Introduction: Ozone Layer Depletion

The distribution of ozone in the stratosphere is a function of altitude, latitude and season. It is
determined by photochemical and transport processes. The ozone layer is located between 10
and 50 km above the Earth's surface and contains 90% of all stratospheric ozone. Under
normal conditions, stratospheric ozone is formed by a photochemical reaction between
oxygen molecules, oxygen atoms and solar radiation.
The ozone layer is essential to life on earth, as it absorbs harmful ultraviolet-B radiation from
the sun. In recent years the thickness of this layer has been decreasing, leading in extreme
cases to holes in the layer. Measurements carried out in the Antarctic have shown that at
certain times, more than 95% of the ozone concentrations found at altitudes of between 15
and 20 km and more than 50% of total ozone are destroyed, with reductions being most
pronounced during winter and in early spring. Natural phenomena, such as sun-spots and
stratospheric winds, also decrease stratospheric ozone levels, but typically not by more than
1-2%.
The main cause of ozone layer depletion is the increased stratospheric concentration of
chlorine from industrially produced CFCs , halons and selected solvents. Once in the
stratosphere, every chlorine atom can destroy up to 100 000 ozone molecules. The amount of
damage that an agent can do to the ozone layer is expressed relative to that of CFC-11 and is
called the Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), where the ODP of CFC-11 is 1.
The lifetime of some of these ozone depleting substances is very long, and they may continue
to deplete the ozone layer long after their use has been phased out. In this publication the
ODP values for 100-year timespan are used. Nevertheless some shorter-lived substances may
have a very high chlorine loading potential and thus their effect in the short term is much
larger than reflected by their ODP value.
Aircraft emissions of nitrogen oxides and water vapour add to this depletion effect by
creating ice crystals that serve as a base for ozone destroying reactions.
The main potential consequences of this ozone depletion are:
 increase in UV-B radiation at ground level: a one percent loss of ozone leads to a two
percent increase in UV radiation. Continuous exposure to UV radiation affects
humans, animals and plants, and can lead to skin problems (ageing, cancer),
depression of the immune system, and corneal cataracts (an eye disease that often
leads to blindness). Increased UV radiation may also lead to a massive die-off of
photoplancton (a CO 2 "sink") and therefore to increased global warming.
 disturbance of the thermal structure of the atmosphere, probably resulting in changes
in atmospheric circulation;
 reduction of the ozone greenhouse effect: ozone is considered to be a greenhouse gas.
A depleted ozone layer may partially dampen the greenhouse effect. Therefore efforts
to tackle ozone depletion may result in increased global warming.
 changes in the tropospheric ozone and in the oxidising capacity of the troposphere.

International targets for the reduction of ozone depleting substances have resulted in the
almost complete phasing out of CFCs, halons and carbon tetrachloride in the EU. Methyl
chloroform and methyl bromide will be phased out by 2005 and HCFC by 2040.
The policy fields Ozone Layer Depletion and Climate Change are different, but closely
related and indicators such as CFCs and NO x emissions appear in both chapters. However,
only the potential effects on the ozone layer will be taken into account under Ozone Layer
Depletion whereas Climate Change will focus on the effects on global warming.
Ozone Layer Depletion: Effects and Causes of Ozone
Depletion

Today, one of the most discussed and serious environmental

issues is the ozone layer depletion, the layer of gas that forms a
protective covering in the Earth's upper atmosphere. Ozone is
formed when oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet photons and
undergo a chemical reaction known as photo dissociation or
photolysis, where a single molecule of oxygen breaks down to
two oxygen atoms. The free oxygen atom (O), then combines
with an oxygen molecule (O2) and forms a molecule of ozone
(O3). The ozone molecules, in turn absorb ultraviolet rays
between 310 to 200 nm wavelength and thereby prevent these
harmful radiations from entering the Earth's atmosphere. In the
process, ozone molecules split up into a molecule of oxygen
and an oxygen atom. The oxygen atom (O) again combines
with the oxygen molecule (O2) to regenerate an ozone (O3)
molecule. Thus, the total amount of ozone is maintained by this continuous process of
destruction and regeneration.

Ozone layer depletion first captured the attention of the whole world in the later half of 1970
and since then, many discussions and researches have been carried out to find out the
possible effects and the causes of ozone depletion. Many studies have also been directed to
find out a possible solution.

