exhaled from
the bazaars, where all sorts of flowers and perfumes are tastefully set out.
Jewels are there in plenty, such as mens hearts desire, and guilds of traders in
all sorts of finery display their goods in the bazaars that face all quarters of
the sky. So full is the city of money, and of gold and silver ware, of copper and
stone ware, that it is a very mine of dazzling treasures. And there is laid up
there much store of property and corn and things of value in warehouses-foods
and drinks of every sort, syrups and sweetmeats of every kind. In wealth it
rivals Uttara-kuru, and in glory it is as lakamand,
the city of the gods

.(The Questions of King Milinda, translated by T. W. Rhys Davids, 1890)- The Milinda Pañha
("Questions of Milinda") is a Buddhist text which dates from sometime between 100 BCE and 200
King Bimbisara, Kingdom of Magadha with his royal cortege CE. It purports to record a dialogue between the Buddhist sage Nāgasena, and the Indo-Greek
issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha king Menander I (Pali: Milinda) of Bactria, who reigned from Sagala (modern Sialkot, Pakistan).
(Stone Sculpture 3rd Century BC. – Sanchi)

URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA

 Visionary outcome 4
New World Class Capital
“New Colombo”
Summary
New Capital City Centre– New Iconic City Centre for Colombo with affordable
inner city living that is vibrant, full of buzz, pedestrian malls to be created
integrated with subcentres of Wattala, Kolannawa, Battaramula, Maharagama, &
Ratmalana and with the Port City as “New Colombo”

Details of Visionary Outcome

1. New Iconic City Centre for Colombo with affordable inner city living that is
vibrant, full of buzz, pedestrian malls will be created
2. New City Plan that encompasses the following
i. An Iconic Central Core City integrated to Port City
ii. Protecting Vistas to Iconic Structures of identity like Lotus Tower
and Altair, Water Bodies
iii. Highrise growth in Core City, Port City, selected arteries
and corridors, regional subcentres
iv. Specific action to limit high-rises in Colombo 7 to 2 floors and expansion
of designated bungalow areas and green cover areas to cover parts of
Colombo 5, Colombo 3, Colombo 8 & around Parliament etc,
3. Capital City Highrise and activity Hubs that encompasses derelict public
housing to create new Sub- Centres linked by Modern Transport in following
precincts as examples
i. Welikada Jail – Dematagoda Axis
ii. Panchikawatte Triangle for motor spares & Repairs, urban clean and light
industry, local logistics
iii. Narahenpita – Wellwatte – Rajagiriya Axis as a new ring for Healthcare,
Education, Clean and light Construction Material Sale and Distribution and
Urban Fringe water front Living
iv. Battaramulla corridor for Highrise living and urban fringe offices and state
administrative functions
v. High level road and Kelani Valley Rail Corridor
vi. Galle Road Corridor

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 Visionary outcome 4
New World Class Capital
“New Colombo”

In the ancient world Sri Lanka boasted the second and third tallest
structure after the Cheops Pyramid namely Abhayagiri and Jethawana Stupas.
In comparsion, Abhayagiri and Jathwana constructed 3rd Century BC to 1017
AD was taller than the 16th Century London's tallest tower St Paul's Cathedral.

The benchmark period of 2009 - 2014 saw the design & Construction
of multiple highrises that has seen the conversion of Colombo from a Low- Medium
rise laid back town to a highrise city of vibrant mix uses with no less than 10 tower
related projects completed or under construction

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 Visionary outcome 4 New World Class Capital “New Colombo”

In 1980 Dubai had 70 km. of Waterfront Interventionist Action had made it 1,470 km or 21 times by 2010.
Colombo likely to see multiple waterfront expansion in 10 years through Interventionist Action. 2024

2011

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 Visionary outcome 4
New World Class Capital
“New Colombo”
4. Urban Slum & Derelict Neighbourhood upgrading and Urban Regeneration

5. Enhanced Social Infrastructure

i. A ring of new private and state for boys and girls schools at the 10 miles
radial points from core city & port city for primary & secondary education

ii. New Private and State Hospitals in the 15km ring from core city centre to
augment current state hospitals

6. Quality of city life will be improved by creation of more parks and walkways

7. Distinct Precincts for religion, live, work and play shall be created around
Landmarks such as Beira Lakes etc.

8. Distinct iconic plazas will be created to enhance significant religious places

such as Gangarama Temple, St Lucia’s. Cathedral, Slave Island Mosque,
Significant Hindu Shrines

9. All historical areas will be preserved, with historical listing and height
controls, residential character retained expansion of special primary zone
by designated bungalow areas while designated areas will be
encouraged to grow higher.

