Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Multi-Storey Buildings
in Steel
ECCS
CECM
E K S N° 104
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:29 Page 2
Impressum
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ISBN 92-9147-000- 45
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Contents
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Preface
The aim of this brochure is to promote This booklet also seeks to dispel some
the use of steel as a building material. commonly held misconceptions about
Although its superior structural perfor- the “inferior” thermal and acoustic qua-
mance is well accepted in the industry lities of steel as a building material.
there is still a need to emphasise its Frequently asked questions by profes-
overall qualities as a sophisticated sionals include concerns about the
building material, not only for load- thermal performance of lightweight steel
bearing structures but for enclosure structures in comparison with rather
systems as well. heavyweight concrete structures. Issues
of acoustic performance of a building
The use of steel is not only limited to element in relation to its physical mass
industrial or large scale structural appli- are also frequently brought up. These
cations. It can easily be used for resi- questions will be discussed in their rele-
dential construction as well. vant context. The chapters on “Steel
Structures and Thermal Bridges”,
This brochure is aimed at practising “The Effects of Thermal Mass in Steel
architects, clients, developers and inter- Buildings” and “Principles of Sound
ested members of the building industry. Insulation”’ should be of particular
It is not to be mistaken for a scientific interest.
research paper but rather gives guidance
to the general practitioner by briefly Steel is a versatile building material. Its
explaining basic principles of physics performance with regard to thermal and
relating to construction. The “Basic acoustic insulation is superior when
Terms” chapters are meant to give quick used correctly.
and accurate reference summarizing
technical terminology and physical Precision, prefabrication, recycling,
basics. strength! These are the strong points
that together with its cost-effectiveness
The “Case Studies” in this booklet are easily make steel the most competitive
prime examples showing the versatility building material of today and of the
of modern steel construction. They are future.
meant to inspire the creative spirit of
architects and engineers alike by offering
a wide range of solutions for design Friedrich Grimm
challenges encountered in a variety of
today’s building projects.
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that became known world wide as the Further development eventually led to a
“Chicago frame”. Of course these steel complete separation of load bearing
buildings incorporated very reliable fire structure and skin. As early as 1919
protection. All structural parts were clad Ludwig Mies van der Rohe developed
with hollow clay tiles or brick. Steel ske- the principle of the curtain wall as a
leton construction can be regarded as a building system of its own in his extra-
great leap forward in the evolution of ordinary sketches for an office building
buildings. in the Friedrichstraße in Berlin.
Its advantages became immediately Between 1948 and 1951 when designing
obvious. First there is the open plan that the 860/880 Lakeshore Drive apartment
allows the introduction of non-load- towers in Chicago Mies took the oppor-
bearing partitions in the floor area which tunity to realise a steel frame building
for the first time led to a separation of with a facade made entirely of steel and
loadbearing structure and skin within glass.
the facade. From now on it was possible
not only to reach building heights incon- From a contemporary point of view
ceivable before but also to increase the these 26-storey twin towers seem to be
proportion of window openings in the technologically outdated with their
facade providing a maximum exploi- single layer glazing and the total lack of
tation of natural light. thermal insulation. Nevertheless they
have historical significance as prede-
The distinct vocabulary for steel skele- cessors of innumerable building
ton construction was developed over a facades all over the world.
relatively short period of time by the
architects of the First Chicago School The Lever Building in New York by
(1871-1910). The “Reliance Building” on Skidmore, Owings and Merill completed
Chicago’s State Street designed by in 1952 is the first building with a true
Fig. 3 Mies van der Rohe, Lakeshore Drive Burnham & Root in 1894 is commonly curtain wall. Its facade also has single
Appartments 860/880 considered a landmark building of this glazing in stainless steel frames. The
period. Its base is completely glazed for structure of the facade is completely
shop-windows. The facade of the upper separate from the support structure and
parts consists of slender steel sections connected to it only at distinct points to
clad with terracotta panels. Another transfer wind loads.
typical feature is the “Chicago window”,
a bay window with large rigid glazing in Regarding aspects of manufacturing
the middle and small openable windows and assembly, building concepts of
to both sides. early curtain walls were very advanced.
However they could not match today’s
standards of comfort and convenience
in respect of insulation qualities. A limited
degree of comfort throughout the year
could only be achieved by extensive
use of air conditioning systems. To
avoid condensation on the interior sur-
faces the relative humidity of the supply
air had to be reduced to about 10%.