Causes of Ozone Depletion

The cause of ozone depletion is the increase in the level of free radicals such as hydroxyl
radicals, nitric oxide radicals and atomic chlorine and bromine. The most important
compound, which accounts for almost 80% of the total depletion of ozone in the stratosphere
are chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). These compounds are very stable in the lower atmosphere of
the Earth, but in the stratosphere, they break down to release a free chlorine atom due to
ultraviolet radiation. A free chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O3) and forms
chlorine monoxide (ClO) and a molecule of oxygen. Now chlorine monoxide reacts with an
ozone molecule to form a chlorine atom and two molecules of oxygen. The free chlorine
molecule again reacts with ozone to form chlorine monoxide. The process continues and the
result is the reduction or depletion of ozone in the stratosphere.

Possible Effects of Ozone Depletion

If you are wondering why is the ozone layer important, then the answer lies in the harmful
effects of ultraviolet rays. The ozone layer is responsible for absorbing the ultraviolet rays
and thereby preventing them from passing through the atmosphere of Earth. Ultraviolet rays
of the Sun are associated with a number of health related and environmental issues. The most
important of these is the association between ultraviolet rays and an increased risk of
developing several types of skin cancers including malignant melanoma, basal and squamous
cell carcinoma. Even the incidents of cortical cataracts can also increase significantly with
the increased exposure to ultraviolet rays.

Another observation in this regard is that a decrease in the ozone in the stratosphere can lead
to an increase in the ozone present in the lower atmosphere. Ozone present in the lower
atmosphere is mainly regarded as a pollutant and a green house gas that can contribute to
global warming and climate change. However, researches have pointed out that the lifespan
of atmospheric ozone is quiet less as compared to stratospheric ozone. At the same time,
increase in the surface level of ozone can enhance the ability of sunlight to synthesize
vitamin D, which can be regarded as an important beneficial effect of ozone layer depletion.

The effects of ozone depletion are not limited to humans only, as it can affect animals and
plants as well. It can affect important food crops like rice by adversely affecting
cyanobacteria, which helps them absorb and utilize nitrogen properly. Phytoplankton, an
important component of the marine food chain, can also be affected by ozone depletion.
Studies in this regard have shown that ultraviolet rays can influence the survival rates of
these microscopic organisms by affecting their orientation and mobility.

The increasing concern for the causes and effects of ozone depletion led to the adoption of
the Montreal Protocol, in the year 1987, in order to reduce and control the industrial emission
of chlorofluorocarbons. International agreements have succeeded to a great extent in
reducing the emission of these compounds, however, more cooperation and understanding
among all the countries of the world is required to mitigate the problem.

Ozone Depletion

Losing Earth's Protective Layer

Photograph by Stephen G. St. John

The ozone layer is a belt of naturally occurring

ozone gas that sits 9.3 to 18.6 miles (15 to 30
kilometers) above Earth and serves as a shield from
the harmful ultraviolet B radiation emitted by the
sun.

Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that contains

three oxygen atoms. It is constantly being formed
and broken down in the high atmosphere, 6.2 to 31
miles (10 to 50 kilometers) above Earth, in the
region called the stratosphere.

Today, there is widespread concern that the ozone layer is deteriorating due to the release of
pollution containing the chemicals chlorine and bromine. Such deterioration allows large
amounts of ultraviolet B rays to reach Earth, which can cause skin cancer and cataracts in
humans and harm animals as well.
Extra ultraviolet B radiation reaching Earth also inhibits the reproductive cycle of
phytoplankton, single-celled organisms such as algae that make up the bottom rung of the
food chain. Biologists fear that reductions in phytoplankton populations will in turn lower the
populations of other animals. Researchers also have documented changes in the reproductive
rates of young fish, shrimp, and crabs as well as frogs and salamanders exposed to excess
ultraviolet B.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals found mainly in spray aerosols heavily used by

industrialized nations for much of the past 50 years, are the primary culprits in ozone layer
breakdown. When CFCs reach the upper atmosphere, they are exposed to ultraviolet rays,
which causes them to break down into substances that include chlorine. The chlorine reacts
with the oxygen atoms in ozone and rips apart the ozone molecule.

One atom of chlorine can destroy more than a hundred thousand ozone molecules, according
to the the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

The ozone layer above the Antarctic has been particularly impacted by pollution since the
mid-1980s. This region’s low temperatures speed up the conversion of CFCs to chlorine. In
the southern spring and summer, when the sun shines for long periods of the day, chlorine
reacts with ultraviolet rays, destroying ozone on a massive scale, up to 65 percent. This is
what some people erroneously refer to as the "ozone hole." In other regions, the ozone layer
has deteriorated by about 20 percent.