10. Steps will be taken to create a downtown core and increase city living
population minimizing need for transport and creating a vibrant live, work,
educate and play city for South Asia, through a mix of affordable housing,
hotels, office developments and luxury housing

11. Affordable Housing will be initiated for city living for public servants
and their children and young professionals including in state’s component
in the Port City

Example of Urban Regeneration-Panchikawatta

Original proposed 1992
Credit: Surath Wickramasinghe Associates (SWA)

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 Visionary outcome 4
12. Port City to be reenergized as a vibrant live, work, educate and play zone
New World Class Capital “New Colombo”
13. Colombo City to be integrated with subcentres of Wattala, Kolannawa,
Battaramula, Maharagama, & Ratmalana

14. With New Airports to be built to serve the North and Area South of
Colombo and Ratmalana to be converted to a new Medium Rise – Education -
IT – Engineering hub related to University of Moratuwa.

15. Colombo & large Town Inner-city Sewerage to be treated and recycled as
pipe borne flushing, irrigation and industrial water

Cycle from Mt Lavinia, Bellanvila, Maharagama etc to Colombo

City through linked Park Connectors for work and receation

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 Visionary outcome 4 2024
New World Class Capital
“New Colombo”

2011

14 15
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Visionary outcome 4 New World Class Capital “New Colombo”

A City that provides for and displays its

Multi-Religeous/Multi-Cultural Heritage
with Opened up Plazas

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 Visionary outcome 5 Planned Regional Cities and Towns
Current Scenario

Summary
Regional Town Expansion – Interventionist Expansion of existing
towns to encompass good quality local shopping, education,
heath, state administration facilities, urban living and national
holiday resorts to selected unproductive lands with a new network
of Roads, Each of above major Projects will have Second and
Third layers that directly benefit the community leading to
contended family living.

Details of Key initiative

Regional Town Expansion with Engineering Infrastructure and
social infrastructure such as schools.

1. All existing towns will be expanded using derelict low-lying

areas, optimizing land use and new Bazar areas will
be created for commerce.

2. Create New Southern, Eastern and Northern Growth Poles

i. Twin City Development of Jaffna to Poonaryn with Industry,
New Housing, IT and Entrepreneur space with South Jaffna
as a modern waterfront city
ii. Based on previous infrastructure work expand Hambantota as
second Megapolis of an Eco – City for Logistics, Air Travel,
Industry, IT and Sports
d. Revitalisation of all towns based on concepts expanded in
Ambalangoda town plan enclosed.

3. New Industrial areas creating thousands of jobs by local

industrialist will be created using derelict land adjacent to existing
major towns and action will be taken to prevent industrialization of
the Agricultural Heartland and retain the historical
Temple/Church/Kovil – tank – Villager relationship

2019

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 Hierachy of cities

Visionary outcome 5 Planned Regional Cities and Towns

Sri Lanka Chaotic Anarchy

Singapore

Sri Lanka
Night time Satellite Image - Disorganised Ribbin Development along
roads vs orgnised planned developemnt in other countries

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 Visionary outcome 5 Planned Regional Cities and Towns FOR REVERSING RIBBON DEVELOPMENT AND URBAN SPRAWL
THROUGH ACTIVE RECLMATION AND TOWN EXPANSION

With no designated expansion space, Hambantota

the story of town expansion in Sri Lanka has
been of unplanned developments along roads.
In fact, the entire countryis one whole bazaar Spots, IT,
T
T,
along some major roads. At the same time, Educattion

3 Major Commercial Cities vast extents of derelict lands are found in the
immediate vicinity, mostly undevelopableun-
Jaffna Twin City, Ambalangoda, der the Paddy Lands Act. Mechanisms need to
be put in placefor town expansion as illustrat-
Trincomalee ed with pressure taken off the major roads. A
systematically expanded town will enhance
Airport, Integrated
Resort City

Trincomalee productivity, increase property values, reduce

traffic and provide for conducive live, work and
play environments in all towns.

Using the already constructed deep

seaport and Mattala Airport, Hambantota can
Hambantota, Port – Industry City be planned to be converted to a global service Protected green and
and industrial city whilst retaining the Agricul- agriculture
Hambantota Route to
tural hinterland Wildlife
Toursim

Shangri-La Hambantota

Port – Industry City

Hambantota City – Three Linked Clusters interceded with Nature of preserved greenery,
irrigation tanks, Tank Fed agriculture, with links to Wild Life & Beach Tourism
Sports, IT, Education & Convention Mattala Mahinda Rajapaksa Airport, Integrated Resort City
Cluster Suriyawewa Golf, Shopping, Theme Park , Hotles within Visa Free Zone

