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Flagella: Types, Function & Structure

Updated March 28, 2019

By Bert Markgraf

Cell mobility is a key component for the survival for many single-cell organisms, and it can be important
within more advanced animals as well. Cells use flagella for locomotion to look for food and to escape
danger. The whiplike flagella can be rotated to promote motion via a corkscrew effect, or they can act
like oars to row cells through liquids.

Flagella are found in bacteria and in some eukaryotes, but those two types of flagella have a different
structure.
A bacterial flagellum helps beneficial bacteria move through the organism and helps disease-causing
bacteria to spread during infections. They can move to where they can multiply, and they can avoid some
of the attacks from the immune system of the organism. For advanced animals, cells such as sperm move
with the aid of a flagellum.

In each case, the motion of the flagella permits the cell to move in a general direction.

The Structure of Prokaryotic Cell Flagella Is Simple

Flagella for prokaryotes such as bacteria are made up of three parts:

The

filament

of the flagellum is a hollow tube made of a flagellar protein called

flagellin

At the base of the filament is a

flexible hook

that couples the filament to the base and acts as a universal joint.

The

basal body

is made up of a rod and a series of rings that anchor the flagellum to the cell wall and the plasma
membrane.

The flagellar filament is created by transporting the protein flagellin from cell ribosomes through the
hollow core to the tip where the flagellin attaches and makes the filament grow. The basal body forms
the motor of the flagellum, and the hook gives the rotation a corkscrew effect.
Eukaryotic Flagella Have a Complex Structure

The motion of eukaryotic flagella and those of prokaryotic cells is similar, but the structure of the
filament and the mechanism for rotation are different. The basal body of eukaryotic flagella is anchored
to the cell body, but the flagellum lacks a rod and disks. Instead, the filament is solid and is made up of
pairs of microtubules.

The tubules are arranged as nine double tubes around a central pair of tubes in a 9 + 2 formation. The
tubules are made up of linear protein strings around a hollow center. The double tubes share a common
wall while the central tubes are independent.

Protein spokes, axes and links join the microtubules along the length of the filament. Instead of a motion
created at the base by rotating rings, the flagellum motion comes from interaction of the microtubules.

Flagella Work Through Rotational Motion of the Filament

Although bacterial flagella and those of eukaryotic cells have a different structure, they both work
through a rotational movement of the filament to propel the cell or move fluids past the cell. Shorter
filaments will tend to move back and forth while longer filaments will have a circular spiral motion.

In bacterial flagella, the hook at the bottom of the filament rotates where it is anchored to the cell wall
and plasma membrane. The rotation of the hook results in a propeller-like motion of the flagella. In
eukaryotic flagella, the rotational motion is due to the sequential bending of the filament.

The resulting motion can be whiplike in addition to rotational.

The Prokaryotic Flagella of Bacteria Are Powered by a Flagellar Motor

Under the hook of bacterial flagella, the the base of the flagellum is attached to the cell wall and the
cell's plasma membrane by a series of rings surrounded by protein chains. A proton pump creates a
proton gradient across the lowest of the rings, and the electrochemical gradient powers rotation through
a proton motive force.

When protons diffuse across the lowest ring boundary due to the proton motive force, the ring spins and
the attached filament hook rotates. Rotation in one direction results in a controlled forward motion of
the bacterium. Rotation in the other direction makes the bacteria move in a random tumbling fashion.

The resulting bacterial motility combined with the change in direction of rotation produces a kind of
random walk that allows cell to cover a lot of ground in a general direction.

Eukaryotic Flagella Use ATP to Bend

The base of the flagellum of eukaryotic cells is firmly anchored to the cell membrane and the flagella
bend rather than rotate. Protein chains called dynein are attached to some of the double microtubules
arranged around the flagella filaments in radial spokes.

The dynein molecules use energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an energy storage molecule, to
produce bending motion in the flagella.

The dynein molecules make the flagella bend by moving the microtubules up and down against each
other. They detach one of the phosphate groups from the ATP molecules and use the liberated chemical
energy to grab one of the microtubules and move it against the tubule to which they are attached.

