INTRODUCTION

Identification of the person or dead body means the recognition of

that person or dead body. It is based upon certain physical
characteristics unique of that individual. It may be complete or partial.
Complete identification means the absolute fixation of individuality of
a person. Partial identification means ascertainment of only some
facts (for example race, sex, age, stature etc) about the identity while
the others remain still unknown.

In the living, in civil courts, identification is required in cases such as

insurance, pension and inheritance claims; marriage, disputed sex;
and missing persons. In criminal courts, it is required in cases such as
absconding soldiers and criminals; persons accused of assault, rape,
murder etc; impersonation; and interchange of new born babies in
maternity hospitals.

In the dead, identification is required:

In cases of fire, explosion and accidents.

When unknown dead body is found on the road, in the fields, railway
compartment or in water etc.

In cases of decomposed bodies, mutilated bodies, or skeletal remains.

Accurate identification is mandatory for the establishment of corpus

delicti after homicide since unclaimed bodies, portions of dead bodies,
or bones, are sometimes brought forward to support a false charge.
The term corpus delicti means the body of the offence (essence of
crime and not the physical body of the victim) and in the case of
homicide, it includes:-

Positive identification of the body

Proof of its death by the criminal act of the accused.

Once the identity is established a trial for murder can take place even
in the absence of the recovery of the dead body.

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Visual identification is not reliable in majority of the cases therefore,
two important marks of identification must be noted and described in
detail in all certificated related to the living or the dead1.

SEX DETERMINATION

FROM

HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS

As humans, we have three basic racial groups. These groups are

Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid. With the addition of inter-
breeding, many other subgroups can be found. Each group possesses
unique skeletal characteristics which allow us to "race" the remains of
a person. In addition to race, we can also estimate age, stature, and
sex2.

USING BONES FOR IDENTIFICATION

It consists of a five phase procedure:

1) A general description and confirmation of the human origins of the

material.

2) The estimation and segregation of the minimum number of

individuals.

3) The determination of sex.

4) The estimation of age.

5) The estimation of stature.

1 Parikh’s The Medical Jurisprudence, Forensic Medicine and Toxiology, 9 th Edition 2010.
2Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences

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SKELETON
Skeleton is an excellent material in living and non-living population for
genetic, anthropological, odontologic and forensic investigations. Skull
and bone features vary from male to female and differentiation is
usually based on the male features that are typically more
pronounced and marked than female features.

The human skeleton consists of both fused and individual bone. Fused
bones include those of the pelvis and the cranium.At birth a newborn
baby has approximately 300 bones, whereas on average an adult
human has 206 bones. The difference comes from a number of small
bones that fuse together during growth, such as the sacrum and
coccyx of the vertebral column.
The human skeleton performs six major functions; support,
movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals,
and endocrine regulation.

The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other

primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in
the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis exist. In
general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust
than corresponding male elements within a given population. The
human female pelvis is also different from that ofmales in order to
facilitate childbirth3. Unlike most primates, human males do not
have penile bones.4

3Thieme Atlas of Anatomy, (2006), p 113.

4Patterns of Sexual Behavior Clellan S. Ford and Frank A. Beach, published by Harper & Row, New
York in 1951.

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The determination of sex by examination of the skeleton is based
upon the appearances of:
1. Pelvis (innominates + sacrum )
2. Skull (cranium + mandible )
3. Long bones (Humerus, Femur )
4. Sternum
5. Scapula, metacarpal bones

Krongman ranks accuracy of sex determination using the pelvis at

95%, the skull at 90%, the pelvis and skull at 98% and long bones at
80%5.

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

5Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences

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Differences between men and women include all the features related
to reproductive role, notably the endocrine (hormonal) systems and
their physical, psychological and behavioural effects.

Hormonally controlled

Evident in adults, not children (sex hormones increase around time of

puberty, leading to secondary sexual characteristics).

Varies within a population, and between populations.