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 Visionary outcome 5 Planned Regional Cities and Towns FOR REVERSING RIBBON DEVELOPMENT AND URBAN SPRAWL

Jaffna Twin City

THROUGH ACTIVE RECLMATION AND TOWN EXPANSION

With existing land encumbrances, it is difficult to develop Jaffna city due to historic value.
Jaffna Twin City
Thus whilst retaining the character of olf Jaffna town a new city to be built as a twin city
across the lagoon. Designed as a waterfront city with vast expanses of water frontage
New Jaffna forming part of a twin city can be a global benchmark for the revival of a war
-torn province.
MIXED OFFICE/ HISTORICAL CITY
RESIDENTIAL ZONE
OFFICE ZONE

INDUSTRIAL
INDUS
ZONE

RESIDENTIAL
ZONE
EDUCATION
EDUCA
ZONE
SPOR
SPORT ZONE
AIRPORT
AIRPOR
ZONE

NEW CITY

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 Visionary outcome 5 Planned Regional Cities and Towns FOR REVERSING RIBBON DEVELOPMENT AND URBAN SPRAWL
THROUGH ACTIVE RECLMATION AND TOWN EXPANSION
CONNECTING CITY
GOLF CL
CLUB
INDUSTRIAL ZONE SECONDARY
PUBLIC OPEN SP
SPACE/
WILDLIFE RE
RESE
SER
RVATION/ CENTER
ECO TOURISM PUBLIC PARK
INDUSSTRIAL
INDU

COMME
OMMERRCIAL ZONE TERRACE HOUSES
HOUSING ZONE BUNGALOWS
TERRA
TERR ACE HOUSE SPORT COMPLEX
CONDOMINIUMS Industrial
EXISTING LAND USE WITH THE BANGA
ANGALLOW
NEW CITY PLAN
CONDOMINIUM

SCHOOL/GO
SCHOOL/GOVERNMENT OFFICE . EXI
EXISSTING
CITY
SURR
SURROUNDING

Example of Exploded Town Housing

Ambalangoda
Golf club

TOURIST CENTER &

2 LAKE TOUR CENTER
TRANSPORTA- GOLF CLUB & VILLAS
TION HUB
BOAT STATION
1 . EXI
EXISSTING
CITY
Eco tourism
OPEN SPA
P CE/ PUBLIC PARK
PA P . NEW CITY
RESIDENTIAL ZONE
SURROUNDING
HOTEL/ RESORT
MAIN ROAD
SUB ARTERIAL ROAD
LOCAL ROAD
RAILW
L AY
LWA
Ambalangoda
BOUNDARY Development
BROADWALK
LOCAL MARKET
GOVERNMENT
TOWN CENTER SCHOOL OFFICES

ZONING PLAN NEW CITY MASTER PLAN

14 URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA 15

 | A Pristine Sri Lanka
■ Tourism Growth
■ Eco-Tourism
■ Revitalisation of Bentota Resort Town to a global destination
■ Creating Iconic Developments
■ Protecting the Estuaries, Heritage and Scenic Routes & Limited Highrise Beach Resorts
■ Clean - Green Energy
■ Health, Education and Sports Hubs
■ Leadership & Administrative mechanisms to achieve a Visionary Development for all

Part 8
A Pristine
Sri Lanka

An Authentic Sri Lanka Experience

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Tourism Growth | A Pristine Sri Lanka
With rise in global middle class, Tourism will be a key pillar in growth and
investment for youth and opportunity for Entrepreneurs. Key initiatives will
be undertaken to

1. Ensure a 5 million tourist target in 5 years and 10 million targets

Tourism Center Expansion
in 10 years (yet ¼ of annual inflows to competing market
Thailand)

2. Tourism related Human resource infrastructure to be developed

including state affiliated training institutions for Skills
Development, encouragement for foreign training school
to function.

3. Bentota National Tourism zone to be revitalized and expanded

by 4 times using land to the South around Dedduwa lake as a
Global Resort

4. New Tourism Development Zones to be encouraged for Luxury,

Affordable accommodation by preserving river estuary zones
and where designated high-rise beach zones with integrated resorts
5. Integrated Resorts to be developed with Global Standard Duty
Free Shopping, Food and Beverage Options and
Accommoda tion options for all segments at Kalpitiya, Balapitiya,
Weligama & Mattala – Hambantota Axis
6. Encourage and foster all tiers of Accommodation for star classed
hotels, branded residences for mandatory Sale and Lease Back,
Hostels, Home Stays etc

7. International Hotel Brands to be brought into automatically

market Sri Lanka as a global destination.