By coordinating such bending action, the resulting filament motion can be rotational or back and forth.

Prokaryotic Flagella Are Important for Bacterial Propagation

While bacteria can survive for extended periods in the open air and on solid surfaces, they grow and
multiply in fluids. Typical fluid environments are nutrient-rich solutions and the interior of advanced
organisms.
Many of these bacteria, such as those in the gut of animals, are beneficial, but they have to be able to
find the nutrients they need and avoid dangerous situations.

Flagella allow them to move toward food, away from dangerous chemicals and to spread when they
multiply.

Not all bacteria in the gut are beneficial. H. pylori, for example, is a flagellated bacterium that causes
stomach ulcers. It relies on flagella to move through digestive system mucus and avoid areas that are too
acid. When it finds a favorable space, it multiplies and uses flagella to spread out.

Studies have shown that the H. pylori flagella are a key factor in the infectiousness of the bacteria.

Related article: Signal Transduction: Definition, Function, Examples

Bacteria can be classified according to the number and location of their flagella. Monotrichous bacteria
have a single flagellum at one end of the cell. Lophotrichous bacteria have a bunch of several flagella at
one end.

Peritrichous bacteria have both lateral flagella and flagella at the ends of the cell while amphitrichous
bacteria can have one or several flagella at both ends.

The arrangement of the flagella influences how rapidly and in what way the bacterium can move.

Eukaryotic Cells Use Flagella to Move Inside and Outside Organisms

Eukaryotic cells with a nucleus and organelles are found in higher plants and animals but also as single-
celled organisms. Eukaryotic flagella are used by primitive cells to move around, but they can be found in
advanced animals as well.
In the case of single-cell organisms, the flagella are used to locate food, to spread and to escape from
predators or unfavorable conditions. In advanced animals, specific cells use a eukaryotic flagellum for
special purposes.

For example, the green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii uses two algal flagella to move through the
water of lakes and rivers or soil. It relies on this motion to spread after reproducing and is widely
distributed around the world.

In higher animals, the sperm cell is an example of a mobile cell using eukaryotic flagellum for motion.
This is how sperm move through the female reproductive tract to fertilize the egg and begin sexual
reproduction.

References

About the Author

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What Are the Main Functions of Cilia & Flagella?

•••

Updated September 10, 2018

By J. Dianne Dotson

Cilia and flagella are two different types of microscopic appendages on cells. Cilia are found in both
animals and micro-organisms, but not in most plants. Flagella are used for mobility in bacteria as well as
gametes of eukaryotes. Both cilia and flagella serve locomotion functions, but in different manners. Both
rely on dynein, which is a motor protein, and microtubules to work.

TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read)

Cilia and flagella are organelles on cells that provide propulsion, sensory devices, clearance mechanisms
and numerous other important functions in living organisms.

What Are Cilia?

Cilia were the first organelles discovered, by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the late 17th century. He
observed motile (moving) cilia, “little legs,” which he described as residing on “animalcules” (probably
protozoa). Non-motile cilia were observed much later with better microscopes. Most cilia exist in
animals, in almost every type of cell, conserved over many species in evolution. However, some cilia can
be found in plants in the form of gametes. Cilia are made of microtubules in an arrangement called the
ciliary axoneme, which is covered by the plasma membrane. The cell body makes ciliary proteins and
moves them to the tip of the axoneme; this process is called intraciliary or intraflagellar transport (IFT).
Currently, scientists think approximately 10 percent of the human genome is dedicated to cilia and their
genesis.

Cilia range from 1 to 10 micrometers long. These hair-like appendage organelles work to move cells as
well as to move materials. They can move fluids for aquatic species such as clams, to allow for food and
oxygen transport. Cilia help with respiration in the lungs of animals by preventing debris and potential
pathogens from invading the body. Cilia are shorter than flagella and concentrate in much larger
numbers. They tend to move in a quick stroke almost at the same time in a group, constituting a wave
effect. Cilia can also aid in the locomotion of some types of protozoa. Two types of cilia exist: motile
(moving) and non-motile (or primary) cilia, and both work via IFT systems. Motile cilia reside in airway
passages and lungs as well as inside the ear. Non-motile cilia reside in many organs.

