Rules for naming of organic compounds:

Carboxylic Acid R-COOH, Carboxy oic acid 1. Select the longest continuous chain
(R-CO)2O,   oic anhydride of carbon atoms as the parent chain;
Acid Anhydride
this chain should include the functional
R-COO-R1,   oate (Alkylalkanoate) groups present in the organic molecule.
Ester
2. The numbering is done such that the
Acyl Halide R-CO-X,   oyl halide highest priority group has lowest
number and the substituted carbon
Acid Amide R-CONH2 ,   amide atoms have the lowest possible
numbers.
Nitrile R-CN, cyano nitrile 3. If the compound contains more than
one similar substituents, their positions
Aldehyde R-CHO, formoyl al are indicated separately and an
R-CO-R1, keto, oxo one appropriate prefix: di, tri, tetra, etc., is
Ketone
attached to the name of the
Alcohol R-OH hydroxy ol substituents.
4. If there are different substituents
Amine R-NH2 amino amine present in the compound, their name is
written in the alphabetical order.
Ether R-O-R1   alkoxyalkane However, the numerical prefixes such
as di, tri, etc., are not considered for the
Alkenes C=C   ene alphabetical order
Alkynes C≡C   yne

Nitro R-NO2, nitro  

 O

H 3C
OH

CH3

3 - b e n z y l- 2 - m e th y l- 4 - o x o h e x a n o ic a c id
 Electronic Displacements in Organic Molecules

Inductive effect: Inductive effect may be defined as the permanent

displacement of electrons forming a covalent bond towards the more
electronegative element or group.
The inductive effect is represented by the symbol, the arrow pointing towards
the more electronegative element or group of elements.
Thus in case of n-butyl chloride inductive effect may be represented as below.
Any atom or group, if attracts electrons more strongly than hydrogen, it is said to have a -I effect (electron-
attracting or electron-withdrawing), viz NO2, Cl, Br, I, F, COOH OCH3, etc. while if atom or group attracts electrons
less strongly than hydrogen it is said to have +I effect (electron repelling or electron-releasing) viz, CH3, C2H5,
Me2CH and Me3C groups. The important atoms or groups which cause negative or positive inductive effect are
arranged below in the order of decreasing effect.

-I (Electron withdrawing) groups:

+N(CH3)3 > NO2 > CN > F > COOH > Cl > Br > I > CF3 > OH > OCH3 > C6H5 > H

+I (Electron donating) groups:

(CH3)3C > (CH3)2CH > CH3CH2CH2 > CH3CH2 > CH3 > H
Resonance: The phenomenon in which two or more structures can be written for
the true structure of a molecules, but none of them can be said to represent it
uniquely, is referred to as resonance or mesomerism. The true structure of the
molecule is said to be a resonance hybrid of the various possible alternative
structures which themselves are known as resonating structures or canonical
structures. Every two adjacent resonating structures are represented by
inserting a double headed arrow between them. Thus the actual structure of
benzene may be represented in the following two ways.
Necessary conditions for resonance
1. All resonating structures must have the same arrangement of atomic nuclei.
2. The resonating structures must have the same number of paired and unpaired
electrons. However, they differ in the way of distribution of electrons.
3. The energies of the various limiting structures must be sane or nearly the same.
4. Resonating structures must be planar.
All the resonating structures do not contribute equal to the real molecule and
hence only the major contributing forms are used while representing a resonance
hybrid.
The mesomeric effect may be defined as the permanent effect in which p electrons are transfered from a
multiple bond to an atom, or from a multiple bond to a single covalent bond or lone pair(s) of p-electrons
from an atom to the adjacent single covalent bond. Like inductive effect, the mesomeric effect (denoted by
M) may be +M and -M. It is +M when the transference of electron pair is away from the atom and -M when
transference of electron pair is toward the atom.

Some common atoms or groups which cause +M and -M effect are given below
+M groups. -Cl, -Br, -I, -NH2, -NR2, -OH, -OCH3
- M groups. -NO2, -CN, >C=O
Electromeric effect: This type of temporary displacement of electrons take place in compounds
containing multiple covalent bonds (e.g. C=C, C=O, CN, etc.) or an atom with a lone pair of electrons
adjacent to a covalent bond. The effect involves complete transference of a pair of electrons from a
multiple bond to an atom, or from a multiple bond to another bond, or from an atom with a free pair of
electrons to a bond. It is the p-electrons of a multiple bond, or the p-electrons of an atom, which are
transferred. Since the effect involves complete transference of electrons, it leads to the development of
full + and - charges within the molecule. It is important to note that the electromeric effect is purely a
temporary effect and is brought into play only the requirement of attacking reagent, it vanishes out as
soon as the attacking reagent is removed from reaction mixture.