8. Direct development to vibrant, multi-tiered developments

to cater to demand and varied guest experiences such as

i. Protected hinterlands of Ella, Nuwara ELiya

“Adam’s Peak Castlereigh Valley” including seeking
World Heritage Listing
ii. Low-rise River estuaries
iii. Selected Highrise Locations such as Weligama Bay,
Parts of Hambantota, Balapitiya, Unawatuna etc for
multi – Tiered room supply and guest experience
iv. Prohibit low active front developments such as
non – leaseback apartments in Beach front
v. Create New Medium rise or iconic integrated resorts
such as around Mattala Airport, Port City, Kalpitiya,
East Coast, Hatton etc
vi. Expansion of Exhibition Centre Space for MICE
development
vii. Complement and depressurise Nuwara Eliya with a
New Hill Station,Yala, Sigiriya and other high presure
destinations with alternative tourist circuits illustrated.

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 | A Pristine Sri Lanka
Tourist travel routes - MULTI AIRPORT BASED CIRCUITS

Tourism Growth

An Authentic Experience

298 299
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Visionary Developmet outcome | A Pristine Sri Lanka
Revitalization Of Bentota Resort To a Global Destination BENTOTA revitalization MASTERPLAN
GOLF RESORT & GOLF VILLAS MARINA HOTEL & APARTMENTS

Existing Bentota
1
4 Visionary
Development
3 Outcome
1 TOWNSHIP

Diverted Galle Road

/Railway
2 NATURE RESERVE

4 3 THEME PARKS

1 4 TOURISM RELATED
4

2
OLD TOWN ZONE
EXISTING BENTOTA RESORT
NEW CITY PLAN SURROUNDING
Vision EXISTING RESIDENTIAL

300 301
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 1
1 | A Pristine Sri Lanka
2

3 Kalapitiya
Tourism Planning Initiatives to redirect ribbon
4 development & create Iconic Developments
5
6
7
8

Integrated Resorts of shopping, kite flying, theme park, golf, water villas

BENTOTA revitalization MASTERPLAN

302 303
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 PROTECTED ESTUARIES Protecting the Heritage Routes | A Pristine Sri Lanka

All major river estuaires to be protected from high rise development. such estuaires to
include Kalu, Benthara, Kosgoda, Gin Ganga estuaires and coastal belt of Mirissa, Dikwella, etc...

1. Protecting vital scenic routes from ad-hoc Developments and ribbon development
2. Protect All World Heritage Sites such as Galle, Anuradhapura etc from new medium
and low-rise structures that competes with these sites as visual elements
3. Create and Designate National Heritage Sites and regulate surrounding developments
4. Protect all selected river estuaries such as Kalu Ganga, Bentota, Kosgoda, Gin Ganga,
land banks such as Mirrisa, Dickwella, Yala etc from high-rise developments

304 305
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Limited Highrise Resorts with vista | A Pristine Sri Lanka

Clean Energy Plan

1. Every household to be encouraged to have own Solar
Power generation for affordable household energy with
buy back facility to CEB and loan facilities with zero
duty and taxes on imports

2. Unused open spaces such as Reservoir Reserves to

be leased for energy generation through solar farms

3. There is a massive wind catchment possible along

the entire 1000 ft elevation hill catchment from Matale
to Deniyaya with the Powerline being a cable that
runs along the new ring highway

4. Waste to energy plants to be encouraged

70%of coastal land bank is unbuildable due to existing cemetries and title issues. Selected locations to be permitted
for high rise concentrated tourism development with vistas between blocks and 50% open at ground to 6meter slab 5. All remaining river basins to be exploited for Hydro Power
height. permitted locations are Weligama, Unawatuna, Balapitiya and similar master planed areas

306 307
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Health City, | A Pristine Sri Lanka
Sports City and Final Mechanism for Visionary Development
Education Hub Enabling Financial Status (Benchmark period 2009-2014)
The massive interventionist developments in the 2009 to 2014 were made possible by fiscal policies that included the following.
1. National Education system will be restructured to orient
youth towards modern day economy of Knowledge Based a. Low VAT base
Economy, Tourism, Retail, Nation Building. To facilitate.
b. Low Interest Average weighted lending rate – (AWPLR ) – at around 9% - where the borrowing cost of all stakeholders
a. Health Hub with a cluster of Hospitals will built in were kept low.
selected locations such as the Narahenpita Cluster
from Havelock City to Narahenpita to Rajagiriya inner c. A non-fluctuating and stable currency regime at parity rate of 1 USD to 135 LKR
ring of Colombo City which also be an International d. Financial Instruments such as the Defense Bond for public investments where-in a bond is a low interest instrument of finance.
Health & Education Hub including wellness integration
with Ayurvedic Hospital at Rajagiriya. e. Lease of State Land to reputed developers at market price with end results being landmark developments and investments in
the city 10 times the value of land sales. Example Altair – Land USD 25.6 million, Value of Investment – USD 250 million, Shangri
b. Sport Cities with Two new National Universities will
La – Land Value – USD 75 million. Total Investment – USD 800 million
be built around concept of Sports, Sports
Development and Health and Well Being of the f. Land swaps in exchange for Economically Deprived housing where a housing stocks is gained by the state at no construction
nation in Hambantota, Diyagama and in the and land cost and the developer makes further investment of 10 times the lease value of allocated state land. Example – Des
Hill Country as Public Private Partnerships. tiny Land Value – USD 15 million, Investment Value – USD 150 Million
g. Developers asked to bear cost of surrounding public infrastructure – Example Colombo City Center, Altair Worthy to note
outdated colonial audit based state finance mechanisms that even taxes state infrastructure projects using state funds and
state loans, the end result being a higher cost, higher loan and higher indebtedness. In essence, the state pays interest on
borrowings to cover its own taxes. The current structure for development needs to be reviewed to facilitate visionary
development.