What Are Flagella?

Flagella are appendages that help move bacteria and the gametes of eukaryotes, as well as some
protozoa. Flagella tend to be singular, like a tail. They typically are longer than cilia. In prokaryotes,
flagella work like small motors with rotation. In eukaryotes, they make smoother movements.

Functions of Cilia
Cilia play roles in the cell cycle as well as animal development, such as in the heart. Cilia selectively allow
certain proteins in to function properly. Cilia also play a role of cellular communication and molecular
trafficking.

Motile cilia possess a 9+2 arrangement of nine outer microtubule pairs, along with a center of two
microtubules. Motile cilia use their rhythmic undulation to sweep away substances, as in clearing dirt,
dust, micro-organisms and mucus, to prevent disease. This is why they exist on the linings of respiratory
passages. Motile cilia can both sense and move extracellular fluid.

Non-motile, or primary, cilia do not conform to the same structure as motile cilia. They are arranged as
individual appendage microtubules without the center microtubule structure. They do not possess
dynein arms, hence their general non-motility. For many years, scientists did not focus on these primary
cilia and therefore knew little of their functions. Non-motile cilia serve as sensory apparatus for cells,
detecting signals. They play crucial roles in sensory neurons. Non-motile cilia can be found in the kidneys
to sense urine flow, as well as in the eyes on the photoreceptors of the retina. In photoreceptors, they
function to transport vital proteins from the inner segment of the photoreceptor to the outer segment;
without this function, photoreceptors would die. When cilia sense a flow of fluid, that leads to cell
growth changes.

Cilia provide more than clearance and sensory functions only. They also provide habitats or recruitment
areas for symbiotic microbiomes in animals. In aquatic animals such as squid, these mucus epithelial
tissues can be more directly observed as they are common and are not internal surfaces. Two different
kinds of cilia populations exist on host tissues: one with long cilia that wave along small particles like
bacteria but exclude larger ones, and shorter beating cilia that mix environmental fluids. These cilia work
to recruit microbiome symbionts. They work in zones that shift bacteria and other tiny particles to
sheltered zones, while also mixing fluids and facilitating chemical signals so that bacteria can colonize the
desired region. Therefore cilia work to filter, clear, localize, select and aggregate bacteria and control
adhesion for ciliated surfaces.

Cilia have also been discovered to participate in vesicular secretion of ectosomes. More recent research
reveals interactions between cilia and cellular pathways that could provide insight into cellular
communication as well as into diseases.

Functions of Flagella
Flagella can be found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They are long filament organelles made of several
proteins that reach as much as 20 micrometers in length away from their surface on bacteria. Typically,
flagella are longer than cilia and provide movement and propulsion. Bacterial flagella filament motors
can spin as fast as 15,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). The swimming capability of flagella aids in their
function, whether it be for seeking food and nutrients, reproduction or invading hosts.

In prokaryotes such as bacteria, flagella serve as propulsion mechanisms; they're the chief way for
bacteria to swim through fluids. A flagellum in bacteria possesses an ion motor for torque, a hook that
transmits motor torque, and a filament, or a long tail-like structure that propels the bacterium. The
motor can turn and affect the behavior of the filament, changing the direction of travel for the
bacterium. If the flagellum moves clockwise it forms a supercoil; several flagella can form a bundle, and
these help propel a bacterium on a straight path. When rotated the opposite way, the filament makes a
shorter supercoil and the bundle of flagella disassembles, leading to tumbling. Due to a lack of high
resolution for experiments, scientists use computer simulations to predict flagellar motion.

The amount of friction in a fluid affects how the filament will supercoil. Bacteria can host several flagella,
such as with Escherichia coli. Flagella allow bacteria to swim in one direction and then turn as needed.
This works via the rotating, helical flagella, which uses various methods including pushing and pulling
cycles. Another method of movement is achieved by wrapping around the cell body in a bundle. In this
manner, flagella can also help to reverse motion. When bacteria encounter challenging spaces, they can
change their position by enabling their flagella to reconfigure or disassemble their bundles. This
polymorphic state transition allows different speeds, with the push and pull states typically being faster
than the wrapped states. This aids in different environments; for example, the helical bundle can move a
bacterium through viscous areas with a corkscrew effect. This aids in bacterial exploration.

