THERMAL SYSTEM RESEARCH UNIT, CHING MAI UNIVERSITY

ASHRAE STANDARD 93-2003

METHODS OF TESTING TO DETERMINE
THE THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF
FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS

BY
SARAWUT POLVONGSRI

SCHOOL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

MAEJO UNIVERSITY
THERMAL SYSTEM RESEARCH UNIT, DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
CHIANG MAI UNIVERSITY

AUGUST, 5-9, 2013

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Introduction

Solar water heating system (SWHS) uses solar energy in thermal form. The
working principle is to convert and transfer the energy to water from low to high
temperatures. The hot water is mainly used in households, hotels, hospitals, or even in
industries. The SWHS consists of two main components; solar collector and hot water
storage tank. The system could be designed as free convection of which the water
circulation is based on the temperature difference of the water in the solar collector
and that in the storage tank and forced convection of which the water circulation is
controlled by an external pump. Generally, the temperature of hot water is not more
than 40-60 o C which uses in the hotel, hospitals and households, the flat-plate solar
collector is popular for the production of hot water.

Plat-Plate Solar Collector Performance Analysis

The important parts of a flat-plate solar collector as shown in Figs 1and 2 are
black absorber plate-and-tube for transferring the absorbed heat to a fluid in the tube;
transparent cover to the solar radiation that reduces convection and radiation losses to
the atmosphere; and insulation to reduce conduction losses from the absorber surface.

Figure 1 Cross section of flat-plate solar collector.

Figure 2 Flat-plate solar collector. (Source: www.visualdictionaryonline.com) 

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When considering solar collector under steady state as shown in Fig. 3. The
absorbed solar radiation equals to the rate of heat gain from solar collector plus the
rate of heat loss from absorber surface. Thus the rate of useful heat from solar
collector is calculated from

,  (1)

.
m

Figure 3 Schematic sketch of the energy balance at a flat-plate solar collector.

where = rate of useful heat from solar collector (W)

= optical efficiency of solar collector
= total solar radiation incidence on tilted surface (W/m2)
= solar collector area (m2)
= overall heat loss coefficient of absorber surface
(W/m2 o C)
= temperature of collector surface (o C)
= the ambient temperature (o C).

Practically, the temperature of collector surface ( ) is difficult to measure

accurately, so it needs to adjust the equation 1 by assigning heat removal factor ( )
which can be written in a form of the inlet temperature of solar collector ( ) as

, (2)

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and the collector efficiency can be calculated as

, (3)

where = mass flow rate of solar collector (kg/s)

= specific heat capacity of working fluid (J/kg o C)
= inlet temperature of solar collector (o C)
= solar collector efficiency
The tests were performed following the ASHRAE Standard 93-2003 with the
flow rate of 1.2 liter/min-m2 and then the flow rates were varied between 0.8 - 1.6
liter/min-m2. The inlet temperature was adjusted in a range of 35 - 65 oC by the
electric heater. The tests were carried out around noon on some clear sky days and the
solar radiation is more than 790 W/m2. During the experiment a fan was used to
control the wind speed over the collectors at the average value of about 3.35 m/s. The
conditions and test methods can be explained as follows:

Thermal efficiency test

The thermal efficiency test was described in this Chapter, the measurements
required for the test and the analysis of the test data are relatively simple, the test
standard requirements concerning steady-state conditions are demanding.
A complete thermal efficiency tests requires 16 measurements (called data
points). The efficiency for one data point is calculated from measurements taken over
a defined time period, here called the data period. Steady-state conditions must be
maintained during the data period . Only the data from measurements taken during
this data period are used to calculate the efficiency for each data point. However,
steady-state conditions must also be maintained during a defined time interval prior
called the pre-data period. The test period is defined as the time over which steady
state conditions are maintained for a single measured efficiency point. This means that
the test period as defined in the Standard consists of the pre-data period and the data
period defined in this report. The situation is visualized in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Test and predata periods for the efficiency tests (τ = collector time
constant1 fixed test mount)

