From the problem statement, the dynamic viscosity of the nanofluid is

nf 855 10 6 N s/m2 (1 2.5 0.05) 962 10 6

N s/m2
The nanofluid’s thermal diffusivity is
nf 0.705 W/m K 171 10 9
m2/s
nf
nf ,nf 1146 kg/m3 3587 J/kg K

Ratios of the properties of the nanofluid to the properties of water are as follows.
nf 0.705 W/m K nf 1146 kg/m3
1.150 1.149
bf 0.613 W/m K bf 997 kg/m3
,nf 3587 J/kg K nf 962 10 6 N s/m2
0.858 1.130
,bf 4179 J/kg K bf 855 10 6 N s/m2

nf 171 10 9 m2 /s
1.166
bf 147 10 9 m2/s
The relatively large thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of the nanofluid
enhance heat transfer rates in some applications. However, all of the thermophysical
properties are affected by the addition of the nanoparticles, and, as will become evi-
dent in Chapters 6 through 9, properties such as the viscosity and specific heat are
adversely affected. This condition can degrade thermal performance when the use of
nanofluids involves convection heat transfer.
The expression for the nanofluid’s thermal conductivity (and viscosity) is limited to
dilute mixtures of noncontacting, spherical particles. In some cases, the particles do not
remain separated but can into long chains, providing effective paths for
heat conduction through the fluid and larger bulk thermal conductivities. Hence, the
expression for the thermal conductivity represents the possible enhancement of
the thermal conductivity by spherical nanoparticles. An expression for the maximum
possible thermal conductivity of a nanofluid, corresponding to agglomeration
of the spherical particles, is available [21], as are expressions for dilute suspensions of
nonspherical particles [22]. Note that these expressions can also be applied to nanostruc-
tured consisting of a particulate phase interspersed within a host
binding medium, as will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.
The nanofluid’s density and specific heat are determined by applying the principles of
mass and energy conservation, respectively. As such, these properties do not depend
on the manner in which the nanoparticles are dispersed within the base liquid.

A major objective in a conduction analysis is to determine the in a

medium resulting from conditions imposed on its boundaries. That is, we wish to know
the , which represents how temperature varies with position in the
medium. Once this distribution is known, the conduction heat flux at any point in
the medium or on its surface may be computed from Fourier’s law. Other important
quantities of interest may also be determined. For a solid, knowledge of the temperature
distribution could be used to ascertain structural integrity through determination of thermal
stresses, expansions, and deflections. The temperature distribution could also be used to
optimize the thickness of an insulating material or to determine the compatibility of special
coatings or adhesives used with the material.
We now consider the manner in which the temperature distribution can be determined.
The approach follows the methodology described in Section 1.3.1 of applying the energy
conservation requirement. In this case, we define a , identify the
relevant energy transfer processes, and introduce the appropriate rate equations. The result
is a differential equation whose solution, for prescribed boundary conditions, provides the
temperature distribution in the medium.
Consider a homogeneous medium within which there is no bulk motion (advection) and
the temperature distribution ( , , ) is expressed in Cartesian coordinates. Following the
methodology of applying conservation of energy (Section 1.3.1), we first define an infini-
tesimally small (differential) control volume, , as shown in Figure 2.11. Choosing to
formulate the first law at an instant of time, the second step is to consider the energy processes
that are relevant to this control volume. In the absence of motion (or with uniform motion), there
are no changes in mechanical energy and no work being done on the system. Only thermal
forms of energy need be considered. Specifically, if there are temperature gradients, conduc-
tion heat transfer will occur across each of the control surfaces. The conduction heat rates per-
pendicular to each of the control surfaces at the , , and -coordinate locations are indicated
by the terms , , and , respectively. The conduction heat rates at the opposite surfaces can
then be expressed as a Taylor series expansion where, neglecting higher-order terms,

(2.13a)

(2.13b)