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM – BASIC PRINCIPLES

The evaluation of sexual dimorphism in skeleton is generally based on

two factors:
1. Size difference
2. Function related differences.

MALES:usually larger

CHILDBIRTH: unique female pelvic characteristics.

MASCULARITY: usually more evident in males.

Determination of sex is based on two methodological approaches:

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1.Morphological (based on Shape ) Adult males and females differ in
both general size and shape, and this variation is reflected in the
skeletal anatomy.Morphologic techniques focus on shape – the bone
configurations that are macroscopically visible and differ between
males and females. There are important advantages to this approach,
especially when a particular form is recognizable despite temporal and
population variation. Obvious morphological differences such as the
subpubic angle of the pelvis and ramus flexure in the mandible allow
optimal separation of the sexes (approaching 95% accuracy).
2. Osteometric (based on bone dimensions)
6Personal Identification from skeleton or its remains By : G.S. Kaler& N.A. But

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 Males longer or larger than females.

SKULL

The skull is a bony structure which serves as the general framework

for the head. The skull supports the structures of the face and protects
the head against injury.
The skull can be subdivided into two parts: the cranium and the
mandible7.

The features that indicate sex are :

1.General appearance
2.Supra orbital ridges
3.Orbits
4.Glabella
5.Zygomatic arches
6.Mastoid processes
7.External occipital protuberance
8.Mandible
9.Palate

7The Essentials of Forensic Medicine

By : Cyril John Polson , D.J.Gee , Bernard Knight

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When compared, the female skull appears smaller and more
gracile. The male skull is usually larger and more rugged.

Supraorbital Ridges
This is the region directly above the orbit and nose, or the "brow
ridge“.
Less pronounced=female
More pronounced=male

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The frontal bone (forehead) of males tends to be slanted back
and on females it tends to be more rounded.

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Zygomatic Arches
In females, the zygomatic arch is less pronounced, and tends to not
extend posteriorly beyond the external auditory meatus.
In males, the zygomatic arch is more pronounced or robust, and tends
to extend posteriorly beyond the external auditory meatus.

Mastoid Processess
The mastoid processes are located on the inferior portion of the
temporal bone, just posterior to the external auditory meatus.

Skull Mandible
The mandible together with the maxilla, the largest and strongest
bone of the face . It forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in
place.

Ramus
Mandible in the male is closer to a right angle than the female. In the
female, the ramus is an obtuse angle to the lower jaw bone, i.e.,

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greater than 90 degrees. The ramus in the male is wider and larger 8.

PELVIS

The Pelvis comprises the two innominates and the sacrum.

The hip bone (or innominate bone) is a large, flattened, irregularly

shaped bone.
Together with the sacrum and coccyx, it comprises the pelvis.
Components
It consists of three parts, the ilium, ischium, and pubis, which are
distinct from each other in the young subject, but are fused in the
adult.

8Clinical Anatomy for Medical Students By : Richard S . Snell

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Sex Determination from Pelvic Morphology

The girdle is the most sexually dimorphic region of the skeleton, and it
can be used to determine sex with a high degree of accuracy. The
sexual dimorphism of the pelvis is primarily the result of reproductive
mechanics, and is not readily apparent until adolescence.

Sex Differentiation in the Human Pelvis

Overall appearance between the two pelvic regions .The male pelvis is
larger and more robust than the female pelvis.
2. The size of the opening between the hips (A). The female skeleton
requires this additional room for birthing.
3. The hips in the male (B) are more vertical than the female's9.

9The Essentials of Forensic Medicine

By : Cyril John Polson , D.J.Gee , Bernard Knight

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Five features in innominate that indicate sex in pubic region are:
(1) width of sciatic notch (inferior ilium)
(2) subpubic angle (concavity)
(3) ventral arc (on the pubis, near the symphysis, ventral)
(4) medical Ischio-pubic ramus (bone connecting pubis and ischium)
(5) acetabulum diameter (lateral innominate)

Sciatic Notch
Generally, the sciatic notch tends to be wider in the female and
narrower in the male.