About 90 percent of CFCs currently in the atmosphere were emitted by industrialized

countries in the Northern Hemisphere, including the United States and Europe. These
countries banned CFCs by 1996, and the amount of chlorine in the atmosphere is falling now.
But scientists estimate it will take another 50 years for chlorine levels to return to their
natural levels.

Ozone layer depletion levelling off

21 September 2009
By merging more than a decade of atmospheric data from
European satellites, scientists have compiled a homogeneous long-
term ozone record that allows them to monitor total ozone trends
on a global scale – and the findings look promising.

Scientists merged monthly total ozone data derived from the

vertically downward-looking measurements of the GOME
instrument on ESA’s ERS-2 satellite, SCIAMACHY on ESA’s
Evolution of global Envisat and GOME-2 on EUMETSAT's MetOp-A.
ozone distribution
"We found a global slightly positive trend of ozone increase of almost 1% per decade in the
total ozone from the last 14 years: a result that was confirmed by comparisons with ground-
based measurements," said Diego G. Loyola R. who worked on the project with colleagues
from the German Aerospace Center (DLR).
Ozone is a protective layer found about 25 km above us mostly in the stratospheric layer of
the atmosphere that acts as a sunlight filter shielding life on Earth from harmful ultraviolet
rays. The thinning of this layer increases the risk of skin cancer, cataracts and harm to marine
life.

The ozone layer is not distributed evenly, with more

changes occurring in the upper stratosphere. By collecting
data while looking sideways (limb viewing) rather than
vertically downwards, instruments are able to provide
highly accurate measurements of the stratosphere.
Monthly mean total ozone
A team of scientists around Ashley Jones and Jo Urban from Sweden’s Chalmers University
of Technology combined the limb measurements of US instruments SBUV, SAGE I+II and
HALOE with data from OSIRIS, SMR and SCIAMACHY on the European satellites Odin
and Envisat to analyse the long-term evolution of stratospheric ozone from 1979 to the
present. These data show a decrease in ozone from 1979 until 1997, and a small increase
since then.

"Our analysis shows that upper stratospheric ozone declines at northern and southern mid-
latitudes at roughly 7% per decade during 1979–97, consistent with earlier studies based on
data from satellites and ground networks. A clear statistically significant change of trend can
be seen around 1997. The small increase (of 0.8–1.4% per decade) observed thereafter, from
1997 to 2008, is however not yet statistically different from a zero trend. We hope to see a
significant recovery of (upper stratospheric) ozone in the next years using longer, extended
satellite time-series," Urban said.

The thinning of the ozone layer is caused by chemicals

such as human-produced bromine and chlorine gases that
have long lifetimes in the atmosphere. The Montreal
Protocol (1987) was introduced to regulate and phase out
the production of these substances. Its effect can clearly be
seen in the satellite observations of ozone and these
Upper stratospheric ozone chemicals.
anomalies measured by
SCIAMACHY
Using SCIAMACHY data in limb-viewing observation mode from 2002 to 2008, François
Hendrick from the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy (BIRA/IASB) and his colleagues
from the University of Bremen performed a trend analysis of bromine monoxide (BrO) in the
stratosphere. BrO is a highly efficient catalyst in ozone destruction. The results show a
negative trend in BrO abundance in the stratosphere during
this period, marking the first time a decline in stratospheric
bromine has been reported from a spaceborne observation.

"The good agreement with ground-based observations at

high and mid-latitudes show that SCIAMACHY limb data
Monthly averaged BrO column
abundances measured by
SCIAMACHY
can be used for stratospheric BrO trend monitoring. These findings provide strong evidences
that the Montreal Protocol restrictions on brominated substances have now reached the
stratosphere," Hendrick said.

Having access to these atmospheric satellite data over long periods is important for scientists
to identify and analyse long-term trends and changes. In addition to monitoring ozone trends,
scientists will continue to monitor ozone-depleting substances that were phased out under the
Montreal Protocol but continue to linger in the atmosphere.

All of these results were presented at ESA’s five-day ‘Atmospheric Science Conference’ held
in Barcelona, Spain, 7–11 September. The objective of the conference was to provide
scientists and researchers with the opportunity to present up-to-date results from their
atmospheric research and application projects using space-based atmospheric sensors.

The conference, with some 200 participants, included presentations that detail the current use
of satellite instruments for remote sensing of trace gases in the stratosphere and troposphere,
clouds and aerosols, pollution and greenhouse gas monitoring.