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The lengths of the pre-data period are defined in section 8.3.3.3 of the
Standard. The lengths of the pre-data periods depend on the kind of test apparatus
used. For the outdoor tests with a fixed test mount, the pre-data period is 15 min; for
outdoor tests with an altazimuth (adjustable azimuth) mount (which allows to track
the sun) pre-data period is reduced to 5 minutes or half of the collector time constant,
whichever is larger; and for the indoor test with a solar irradiance simulator, no pre-
data period is required. The length of the data period is, independent of the test
apparatus and is the greater of a 5 minute interval or the collector time constant.
Pre-data periods have a large effect on the time required for a collector test.
In fact, the pre-data period is responsible for the main part of time consumed for a
single outdoor fixed-mount test. Assuming a collector time constant of less than 5
minutes (typical for flat plate collectors), the data period during which the efficiency
measurements are recorded would be 5 minutes long while the pre-data period is 15
minutes. So 75% of the minimum time required for the test is used for the pre-data
period and any measurements taken during this period do not directly contribute to the
archived test results. It is not clear if the long pre-data period results in an increase in
test quality. At this point, three different time periods relevant for the efficiency tests
are defined. During these periods, steady-state conditions must be maintained. The
following section will deal with these steady-state conditions.

Steady state conditions

The ASHRAE 93-2003 Standard describes test methods for steady-state or
quasi-steady-state thermal performance, time response and angular response tests.
The purpose of performing the tests under steady-state conditions is to avoid transient
influences during the test that could inflate the “measured” performance of a collector.
The Standard rigorously defines the conditions for steady-state conditions, as listed in
Table 1.
Clearly, several of the variables have extremely tight tolerances on
variability. These tolerances make the tests both difficult and time-consuming. At this
point, we are optimistic that alternative test methodologies which relax the current
tolerances are possible while still preserving the integrity of the collector efficiency
derived from the data. If alternative methods can be identified and validated, the cost
of collector testing along with the time required may be significantly reduced.

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Table 1 Steady state conditions of the ASHRAE 93-2003 standard for outdoor tests

Solar irradiance

ASHRAE 93-2003 requires that the average global solar irradiance on a

surface normal to direct beam radiation not less than 790 W/m2 (250 Btu/ft2-h). The
standard does not specify whether the average of the data period or the complete test
period (pre-data and data period) shall be used. Additionally, if a fixed test mount is
used, the incident angle of direct beam radiation is not necessary normal to the
collector plane. The pyranometer measures the total irradiance upon the collector
plane but not necessarily normal to direct beam radiation. If the Standard requirement
described above were realized exactly, a second sun tracking pyranometer would be
required to measure the total normal direct beam radiation or a calculation method for
the total normal direct beam radiation should be provided by the Standard. The
requirement to measure efficiency at near-normal incidence conditions as defined of
the Standard requires that the collector orientation be adjusted such that the incident
angle modifier is within a range of ±2% of the normal value. This can, depending on
the collector angular response, allow incident angles up to 40°.
The maximum allowed variation in solar irradiance upon the collector plane
is ±32 W/m2 (±10 Btu/ft2 h). For some reason at this point new time intervals are
defined in the Standard. The maximum variation shall not occur “for durations of 10
minutes or two time constants, whichever is greater, both prior to and during the
period when data are taken.” Figure 5 tries to relate the new time intervals for steady-
state solar irradiance to the previously defined requirements.
Does the new required time interval increase the time needed for a single
test? For outdoor tests with a fixed test mount, more time is required only if the
collector time constant is greater than 7.5 min. As most flat plate collectors have

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smaller time constants the required time is not increased. However, for the outdoor
test with an altazimuth mount the pre-data period would at least double in length, in
the worst case (τ > 10 min) the length would be four times the length defined above
for the pre-data period.
It is not clear how the irradiance variation related to a time interval with a
length of MAX(10 min,2τ) should be applied to a data period (= “period when data
are taken”) with length MAX(5 min, τ). The Standard needs to be clarified in this
area.

Fraction of diffuse radiation

The Standard requires that the diffuse irradiance on the aperture plane be a
maximum of 20% of the total irradiance on the collector aperture plane. The diffuse
fraction can be calculated by the following equation (ASHRAE 93-2003).

cos (4)

Gt is the total irradiance, measured by the pyranometer in the collector plane,

and GDN is the direct beam radiation, measured by the sun-tracking pyrheliometer.
The diffuse fraction shall have a value of less than 20% throughout the test.