During the heating period large quanti-
ties of conditioned air had to be intro-
duced to offset the continuous loss of
energy through the facade. Both mea-
sures were counterproductive to a com-
fortable room climate. Ideally relative
humidity should range from 40 - 70% at
a room temperature of 20 - 24°C. Air
movement should not exceed 0,3-
0,6m/s in an office environment.
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In Europe Jean Prouvé (1901-1981) had The main function of common facade
a great influence on the development of technology was to provide a wind- and
facade technologies. He is one of the waterproof skin and to reduce loss of
pioneers of shop-manufactured building energy - energy for heating in winter,
systems. He was the first to introduce energy for cooling in summer - by
complete thermal insulation for metal means of effective insulation. The desi-
facades. His building envelope designs gn of contemporary building facades
also had effective shading devices on however aims for an environmental
the inside and outside. His solutions for interaction in order to minimise energy
lightweight metal skin structures were consumption. A volume of air enclosed,
able to achieve a comfortable indoor for example, between two surfaces can
climate without air-conditioning. be heated by solar radiation and circu-
lated. The warm air can be directed from
the south side of a building to the cooler
north side. Air enclosed between two
glass surfaces can be used as a buffer
between inside and outside and thus
effectively reduce energy consumption.
Fig. 6 Lever-Building
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Thermal conduction
Thermal Insulation Since virtually all building elements
and Moisture Proofing (walls, floors, roof, ...) can be regarded
as either boards or slabs the basic
equation of thermal conduction through
thermal conductivity λ
a uniform slab is sufficient for basic cal-
culations of stationary heat flow over a
period of time:
Basic Terms
and Physical Principles Q = λ x A x (θ - θ ) x t
d 1 2
thermal resistance R
flow of energy per surface area through
a building element under constant
conditions and can be calculated as
follows:
Q
q=
(A x t)
Q amount of thermal energy [Ws]
t time [s]
Heat transmission
Heat transmission from the interior to
I. Heat transmission through the exterior of a building involves the
building elements following physical effects: The heat
energy of the room air is transferred to
Thermal energy [Ws; J] the inside surface of a building element
The general unit of energy is Watt (e.g. exterior wall, window) by convec-
seconds [Ws]. Thermal energy is usually tion and additionally by radiation from
measured in Joules [J]. heaters and other heat emitting objects.
(1 Ws = 1 J) Within the section of the element ther-
mal energy is transmitted by convec-
tion provided that there are no cavities
Thermal conduction enclosed. In case of cavities heat ener-
Transmission of thermal energy in a gy is transferred by convection and
solid or liquid medium. radiation between the two surfaces
which enclose the air layer. The heat
Thermal radiation energy of the building element is relea-
Transmission of energy through air or sed into the outside air again by
empty space by electro-magnetic convection and radiation from the ele-
waves. No medium is required. ment’s outside surface.
Convection
Transport of thermal energy by air
movement. Fig. 11 heat through a building element
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Thermal transmittance U
(“U-value”) [W/m2K] heat transfer heat transfer
coefficient h resistance 1/h
The U-value is a property of a building
[W/m2K] [m2K/W]
element (e.g. exterior wall) that takes
into consideration the effects of thermal On the interior surface of enclosed spaces with
transfer at the elements surfaces and natural air movement
internal effects of conduction, radiation
and convection. It is used for the prac- – walls, interior windows, windows to the exterior 8 0,13
tical calculation of heat flow through a – floors and ceiling with
building element (see also Fig. 11): – upward heatflow 8 0,13
– downward heatflow 6 0,17
q = U x (θi - θe) – in corners 5-6 0,20 - 0,17
θi inside air temperature [K] On the exterior of the building with an average wind-
23 0,04
speed of 2m/sec.
θe outside air temperature [K]
This equation determines the transmis- Fig. 12 heat transfer coefficients h and heattransfer resistance 1/h of building elements
(according to Gösele u. Schüle)
sion loss of energy of a building per
surface area for a certain temperature
difference.