Flagella provide movement for bacteria but also provide a mechanism for pathogenic bacteria to aid in
colonizing hosts and therefore transmitting diseases. Flagella use a twist-and-stick method to anchor
bacteria onto surfaces. Flagella also function as bridges or scaffolds for adhesion to host tissue.

Eukaryotic flagella diverge from prokaryotes in composition. Flagella in eukaryotes contain far more
proteins and bear some similarity to motile cilia, with the same general motion and control patterns.
Flagella are used not only for movement, but also for aiding in cell feeding and eukaryotic reproduction.
Flagella use intraflagellar transport, which is the transport of a complex of proteins required for the
signaling molecules that give flagella mobility. Flagella exist on microscopic organisms such as the
Mastigophora protozoa, or they may exist inside larger animals. A number of microscopic parasites
possess flagella as well, aiding their travel through a host organism. The flagella of these protist parasites
also carry a paraflagellar rod or PFR, which aids in attachment to vectors such as insects. Some other
examples of flagella in eukaryotes include the tails of gametes like sperm. Flagella can also be found in
sponges and other aquatic species; the flagella in these creatures help to move water for respiration.
Eukaryotic flagella also serve almost as tiny antennae or sensory organelles. Scientists are only now
beginning to understand the breadth of function for eukaryotic flagella.

Diseases Related to Cilia

Recent scientific discoveries have found that mutations or other defects related to cilia cause a number
of diseases. These conditions are referred to as ciliopathies. They profoundly affect individuals who
suffer from them. Some ciliopathies include cognitive impairment, retinal degeneration, hearing loss,
anosmia (loss of sense of smell), craniofacial abnormalities, lung and airway abnormalities, left-right
asymmetry and related heart defects, pancreatic cysts, liver disease, infertility, polydactyly and kidney
abnormalities such as cysts, among others. Additionally, some cancers have a connection to ciliopathies.

Some kidney disorders related to cilia dysfunction include nephronophthisis and both autosomal
dominant and autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. Malfunctioning cilia cannot stop cell
division because of no detection of urine flow, leading to cyst development.

In Kartagener’s syndrome, dynein arm dysfunction leads to ineffectual clearing of the respiratory tract of
bacteria and other substances. This can lead to repeated respiratory infections.

In Bardet-Biedl syndrome, cilia malformation leads to such problems as retinal degeneration, polydactyly,
brain disorders and obesity.

Non-hereditary diseases can result from damage to the cilia, such as from cigarette residues. This can
lead to bronchitis and other issues.

Pathogens can also commandeer the normal symbiotic fostering of bacteria by cilia, such as with
Bordetella species, which causes cilia beating to reduce and therefore allows the pathogen to attach to a
substrate and lead to infection of human airways.
Diseases Related to Flagella

A number of bacterial infections relate to flagella function. Examples of pathogenic bacteria include
Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Campylobacter jejuni. A number of
interactions occur that lead bacteria to invade host tissues. Flagella act as binding probes, seeking
purchase on host substrate. Some phytobacteria use their flagella to adhere to plant tissues. This leads
to produce such as fruits and vegetables becoming secondary hosts to bacteria that infect humans and
animals. One example is Listeria monocytogenes, and of course E. coli and Salmonella are infamous
agents of foodborne illness.

Helicobacter pylori uses its flagellum to swim through mucus and invade the stomach’s lining, evading
the protective stomach acid. Mucous linings work as an immune defense to trap such invasion by binding
flagella, but some bacteria find several ways to escape recognition and capture. Filaments of flagella can
degrade so that the host cannot recognize them, or their expression and motility can be switched off.

Kartagener’s syndrome also affects flagella. This syndrome disrupts the dynein arms between
microtubules. The result is infertility due to sperm cells lacking the propulsion needed from flagella to
swim to and fertilize eggs.

As scientists learn more about cilia and flagella, and further elucidate their roles in organisms, new
approaches to treating diseases and making medicines should follow.

References

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