1)
Figure 5 Variation of solar irradiance, fixed test mount

Incidence angle
The incidence angle, θ, is the angle between the incident direct beam
radiation and the normal to the collector plane. ASHRAE 93-2003 defines the
following incidence angle modifier-related requirements:
Experimental Determination of Collector Thermal Efficiency: For tests
conducted to determine the thermal efficiency at near-normal incident conditions, the
angle of incidence shall be in the range in which the incident angle modifier varies no
more than ±2% from the normal incidence value. For tests conducted to determine the
incident angle modifier, the orientation of the collector shall be such that the collector

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is maintained within ±2.5 degrees of the angle of incidence for which the test is
conducted, throughout the test period.
The definition related to the incidence angle modifier tests refers to a certain
range of incident angles (±2.5°). This means that for example the incident angle
modifier test for an incident angle of 60° can be performed with actual incidence
angles between 58° and 62°. Furthermore this means that the collector orientation
must be adjusted, with respect to the solar direct beam irradiance, to meet these
requirements. The incidence angle modifier test is discussed in more detail in the next
section of this report. This incidence angle requirement is not a problem for the actual
test setup at MATC.
The second definition in the cited paragraph of the test standard is related to the
thermal efficiency tests. The most important question is if the defined range of allowed
incidence angle modifier values requires that the collector track the sun during the
efficiency tests. If so, manual adjustments in collector orientation throughout the tests
would be required. The following analyses show that solar tracking is not required.
For the following considerations, a precise definition of the possible test
mounts is required. The different kinds of test mounts are not defined in section 3.1 of
the ASHRAE 93-2003 Standard. However an implicit definition can be found in the
following citation from the Standard.
Number of Data Points: For the case with a fixed-mount test apparatus, two
of the four data points shall be taken during the time period preceding solar noon and
the other two shall be taken in the period following solar noon, the specified periods
being chosen so that the data points represent times symmetrical to solar noon. This
requirement is made so that any transient effects that may be present will not bias the
test results when they are used for design purposes. The requirement for obtaining
data points equally divided between morning and afternoon is not mandatory when
tested with an altazimuth mount.

Ambient temperature
The range of ambient temperatures of all data periods shall be less than 30°C
(54°F) (ASHRAE 93-2003). This requirement relates different data points of one
complete test with each other. Within one test period, the test standard requires to
“maintain” the ambient temperature within a variation of ±1.5°C (2.7°F) during the
pre-data period. Although not mentioned explicitly in the standard, the same
requirement should be applied for the data period

Wind speed
The Standard requires the wind speed lie between 2.2 and 4.5 m/s (5 and 10
mph) (ASHRAE 93-2003). This requirement applies to the test period and a MAX(10
min,2τ) interval prior to the test period. The Standard further stipulates that some 
collectors with glass glazing may require a longer interval of up to 20 minutes or four
time constants. If taken literally, this requirement would mean that ahead of every test
period (which is defined by the Standard as the time over which quasi-steady-state

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conditions are maintained, ASHRAE 93-2003) an additional time period with the
described wind conditions would be required. The situation is shown in the figure
below.

Figure 6 Variation of wind speed, alternative 1 1)fixed test mount.

This interpretation would further increase the required pre-data time period.
It is more likely that there is an inconsistent use of the expression “test period” in the
Standard. If the requirements for the wind speed are applied in the same way as those
for the solar irradiance, the requirements for the wind speed must be met prior to the
data period instead of the whole test period. This alternative interpretation is shown in
Figure 7.

1)
Figure 7 Variation of wind speed, alternative 2 fixed test mount

Flow rate
The heat transfer fluid flow rate remains fixed for all data points. The
recommended mass flow rate per aperture area for a liquid fluid is 0.02 kg/s-m2 (14.7
lbm/hr-ft2). An exception is made for collectors which are designed for special flow
rates. These collectors should operate with their design flow rates (ASHRAE 92-
2003). The flow rate shall be maintained constant at the recommended flow rate
within ±0.005 gpm (0.000315 liter/sec).
For the collector actually tested at MATC, the recommended flow rate is 3.2
gpm. A difference of 0.005 gpm requires maintaining the operating flow rate to within
0.0022% of its nominal value! This requirement is very restrictive when compared to

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the inlet temperature which is allowed to vary within ±1.8°F or ±2%, whichever is
larger. It seems that the Standard should prescribe the flow rate accuracy as a
percentage of the nominal flow rate, rather than an absolute value.

Inlet temperature
The Standard requires that the inlet temperature be maintained constant
(within ±1°C [±1.8°F], ASHRAE 93-2003) during the pre-data and data periods.
However, the standard requires the inlet temperature to be controlled within ±0.05°C
(±0.09°F) during the complete test period. Why is a device required in the test setup
which can control the inlet temperature within ±0.09°F, if the allowed inlet
temperature variation for steady state conditions is ±Max of (1.8°F, 2%), which is in
the lowest case 20 times greater than the control unit could provide? Again, there
seems to be inconsistencies in the variation in controlled and uncontrolled variable
related to collector testing. The variables that have extremely narrow tolerances
significantly complicate the data collection process for measuring collector
performance.