Subpubic Concavity

As a result of females having a longer pubic part of innominate bone,

the subpubic angle and hence the subpubic concavity has to be larger

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in females.

Ventral Arc
It is the curved ridge of bone on anterior surface of the pubic bone.
It is common in females and almost never seen in males.

Medical Ischiopubic Ramus

In females is a ridge, sometimes a narrow surface.

Pelvic Inlet
The pelvic inlet is the space you see when both innominates and
sacrum are articulated.
The space in the middle of the pelvic bone (the pelvic inlet) is larger in
women to facilitate birthing10.

SACRUM

The sacrum is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine and at
the upper and back part of the pelvic cavity.

The sacrum articulates with four bones:

•the last lumbar vertebra above
•the coccyx below
•the hip bone on either side

Sexual dimorphism
The sacrum is noticeably sexually dimorphic .
10KrishanVij Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Principle and Practice, 5 th
Edition2011.

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In the female the sacrum is shorter and wider than in the male.
The bone is also directed more obliquely backward; this increases the
size of the pelvic cavity.
Straighter in males & curved in females11

STERUM

The is an elongated, flattened bone, forming the middle

portion of the anterior wall of the thorax. Its upper end
supports the clavicles and its margins articulate with the
cartilages of the first seven pairs of ribs.
It consists of three parts, from above downward:
•Manubrium
•Body of sternum
•Xiphoid process

11Personal Identification from skeleton or its remains By : G.S. Kaler& N.A. But

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The sternum or breastbone is a long flat bone shaped like
a necktie located in the center of the chest. It connects to
the ribs via cartilage, forming the front of the rib cage, and
thus helps to protect the heart, lungs, and major blood
vessels from injury. The sternum consists of three regions: the
manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid process. It is one of
the largest and longest flat bones of the body. The word
sternum originates from the Greek, meaning chest12.

CONCLUSION

The general configuration of a body of a person may help to determine

the sex, in males the shoulders are wider than the hips, but in females
the hips are wider than the shoulder. In females the breasts are more
developed than males. The faces and the pubes of males are more

12Clinical Anatomy for Medical Students By : Richard S . Snell

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hairy than of women after the attainment of puberty. Besides the
above following characteristics may also be noted:

The boses of the men are longer, thicker and heavier and the muscular
attachment more prominent than of women. The female skeleton is
smaller and lighter. The male skull is larger heavier and more rigid.

The pelvis of women are shallower and wider than those of men. In
females, the outlet are larger than in males. The ribs of females are
more curved than that of males.

The determination of sex in normal cases usually presents no difficulty

and external inspection may be conclusive. In cases however in which
the bodies mutilated or skeleton is available for the examination it
becomes somewhat difficult question and the expert opinion becomes
necessary13.

Evidence of sex can be divided into the three categories:

Presumptive

Highly probable

The certain

To the first category belonging at such points as the features and

general appearance of the face and presence or absence of the hair
upon it.

The second category belongs to the possession of vagina, uterus and

accessories and large breast in female sex and in the male sex the
possession of prostate gland, vesiculae and penis which are necessary
to the introduction of sperms.

The third category consists in the possession of the ovary be the

female and testicles be the males.

13KrishanVij Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Principle and Practice, 5 th

Edition2011.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

References

The Essentials of Forensic Medicine

By : Cyril John Polson , D.J.Gee , Bernard Knight

• Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences

• Clinical Anatomy for Medical Students

By : Richard S . Snell

• Wikipedia

• Personal Identification from skeleton or its remains

By : G.S. Kaler& N.A. Butt

Parikh’s The Medical Jurisprudence, Forensic Medicine and

Toxiology, 9th Edition 2010.

KrishanVij Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology

Principle and Practice, 5th Edition2011.

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