Financial means needed for moving forward

towards a visionary outcome
a. Acting on the premise supply creates its own demand and infrastructure and visionary development is a generator of growth, measures
adopted in the bench mark period of 2009-2014 need to be reviewed, revived and adopted to facilitate visionary
development including adopting further creative finance tools.
b. Create an on-demand system of land tender, where developers trigger land sale in a competitive tender with a
guarantee to bid above base price of tenderer offered at point of triggering the tender
c. Total new approach to Development Finance with recreation of genuine Development Banks for large scale as well
as small scale developments and development finance role to be taken off traditional commercial banks including
banning of financing ribbon developments.
d. New mechanisms such as development right swaps over
infrastructure in exchange for visionary development.
e. Entire tax structure to be reviewed to weigh the benefits of construction taxes,
import duties vs tax revenue during operation of assets, including exploring
deferring construction VAT but charge operations stage VAT instead.
Example the 10 - year Operational VAT from a hotel is 10 times Construction VAT.
The levying of construction stage VAT and duties makes the entire development
Sports, Convention City (Shared Facility with Universities) unviable at times and no visionary development and follow up
benefits of employment, GDP contribution etc can take place.

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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Administrative mechanisms to achieve
a Visionary Development for all
Planning Policy & Institutional Framework
1. Current Policies
a. Planning is traditionally ad-hoc, it is regulation of compatibility of land uses that constantly change
with planners having no clue on real estate economics.
b. Often plans are prescriptive and based on outdated norms, not revised for decades despite
change of economics, demographics etc, are not visionary and more often not fit for the
Age or its intended purpose of social enhancement.
c. Current policies have led to organic unconducive growth vs Directed Growth, prevents
conducive large-medium projects or growth centres that if properly directed prevents
unconducive urban sprawl
d. Have led to over development of inappropriate sites and neighbourhoods with no regard for ac
cess, vehicle movement and competing uses for Roads and Infrastructure
e. Have resulted in ad-hoc and rampant Ribbon Development
f. Towns are constrained with uncoordinated development with congestion, pollution,
and inefficiency with no mechanism for expansion
g. Resulting in town that are constrained by unproductive agricultural lands or low yielding
paddylands protected by outdated over protective legislation such as Paddy Lands Act,
outdated concepts in land acquisition act, which only fostered ribbon development
h. Fostered and protected by a series of poor judicial interventions that lacks any foresight into vision change of land use matters to facilitate a hindrance free development environment that facilitates creative planning and architecture, free a web of
ary planning or whose decisions have been based on exterior factors examples being
Water’s Edge judgement, Union Place acquisitions, etc
i. Regulations in its current form some not revised for 33 years
i. Have been tool to hound forward thinking state sector planners for decisions in national interests
ii. Are hampering development than fostering conducive development
iii. Prevents conducive development or creative planning or architecture but never stopped
massive unconducive ribbon development, illegal developments, slum developments etc
2. A new policy framework that
a. Learns from Ancient Sri Lankan Planning History of Sustainable, Orderly, Predictable Development pattern
b. Identifies redevelopment opportunities and ensures an ample supply of state
land for development to prevent unconducive ribbon development
c. Looks at cities as public spaces and is regulated by form-based Development Guide Plans (DGP)
d. Directs diversified preferred growth for creative planning, architecture and city making
e. Flexible, market friendly, with an administrative mechanism that encourages visionary development validated by a
Planning Tribunal from legal impediments and delaying processes of inflexible, outdated, unimaginary set of regulations
f. A flexible set of rules, adaptable and adjustable through circulars adopted by Planning Authority and validated by the
Planning Tribunal published as supplementary to Gazetted regulations
g. A new set of Regulations that ensure life and building safety
310
3. Strong Leadership For Viosionary Development | A Pristine Sri Lanka
The preceding chapters have identified that the urban improvements in the benchmark period of 2009-2014 have been carried out with strong and
interventionist leadership. Visionary development portrayed here can also only be carried out under strong interventionist leadership at the highest level
with the ability to make decisions that will be ground breaking. The urban anarchy seen in Sri Lanka is unprecedented. Paralitytic analysis or excessive
studies will not be the path. Strong and decisive leadership is needed for the implementation of visionary developments, free of political rhetoric.
4. Administrative Framework
a. Key Changes to be made institutional framework in City and Town Planning including enhancement of role of Central Bodies.