1
U= Position of air-layer and Radiance C Thickness of Thermal
1/hi + R + 1/he
direction of heat-flow of adjacent surfaces air-layer resistance R
[W/m2K4] [cm] [m2K/W]
hi heat transfer coefficient of building
1 0.14
element’s inside surface [W/m2K] 2 0.16
(see Fig. 12) vertical air-layer 5 0.18
10 0.17
he heat transfer coefficient of building 15 0.16
element’s outside surface [W/m2K]
1 0.14
(see Fig. 12) 5.5 2 0.15
horizontal air-layer, (non-metal materials 5 0.16
R thermal resistance [m2K/W] R = d/λ heatflow upwards of all kind) 10 0.16
15 0.16
The U-value of a multi-layer element is 1 0.15
determined as follows: 2 0.18
horizontal air-layer, 5 0.21
heatflow downwards 10 0.21
1
U= 15 0.21
1/hi + d1/λ1 + d2/λ2 + ... + 1/he
1 0.28
d thickness of layer of building 0.23 - 0.35 2 0.43
vertical air-layer (polished metal surfaces) 5 0,62
element [m] 10 0.58
15 0.43
λ thermal conductivity of layer of
building element [W/m2K] Fig. 13 thermal resistance R of air-layers (according to Gösele u. Schüle)
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II. Thermal storage, heating and III. Heat gain and loss, energy IV. Moisture
cooling demand
Absolute humidity v [g/m3]
In order to classify the performance of Solar heat gain Gives the actual amount of vapour
building materials under dynamic thermal Refers to usable heat gains through contained in the air independent of its
conditions (e.g. heating up of a building) solar radiation. There are numerous temperature (see Fig. 15).
the following physical effects need to possibilities for using solar energy for
be explained. heating purposes. Passive solar energy
Partial vapour pressure p [Pa]
systems make use of standard building
elements to gain energy. Windows, for
Specific thermal capacity c [J/kgK] example, are capable of collecting Saturated vapour pressure ps [Pa]
Amount of thermal energy needed to energy and the interior mass of a building Air can only contain a certain amount of
change the temperature of 1 kg of a can be used for thermal storage. vapour at a certain temperature. The
certain material by 1 K. amount of vapour (in g/m3) necessary to
reach the point of saturation increases
Heating demand with temperature. A saturated vapour
Heat storage capacity Qs [J/m2] The annual heating demand is the total pressure which also increases with tem-
Amount of thermal energy stored in a amount of energy per year that is used perature is associated with the amount
slab of 1 m2 of a certain material if the for heating and cooling of a building. necessary to reach saturation.
slab is 1 K warmer than its surroundings. The heating demand depends on the
building geometry, described as the
Qs = c x ρ x d Dewpoint temperature θs [°C]
total heat exchanging surface area A
At a certain temperature the amount of
ρ 3
apparent density of material [kg/m ] relative to the heated building volume V.
vapour that can be contained in air is
d thickness of slab [m] exceeded with the effect that condensed
Transmission heating demand moisture appears in the air and on sur-
That portion of the annual heating faces. The relative humidity at the dew-
Thermal diffusivity a [m2/s] demand caused by transmission losses point temperature is 1 or respectively
Defines how fast a temperature field is through the exterior wall. The following 100% (see Fig. 14 and 17).
transmitted in a certain material. factors have a positive effect:
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V. Vapour migration
dewpoint temperature
ment. Within the temperature range 1/Z [kg/m2hPa].
relevant to buildings this effect can be
determined in a simplified manner similar A x (p1 - p2) x t
to the calculation of heat transmission: G=
Z
G = kD x A x (p1 - p2) x t
respectively
respectively
G A x (p1 - p2) Fig. 14
I= =
G t Z
I= = kD x A x (p1 - p2)
t
Z = 1,5 x 106 x µ x d
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VI. Condensation
Condensation on building elements Condensation on building elements The change of saturated vapour pressure
under constant thermal conditions under extremely humid conditions in a building element can easily be
If the inside surface temperature of a Depending on the occupancy conden- determined when calculating the change
building element is below the dewpoint sation can occur due to high humidity of temperature in the element.
temperature of the room air condensa-
tion will occur on the element. To avoid of the room air (e.g. in kitchens and For every temperature value there is an
this effect in case of extreme temperature bathrooms). In this case the excess assorted value of saturated vapour
differences between inside and outside humidity has to be reduced by ventila- pressure. The change of partial vapour
a minimum thermal insulation of the ele- tion. pressure in a building element can be
ment is required. The maximum thermal determined by calculating the decrease
transmittance Umax and the minimum of vapour pressure ∆pn at the single
Condensation in building elements
thermal resistance Rmin can be determi- layers of the element. ∆ps results from
Condensation in building elements
ned as follows : the relation of vapour diffusion resistance
occurs if the actual partial vapour pres-
Zn of the respective single layer to the
sure p exceeds the saturated vapour
θi - θs pressure ps that depends on the tempe-
total vapour diffusion resistance Z of the
Umax = hi x element.