(2.13c)

st
In words, Equation 2.13a simply states that the -component of the heat transfer rate at
is equal to the value of this component at plus the amount by which it changes
with respect to times .
Within the medium there may also be an term associated with the rate of
thermal energy generation. This term is represented as
(2.14)
where is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume of the medium (W/m3). In
addition, changes may occur in the amount of the internal thermal energy stored by the
material in the control volume. If the material is not experiencing a change in phase, latent
energy effects are not pertinent, and the term may be expressed as

st (2.15)

where / is the time rate of change of the sensible (thermal) energy of the medium
per unit volume.
Once again it is important to note that the terms and st represent different physical
processes. The energy generation term is a manifestation of some energy conversion
process involving thermal energy on one hand and some other form of energy, such as
chemical, electrical, or nuclear, on the other. The term is positive (a ) if thermal
energy is being generated in the material at the expense of some other energy form; it is
negative (a ) if thermal energy is being consumed. In contrast, the energy storage
term st refers to the rate of change of thermal energy stored by the matter.
The last step in the methodology outlined in Section 1.3.1 is to express conservation of
energy using the foregoing rate equations. On a basis, the general form of the conser-
vation of energy requirement is

in out st (1.12c)
Hence, recognizing that the conduction rates constitute the energy inflow in and outflow
out, and substituting Equations 2.14 and 2.15, we obtain

(2.16)

Substituting from Equations 2.13, it follows that

(2.17)

The conduction heat rates in an isotropic material may be evaluated from Fourier’s law,

(2.18a)

(2.18b)

(2.18c)

where each heat flux component of Equation 2.6 has been multiplied by the appro-
priate control surface (differential) area to obtain the heat transfer rate. Substituting
Equations 2.18 into Equation 2.17 and dividing out the dimensions of the control vol-
ume ( ), we obtain

(2.19)

Equation 2.19 is the general form, in Cartesian coordinates, of the

This equation, often referred to as the , provides the basic tool for
heat conduction analysis. From its solution, we can obtain the temperature distribution
( , , ) as a function of time. The apparent complexity of this expression should not
obscure the fact that it describes an important physical condition, that is, conservation
of energy. You should have a clear understanding of the physical significance of each
term appearing in the equation. For example, the term ( / )/ is related to the
conduction heat flux the control volume for the -coordinate direction. That is,
multiplying by ,

(2.20)

with similar expressions applying for the fluxes in the and -directions. In words, the
heat equation, Equation 2.19, therefore states that

It is often possible to work with simplified versions of Equation 2.19. For example, if
the thermal conductivity is constant, the heat equation is

2 2 2
1 (2.21)
2 2 2

where / is the Additional simplifications of the general form of

the heat equation are often possible. For example, under conditions, there can
be no change in the amount of energy storage; hence Equation 2.19 reduces to

0 (2.22)

Moreover, if the heat transfer is (e.g., in the -direction) and there is

, Equation 2.22 reduces to

0 (2.23)

The important implication of this result is that,

, the heat flux is a constant in the direction of transfer
( / 0).
The heat equation may also be expressed in cylindrical and spherical coordinates. The
differential control volumes for these two coordinate systems are shown in Figures 2.12
and 2.13.
 When the del operator of Equation 2.3 is expressed in
cylindrical coordinates, the general form of the heat flux vector and hence of Fourier’s
law is

1 (2.24)

where

(2.25)
are heat flux components in the radial, circumferential, and axial directions, respectively.
Applying an energy balance to the differential control volume of Figure 2.12, the following
general form of the heat equation is obtained:

1 1 (2.26)
2

In spherical coordinates, the general form of the heat flux vector

and Fourier’s law is

1 1 (2.27)
sin
where

(2.28)
sin

are heat flux components in the radial, polar, and azimuthal directions, respectively. Apply-
ing an energy balance to the differential control volume of Figure 2.13, the following
general form of the heat equation is obtained:

1 2 1
2 2
sin2
1 sin (2.29)
2
sin

You should attempt to derive Equation 2.26 or 2.29 to gain experience in applying conser-
vation principles to differential control volumes (see Problems 2.35 and 2.36). Note that the
temperature gradient in Fourier’s law must have units of K/m. Hence, when evaluating
the gradient for an angular coordinate, it must be expressed in terms of the differential
change in arc . For example, the heat flux component in the circumferential direction
of a cylindrical coordinate system is ( / )( / ), ( / ).

The temperature distribution across a wall 1 m thick at a certain instant of time is

given as
2
( )

where is in degrees Celsius and is in meters, while 900 C, 300 C/m, and
50 C/m2. A uniform heat generation, 1000 W/m3, is present in the wall of area
10 m2 having the properties 1600 kg/m3, 40 W/m K, and 4 kJ/kg K.