b. A planning regime based on a national land use plan, professional role of town planners as visionary planners vs vested
local interests through Urban Local Authorities with zero experience in complex and visionary planning
c. A New Institution “Places Sri Lanka” to foster, direct and create landmark developments, urban developments, spaces associated with transit devel
opments that would be the title holder and legal custodian of all government held urban and town centre lands, who shall develop, direct
& manage new Iconic and catalyst Urban & Housing Development Projects for all sectors of job creation, shopping, education, health,
and well-crafted residential precincts for contented family living.
d. A unified Planning Regime under the “UDA” by amalgamating National Physical Planning Dept (NPPD)/former Dept of Town & Country Plan
ning with the UDA, for a strong conducive single window planning regulatory regime under the UDA that fosters, directs, approves visionary Town
Planning for Sri Lanka with Centralised Approval for all major projects. Valid to note that the NPPD has no regulatory powers and is a redundant.
e. Create new “Sri Lanka Land Transport Authority (SLLTA)”, whose function shall be to regulate and direct all Transport
Planning and Regulatory matters such as Road Reserves, Travel Routes, Travel Options in all modes of transport to include three Wheelers, Buses,
Rail, Taxi services including Hire of private vehicles such as Uber, provide development guidelines and regulatory approval of building plans (taking
over the traffic and carpark design control aspect of the UDA)
f. Creation of a Planning Tribunal whose decisions are valid in law to be headed by 2 Experienced Town Planners, (At least one of them with global
experience) and a retired Judge of the Supreme Court on lines of the Bribery Commission to cover all planning rule deviations, land acquisitions,
general rules used to curtail creative planning and Visionary Development.
g. Reconfigure the “Sri Lanka Land Reclamation & Development Corporation” as the main engineering body for land formation in Town Expansion Pro
gram illustrated in all towns.
h. Create a “National Parks Board” to develop the softcape & tree planting, Hardscape, planning, development and maintenance aspects of parks and
waterbodies by expanding and integrating the Dept of Botanical Gardens as a national agency that covers the development , research and develop
ment of all parks and waterbodies than its wide knowledge being used only to run three historical gardens.
i. Bring together the Planning & Development function of Sri Lanka Tourism (SLTDA) under the UDA or “Places Sri Lanka” to direct conducive, vibrant
tourism development projects including creative new landbanks for development with the aim of protecting heritage sites, scenic routes, beaches and
vistas.
j. In core urban areas pool and amalgamate all state land for development under the Urban Development Authority or “Places Sri Lanka” and create a
system of demand-based release of state land on demand-based tender to promote sustainable national growth to match the imagin
ary vision of entrepreneurs with strict development timeframes or reversal back to state on failure to achieve anticipated completion.
k. Amalgamation of all institutions of the State that deals with Planning and Urban Development under one Umbrella Ministry for National
Development. i.e.
i. UDA, ii. “Places Sri Lanka” iii. SLLTA, iv. SLLRDC, v. Condominium Authority, vi. National Parks Board, vii. NHDA viii. Planning & development func
tions of the Sri Lanka Tourism, ix. State Engineering Corporation, et
l. Redemarcate Urban Local Councils to match Urban Development profile. Greater City Councils (example London) in
Colombo, Hambantota, Kandy and Galle amalgamating neighbouring councils for effective use of resources.
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URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 About the Authors
Foreword Contributors
Professor Priyan Mendis, PhD – A world renowned Engineer of Sri Lankan Origin,
is a Professor in the Department of Infrastructure Engineering and the Leader of the Advanced Protective
Technology of Engineering Structures Group, University of Melbourne, Australia. He was also the Convener
of the ARC Research Network for a Secure Australia (RNSA) from 2004-2011. Educated at Royal College,
Colombo, He is also the Director of the ARC Centre for Advanced Manufacturing of Prefabricated Housing.
Research interests include Protective technology of structures, Smart Infrastructure design, assessment
and monitoring, Design of tall buildings and bridges, Disaster mitigation and management in structure,
Sustainable infrastructure. He is also the Chairman of Colombo based Structural Design Firm Civil and
Structural Engineering Consultants (CSEC), who are the structural Engineers of large number of recent
high risers in Colombo
Lorenz Pereira - Educated at Royal College Colombo and University of Cambridge, son of
illustrious Prof E.O.E Pereira, First Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, Peradeniya that he established and
subsequent Vice Chancellor of the University of Peradeniya. Despite migrating to Australia in the 1970s to to
become an eminent City Planner with the Victorian State Government, still retains an enormous passion for a
Visionary development outcome for Sri Lanka. He has made significant planning contributions to make
Melbourne one of the World’s Best 3 Cities to live, including introducing for the first time, the concept of