Incident angle modifier test

The thermal efficiency tests are performed at near normal incident angles of
the solar beam radiation upon the collector plane. However, the thermal efficiency of
a collector depends on the angle of incidence of the solar radiation. The incident angle
modifier is used to describe this dependence, which can be important for
simulating the collector behavior under some conditions.

Summary of Performance of Solar Collector Testing

The tests were performed following the ASHRAE Standard 93-2003 with the
flow rate of 1.2 liter/min-m2 and then the flow rates were varied between 0.8 - 1.6
liter/min-m2. The inlet temperature was adjusted in a range of 35 - 65 oC by the
electric heater. The tests were carried out around noon on some clear sky days. The
mass flow rate of each fluid flow was read directly from a rotameter with an accuracy
of ± 0.0035 Liter/min, the temperatures of the fluids at the inlet and the outlet ports of
the solar collectors and the ambient temperature were measured and recorded by a set
of K-type thermocouples with an accuracy of ± 0.1 oC. A pyranometer having an
accuracy of ± 55 W/m2 was used to measure the solar radiation incident on the solar
collector. During the experiment a fan was used to control the wind speed over the
collectors at the average value of about 3.35 m/s. The method of performance test can
be as following:

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Methods

1. Open pump (P1) and set the inlet Temperature (35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60 and 65 o C).
2. Set the mass flow rate ex. 2.6 liter/min (0.043 liter/s).
3. When the system is in steady state, record the data such as inlet temperature (Tfi) and
outlet temperature (Tfo) , solar radiation (IT) , and ambient temperature (Ta).
4. Analyze data and calculate thermal efficiency as follow in Table 1.

Collector efficiency,  coll

Q coll m f C p (T fo  T fi ) (T fi  Ta )
 coll    FR ( ) e  FRU L
I T Ac I T Ac IT
(6)

 coll
FR ( ) e  

 FR U L
Y

X  
T fi  Ta
IT

Cp = 4,187 J/kg-K , Collector area (Ac) = 2.16 m2

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Example: the data from experimental following the ASHRAE Standard 93-2003 is
shown in Table 2

Table 2: Solar Collector Testing , Mass flow rate (mf.)= 2.59 liter/min (0.043 liter/s)
Tfi set mf IT Tfi Tfo Ta Qcoll (Tfi-Ta)/IT ηcoll
o
C Liter/s W/m2 o
C o
C o
C W
0.043 833.00 34.81 41.38 25.05
0.043 836.00 34.42 41.28 24.55
35
0.043 837.00 34.61 41.18 24.85
0.043 839.00 34.42 41.38 25.05
Average 0.043 836.25 34.56 41.30 24.88
0.043 866.00 39.77 45.85 24.55
0.043 866.00 39.48 45.75 24.85
40
0.043 864.00 39.38 45.65 24.75
0.043 864.00 38.98 45.55 25.05
Average 0.043 865.00 39.40 45.70 24.80
0.043 886.00 44.54 50.32 25.35
0.043 888.00 45.03 50.42 25.55
45
0.043 886.00 45.03 50.72 25.35
0.043 885.00 44.83 50.72 25.35
Average 0.043 886.25 44.86 50.54 25.40
0.043 889.00 49.99 55.09 26.24
0.043 889.00 49.80 55.38 27.14
50
0.043 887.00 49.50 55.28 26.44
0.043 887.00 49.10 54.89 26.74
Average 0.043 888.00 49.60 55.16 26.64
0.043 879.00 54.26 59.16 26.14
0.043 881.00 54.66 59.46 26.44
55
0.043 883.00 54.46 59.75 26.94
0.043 881.00 53.96 59.56 26.84
Average 0.043 881.00 54.33 59.48 26.59
0.043 834.00 59.42 63.73 27.14
0.043 832.00 59.52 64.03 27.84
60
0.043 835.00 58.92 64.03 27.24
0.043 834.00 58.72 63.63 27.64
Average 0.043 833.75 59.15 63.85 27.46
0.043 802.00 64.18 68.00 27.84
0.043 802.00 63.88 68.20 27.34
65
0.043 801.00 63.29 67.90 27.04
0.043 799.00 63.39 67.50 27.14
Average 0.043 801.00 63.69 67.90 27.34

From Table 2 could be found the performance curve as shown in Table 3 and Figure8.