θi - θe rature of the element. If this is a lasting
effect it will drastically reduce the Zn
θi - θe insulation qualities of the element and ∆pn = (pi - pe)
Rmin = 1/hi x - (1/hi x 1/he) Z
θi - θs finally lead to damage due to humidity
and an unhealthy building climate. Zn vapour diffusion resistance of single
hi thermal transfer coefficient inside Condensation in building elements can layer of element [kg/m2hPa]
[W/m2K] be considered harmless provided that
Z total vapour diffusion resistance of
the building elements can dry-out again
he thermal transfer coefficient outside building element [kg/m2hPa]
during a warmer season and that the
[W/m2K]
thermal and structural performance of pi inside partial vapour pressure [Pa]
θi room air temperature [K;°C] the elements is not impaired by other
possible damage like corrosion or fun- pe outside partial vapour pressure [Pa]
θe outside air temperature [K;°C] gus attack.
θs dewpoint temperature of room air
[K;°C]
With its foundations firmly anchored to About twenty-five years ago the Club of
the soil, a building rises up above the Rome published a study on the limits of
face of the earth, projecting into the growth that drew world wide attention.
atmosphere. Cutting out a certain volume Since then it has become very clear that
of the atmosphere it defines a protected natural resources and availability of
interior space. The movement of the energy are limited. There is no doubt
sun, the diurnal cycle and the weather about the need to save energy. In
conditions depending on the season put Germany for example about forty per-
stress on the structure of the building cent of the total energy consumed (this
envelope in many ways. Its function is figure includes industrial demand, pri-
similar to a membrane, being waterproof vate and public traffic and private
and tight against wind and rain it still consumption) is used for the thermal
allows infiltration of daylight and the conditioning of buildings. Efforts to save
exchange of air. Out of the multitude of energy in this field are very promising.
functions of the building envelope the Substantial savings of energy in buildings
focus of this brochure is thermal and are possible by reducing the need for
sound insulation in steel construction. heating and cooling through intelligent
The related subjects of moisture proofing design concepts.
and solar protection are also discussed.
The underlying physical principles are
independent of the material used. Our
aim, however, is to emphasise the
potential of steel as a building material.
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All efforts to save energy in buildings While the first type of structural system
are dependent on the following five for the building envelope consists of
parameters: several clearly distinguished elements
which are assembled on site using
• the thermal resistance of the enclosing shop-manufactured hardware for joinery
building elements like walls, floors, the second type of structural system
windows and doors and their portion can be adapted to various materials
of surface area of the building enve- which are commonly assembled on site.
lope. Masonry or concrete, for example, can
form the inner leaf of the building enve-
• the order of the different layers and lope. The insulation then is attached to
their heat storage capacity. this layer. The outer leaf may consist of
corrugated steel sheets, providing solar
• thermal transmittance of windows, and moisture protection for the insula- Fig. 27 single-layered metal panel system
their size and their orientation in com- tion. An added advantage of this system
bination with shading devices. is that radiant solar energy heating up
the outer leaf can be ventilated by a
• air-tightness of the building elements cavity between insulation and cladding.
and their joints. The ventilated outer shell has proved to
be an effective protection against mois-
• ventilation. ture and solar radiation. Often it is used
as an additional protection in building
The building’s geometry and the distri- envelopes of the first type in order to
bution of its mass are additional factors distribute thermal stress in the insulating
relevant to heat flow. Both closed layer.
facades and glazed facades perform
Fig. 28 single-layered metal panel system
differently in summer and winter.
Increasing the building’s surface in rela-
tion to the heated volume results in a
higher demand for heating energy. The
heating demand of a multi-storey steel
building is highly dependent on the
thermal insulation of the building enve-
lope and its air-tightness. In principle
there are two types of structural sys-
tems:
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I. Geometrical Order
III. Steel Structures and Thermal
Bridges
I. Geometrical Order
Position one is the best solution from a There are a lot of commonly held mis- • Thermal bridges caused by adjacent
technical point of view to create an conceptions about the nature and the materials of different thermal conduc-
uninterrupted skin of uniform insulation. effects of thermal bridges, especially tivity. (e.g. a well insulated metal panel
Position two also allows an uninterrupted among practising architects. The almost attached to an uninsulated concrete
insulating envelope. In this case the classical image that comes to mind is a column or a steel beam penetrating
structural order is still recognisable in structural steel beam penetrating the the insulated enclosure as mentioned
the facade. The structural order can be building envelope and thus allegedly above).