weather proof Tennis utilising retractable roof on to the Australian Open Tennis Stadium for uninterrupted play
and multiuse of the Stadium for other uses such as concerts and events. A member of a select Inter
Government Task Force that prepared the first Tourism Strategy for Victoria and special working group that
prepared the first Planning Scheme for the City of Melbourne etc. Winner of the Urban Development Institute
of Australia Planning Award in 2010 for work on the Kew Residential Services Project. Has Project Managed
significant development projects for the Government valued at over 4 billion dollars. Better known in Sri Lanka
as the most outstanding All-round Schoolboy Sportsman ever.
Authors
Sudharshan Seneviratne -
Ph.D., FSLCA., FNASSL. Currently Emeritus Professor,
University of Peradeniya and Consultant Professor, Faculty of Technology. University of Sri Jayawardenepura.
Educated at Ananda College, Colombo, Delhi University and JNU (New Delhi). Former Professor of
Archaeology at the University of Peradeniya. Was Joint Director, Citadel of Anuradhapura Excavation Project
and directed several excavations at megalithic and monastic sites including the completion of the Jetavana
stupa. Former Director-General of UNESCO Sri Lanka Central Cultural Fund and completed the Galle Dutch
Fort conservation, museums at Kataragama, Sigiriya and Marine Archaeology Museum at Galle. He also
initiated programs on Sustainable Heritage Tourism Initiative and Heritage for Conflict Resolution and Peace
Education. Consultant Archaeologist to Governments of China, the Maldives, South Korea, UNESCO, American
Institute of Archaeology, SAARC and IORA. Former Senior Advisor Culture to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
former High Commissioner from Sri Lanka to India. Visiting Distinguished Professor
and Fulbright Professor at several prestigious Liberal Arts Colleges in the USA and at Cornell University.
Delivered Distinguished Guest lectures and orations in several countries including his address at the
United Nations in 2011.
312
Athula Amarasekera - Educated at University of Moratuwa in Architecture with First
Class Honours and University of Hong Kong in Urban Design with Distinction, an architect- town planner of
international repute based out of Bangkok and Singapore, who used to call Singapore and now calls
Melbourne, Sri Lanka & some global airlines home. He is the Principal of Design Team 3, Singapore, formerly
Director Conservation (1991-1995) of UNESCO – Sri Lanka Project for Conservation of Abhayagiri Project of
World Heritage City of Anuradhapura, Council Member/Office Bearer, Singapore Institute of Planners (2003
– 2013), has global experience in city & town planning, urban design and architecture from Singapore, the
Middle East, India, South East Asia, Australia with some landmark projects including some of India’s Landmark
Techparks, Marina Barrage & Biopolis Singapore & Altair, Access Tower 2, Colombo
Jayantha Wickramasinghe - Former CEO of Lanka Logistic from 2006 -2014,
member Board of Management, Urban Development Authority, Sri Lanka, 2008 -2014 was instrumental in
coordinating and realizing some of the significant investments of the periods such as ITC, Tata Housing, Altair,
Shangri La Developments at the UDA.
Steve Dunn RPIA - is an urban planner living in Australia who first came to Sri Lanka
as a volunteer in 2006 and 2011 as a member of the Post-Tsunami Reconstruction Planning Project by the
Planning Institute of Australia in partnership with the Sri Lankan Government and the Institute of Town
Planners of Sri Lanka. Since then Steve has returned to Sri Lanka many times as a Director and volunteer with
Bridging Lanka working in northern Sri Lanka. Steve is a Fellow of the Planning Institute of Australia
with a long career in senior urban planning roles in state and local government.
Nishantha de Silva - Educated at Ananda College Colombo, Occidental College
Los Angeles and the University of Cambridge, he is the former Chief Operating Officer of Lanka Logistics,
from 2009-2015, and was involved in Urban Policy matters of Sri Lanka’s Ministry of Defense and Urban
Development from 2010 – 2014
Design and production
Dushantha Ahangama - CEO – Gravitas Integrated Holdings (Pvt) Ltd.
Dushantha is a communications industry professional counting nearly 3decades of experience.
During this period, he has served in a senior managerial capacity at globally and locally renowned
agencies. He hasalso served on the boards of professional industry forums and nationalorganisations.
Panduka de Silva
Photo – Artist / Travel Photographer / Lecturer
Past Creative Director / Liaison – World Press Photo Foundation; Past President, Honorary Fellow,
Institute of Sri Lankan Photographers (ISLP) Pursuing the art and science of photography as a hobby turned
profession, embraced photography as a pastime in his school days back in 1971. Although his calling was in
the field of management for fifteen years, embarked in the practice of photography as a profession. Social,
Portrait, Fashion, Travel and now in to teaching photography keeps me abreast with the latest technique,
equipment and developments besides being involved closely in many National and International photography
related entities. Presently Lecturer in Photography in multiple Institutions from University of Colombo to
Academy of Multimedia Design & Technology; Fellow of the Panel developing of the Curriculum & Syllabus for
National Standard for Photographer
313
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A BOLD NEW BEGINNING