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Table 3 The results of calculated thermal performance of solar collector.
Tfi set mf IT Tfi Tfo Ta Qcoll (Tfi-Ta)/IT ηcoll
o
C Lite/sec W/m2 o
C o
C o
C W
0.043 833.00 34.81 41.38 25.05 1182.09 0.012 0.66
0.043 836.00 34.42 41.28 24.55 1235.66 0.012 0.68
35
0.043 837.00 34.61 41.18 24.85 1182.05 0.012 0.65
0.043 839.00 34.42 41.38 25.05 1253.55 0.011 0.69
Average 0.043 836.25 34.56 41.30 24.88 1213.34 0.012 0.67
0.043 866.0 39.7738 45.85 24.551 1093.7 0.018 0.58
0.043 866.0 39.4761 45.75 24.850 1129.4 0.017 0.60
40
0.043 864.0 39.3769 45.65 24.751 1129.4 0.017 0.61
0.043 864.0 38.98 45.55 25.049 1182.9 0.016 0.63
Average 0.043 865.00 39.40 45.70 24.80 1133.8 0.017 0.61
0.043 886.0 44.5364 50.32 25.348 1041.0 0.022 0.54
0.043 888.0 45.0325 50.42 25.547 969.5 0.022 0.51
45
0.043 886.0 45.0325 50.72 25.348 1023.2 0.022 0.53
0.043 885.0 44.834 50.72 25.348 1058.9 0.022 0.55
Average 0.043 886.25 44.86 50.54 25.40 1023.1 0.022 0.53
0.043 889.0 49.9935 55.09 26.244 916.9 0.027 0.48
0.043 889.0 49.795 55.38 27.140 1006.2 0.025 0.52
50
0.043 887.0 49.4974 55.28 26.443 1042.0 0.026 0.54
0.043 887.0 49.1005 54.89 26.742 1041.9 0.025 0.54
Average 0.043 888.00 49.60 55.16 26.64 1001.7 0.026 0.52
0.043 879.0 54.2599 59.16 26.144 882.0 0.032 0.46
0.043 881.0 54.6568 59.46 26.443 864.1 0.032 0.45
55
0.043 883.0 54.4584 59.75 26.941 953.5 0.031 0.50
0.043 881.0 53.9623 59.56 26.841 1007.1 0.031 0.53
Average 0.043 881.00 54.33 59.48 26.59 926.7 0.031 0.49
0.043 834.0 59.4194 63.73 27.140 775.7 0.039 0.43
0.043 832.0 59.5186 64.03 27.837 811.5 0.038 0.45
60
0.043 835.0 58.9233 64.03 27.240 918.7 0.038 0.51
0.043 834.0 58.7248 63.63 27.638 882.8 0.037 0.49
Average 0.043 833.75 59.15 63.85 27.46 847.2 0.038 0.47
0.043 802.0 64.1819 68.00 27.837 687.2 0.045 0.40
0.043 802.0 63.8843 68.20 27.339 776.6 0.046 0.45
65
0.043 801.0 63.2889 67.90 27.040 830.1 0.045 0.48
0.043 799.0 63.3882 67.50 27.140 740.7 0.045 0.43
Average 0.043 801.00 63.69 67.90 27.34 758.7 0.045 0.44

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0.80

0.70

0.60
Efficency (%)

0.50

0.40
y = ‐6.5656x + 0.7123
0.30
R² = 0.8421
0.20

0.10

0.00
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050
Tfi‐Ta/IT

Figure 8 the performance curve of flat-plate solar collector.

Exercise

A water heating collector with a collector area of 2.16 m2 is tested by the

ASHRAE method, with beam radiation nearly to the plane of the collector. The
following information comes from the test: What are the and for this
collector?

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Reference
Development and Validation of Flat-Plate Collector Testing Procedures –
Report 1 Solar Energy Laboratory.
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 93-2003, Methods of Testing to Determine the
Thermal Performance of Solar collectors. ISSN 1041-2336, ASHRAE, Inc., 2003,
1791 Tullie Circle, Ne, Atlanta, GA30329
Polvongsri, S. and Kiatsiriroat, T. 2011. Enhancement of Flat-Plate Solar
Collector Thermal Performance with Silver Nano-fluid. The Second TSME
International Conference on Mechanical Engineering, Krabi, Thailand.
Polvongsri, S. and Kiatsiriroat, T. Performance Analysis of Flat-plate Solar
Collector Having Silver Nano-Fluid as a Working Fluid. Heat transfer engineering
international journal, the electronic final copy will be published to internet (Taylor &
Francis online website) around April/May 2014.

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