emphasised even more as shown in causing “enormous” losses of heating
position three where the insulating energy. That this is not necessarily so is • Thermal bridges caused by geometry
envelope is behind the outer columns of well documented in the case study of (e.g. in corners where the exterior wall
the building. In this case a complete the Administration Centre in Langenthal/ meets the floor slab. Here heat flow is
insulation of the structure requires care- Switzerland where careful studies of this increased because the inside surface
ful detailing. particular problem were conducted area of the corner is smaller than the
prior to construction. The findings of outside heat-emitting surface of the
these studies are included in this book- wall. Thus more energy is drawn from
let and should help to foster a better the inside corner)
understanding of the nature of thermal
bridges in steel structures. It is important to understand that the
thermal bridge effect is not limited only
Technically thermal bridges are areas of to the element of increased thermal
locally increased heat flow. Basically conductivity. It also draws thermal energy
there are two types of thermal bridge: from adjacent well insulated elements
thus decreasing their surface tempera-
ture and locally their insulation value.
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Conclusion
The appearance of a steel building is
influenced not only by the design of an
efficient loadbearing structure, but it is
also the result of careful study of the
relationship between structure and
building envelope. The integration of
structure and envelope does not only
determine the insulation qualities of the
building and its performance under
changing environmental conditions, it
also determines the architectural quality
of the building as a whole. Disregard of
physical laws can lead to uneconomical
solutions. Furthermore condensation
Fig. 34 surface temperatures of floorslab Fig. 35 surface temperatures of floorslab can also cause major damage to the
without perimeter insulation with additional interior insulation building envelope and to the load bearing
structure (corrosion). Not every thermal
1 4 mm FZ-panel bridge is harmful to the building.
2 70 mm glass wool
3 4 mm FZ-panel Thermal bridges are harmless if there is
4 timber frame a great volume of air inside and if internal
5 50 mm bond screed humidity is low. This may apply to many
6 170 mm concrete ceiling kinds of steel buildings, as for example
7 20 mm PS-foam
industrial shed structures, train sheds
and covered market places as well as
for airport terminals and industrial exhi-
The negative effect of all thermal damage through corrosion. Conden- bition buildings. In multi-storey steel
bridges is, of course, loss of energy. sation will not occur if the interior surface buildings however, be it office buildings
However, in the case of the penetrating temperature is kept above the dewpoint or apartment houses, the demand for
steel beam the loss is negligible com- temperature of the room air (see Fig. 35 human thermal comfort, which requires
pared to the standard overall energy and 17). This is the safe and proper way relatively high inner surface tempera-
emission of a building. The typically to deal with condensation. However, tures, does not permit any kind of lea-
small section area of the steel beam there are feasible means of dealing with kage in the insulating envelope. The
does not conduct as much energy as condensation if its occurrence cannot inner surface temperature has to be
generally assumed by uninformed prac- be ruled out with certainty. maintained by means of insulation and
titioners. A more serious case of energy Condensation can be collected in a not by means of intensified air move-
loss is caused by linear thermal bridges groove where it can evaporate over ment which would cause uncomfortable
which can be found in construction time. This is a typical detail of older post climatic conditions.
typical of the 1960s and 70s. Here a and rail facade systems with single
concrete floor slab without perimeter glazing. It is also possible to heat the
insulation is often in contact with the affected element artificially by installing
outside air, acting almost like a cooling a local fan which, of course, consumes
fin and drawing large amounts of energy. additional energy. Upon closer exami-
There are two ways to alleviate this pro- nation this solution can often be found
blem in a renovation project. The in earlier “High-Tech” architecture.
“quick-fix” is to introduce a linear strip
of insulation about 1m wide underneath Thermal bridges caused by bolts and
the floor slab. This is relatively cheap fasteners penetrating the insulated
and can provide an adequate solution building enclosure can be alleviated by
(see Fig. 35). The proper way, however, increasing the interior surface of the
would be to improve the insulation qua- heat conductive material with for
lities of the overall building enclosure. example an additional steel plate.
Another typical detail which makes use
Local condensation on building ele- of this effect is a point-suspended glass
ments caused by thermal bridges is pane. The joint penetrating the glass
often a more serious problem than the transfers thermal energy to the steel
actual loss of energy. Condensation can structure inside where it is evenly distri-
cause mould on interior surfaces or buted without causing extreme surface
even structural temperatures.
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Sophisticated Building II. Gaining Energy by Means of and glazed facades with operable ele-
Glazed Building Envelopes ments.