This Book serves, in its totality, as the commencement of a dynamic new beginning to the
The Authors wishes to thank the following. Urban and Rural Planning and Development Revolution in Sri Lanka. Its intent has been to
set a context, an on-going action scenario, to pride over relevant past historic development
1. Mr. Gotabaya Rajapaksa, former Secretary, Ministry of Defence and Urban glories for inspiration, to identify and give credit to outstanding interventionist deeds and the
Development visionary actions of the benchmark period 2009-2014, to articulate some of the continuing
deficiencies that have caused the current planning and development anarchy, and to map a
2. Panduka De Silva, PMYL Wasantha, TAPK Gunawardhana, WMKGSB Kulathunga,
way forward with bold visionary concepts.
for their Excellent Photography

3. Team at Gravitas International, Dushantha Ahangama, Anoushka Wijaysurendra, The book challenges the destructive current planning and administrative approach as much
Asanka Ilamperuma, Jagath Rathnakumara, Buddhi Danushka Perera, as the interventionist actions of the bench mark period 2009-2014 did and informs, educates
Maduka Weerathunga, Sanjeewa Gayan and inspires to take arms to action to both promote and hasten the journey to achieve an
achievable pristine Sri Lanka both for urban and rural residents.
4. Research Team from Access Group for initial research,
The initial key thrust of the narrative has been to identify and address the existing urban and
5. Layout and Graphics Team from Design Team 3, Bangkok & Colombo offices, rural planning and development anarchy and then to promote exciting visionary concepts to
Archt. Priyangika Niroshani, Kitthithat Nitikonworakun, Saruda Pongpun, Ploy alleviate pressing planning and development issues. The most significant, necessary and
Chalanburitham , Theerawat Sae-Lee timely being the transport initiatives, proposed for our urban and rural environments. Sri Lanka
urgently requires a massive injection of funding into an icon infrastructure project to stimulate
6. Deshamanya, Dr, Archt/Planner, Surath Wickremasinghe for some of the material
and ideas and concepts in Sections 6 - 8
economic growth and tackle the perennial transport anarchy. The visionary concept regarding
transport outlined in Part 7 will be such an icon development of international recognition and
7. Vidya Jothi Dr Roland Silva, for some of the ideas and concepts appearing in commendation, producing monumental amenity benefits to all Sri Lankans.
Sections 6 - 8
The current deplorable state of play requires an interventionist attack on a massive scale.
8. The Sponsors of the Publication Indecision, over prolonged and unnecessary analysis that causes paralysis and diminishing
returns is not on the agenda. An entirely new approach to urban and rural planning and
9. Harindra Dahanayake, Chathuka Senananyake, Gamini Abeygunawardena for development needs to be adopted without delay. This book is intended to be the catalyst to
Logistical Assistance stimulate that journey. It’s a story on Sri Lankan urban and rural planning that has never been
told before. There lies its essence and its value. It is not to be treated as a mere academic
10. Anisha Amarasekera for proof reading the script
treatise, which it is certainly not. It is not a book for planning purists nor pandits whose modus
11. Print team at Aitken Spence Printing
operandi is predictable, boring and unimaginative. The ideas and concepts outlined here are
indeed bold and exceptionally visionary, yet implementable.
12. Publication Launch Team at BNS

13. Web Publishers – Creative Software All that is needed is strong and decisive leadership.

14. Weerasena Adikari for translations

314 315
URBAN REVOLUTION OF SRI LANKA
 Select Bibliography
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177-196.

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Submited in September 2019

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