The sun provides an endless supply of Both effects - heat gain during daytime In multi-storey buildings adjustable
free, renewable energy. The amount of and heat loss at night - seen in combi- exterior shading devices tend to mal-
solar energy which reaches the surface nation suggest an uneven energy function even if sturdily detailed. In
of the earth every day is enormous. A balance. Improvement of the insulation many multi-storey buildings the opti-
comparison with other sources of energy qualities can be achieved through mum exterior sun protection can hardly
gives an idea of solar power. Within 26 double-glazing or even triple-glazing. be achieved. Recent developments in
days the sun emits a quantity of energy Solar gains through radiation will only glass technology have tried to incorpo-
equal to the total energy stored in all be slightly reduced whereas thermal rate sun protection qualities in the glass
known fossil fuel resources (coal, gas losses will be cut down substantially. itself. Heat absorbing and highly reflecting
and oil). Therefore the sum of solar gains and glasses were introduced. This seemingly
heat losses will result in a remarkable convincing method has serious
In buildings, solar energy can be used energy balance when double-or triple- disadvantages from an energy point of
in many ways: glazing is applied. Studies have shown view. Tinted glass can absorb 50-60% of
that south oriented double-glazed solar energy. Mirrored glass reflects 30-
• Daylighting in every room is an impor- facades are areas of usable heat gain 70% of the radiated energy back to the
tant quality of an efficient building. for more than half of the heating period. environment. However, both technolo-
• Energy gains from solar radiation gies reduce solar gains by about the
help to reduce heating costs in winter In traditional buildings, shutters, Venetian same degree.
and during transition periods. blinds and curtains were closed at night
• Solar energy can be used to heat to reduce heat loss. By combining these Therefore, if solar gains are desired, sun
water for hot-water supply. methods of temporary insulation the U- protection methods have to be applied
• Solar radiation can be transformed in value of a double glazed window, for that are capable of selective transmis-
electrical energy by solar panels. example, could be improved from 2.8 to sion. In many multi-storey buildings
1.4 . These popular methods of tempo- mirrored glass has led to a uniform
rary thermal insulation can reverse the building envelope that does not react to
energy balance of windows to the east the different qualities of orientation. This
and west and even to the north side and kind of glazing concentrates the diffe-
thereby lead to a reduction of heating rent functions of the building envelope
costs. These traditional methods can be in one layer. The technology of mirrored
translated into modern means for tempo- glass and tinted glass has come to a
rarily influencing the U-value of windows dead end: More reflection or more
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absorption does not make sense. The mer - are mitigated by a buffer-zone in III. Thermal Interaction with
energetic disadvantages of this kind of a more natural and elegant way than by the Environment
skin can only be compensated for with extensive air-conditioning. in Atrium Buildings
extensive air-conditioning. This causes
an increase of energy consumption A material superior to glass in the Originally an atrium was the open cour-
which leads to increased life-cycle building envelope can hardly be imagi- tyard of a Roman house. In modern
costs. From an architectural point of ned: it is durable, resistant against cor- buildings an atrium is a glass enclosed
view the potential of these facades is rosion and does not need maintenance. space to the side or within a building. If
also limited to expressing the precise Its main components - silica and oxygen issues of heating, cooling and lighting
shape of the building’s volume in a - are available in almost unlimited quan- are ignored, atrium designs can add
mirrored coating that reflects the adja- tities. Glass can be refined, its qualities significantly to the energy cost of the
cent structures, probably more mirrored can be adjusted within certain limits. building by requiring above-average
buildings. Bright interiors are of vital importance energy for heating and cooling. On the
for human well-being: There is no substi- other hand energy efficient atrium
tute for glass. Steel as the material with spaces can contribute savings through
To split off the different functions of the the highest loadbearing capacity is
building envelope into a multi-layer natural lighting, passive heating and
especially suited to be combined with natural cooling strategies. There are dif-
construction is an interesting design glass. In some aspects steel and glass
challenge. ferent types of atria with different func-
have the same qualities: both are high tions and goals within the building
performance building materials, and context:
Each layer has a specific function which can be manufactured into components
it meets with customised structural of high precision. If these qualities are
details. Environmental conditions are applied to the building as a whole, it will • The atrium as a semi-conditioned
not kept out by a single tough mem- be bright and spacious, transparent and buffer-zone
brane - they are filtered in several open.
stages and reach the interior in a • The atrium as a source of natural light
modified condition.
• The atrium as a green space of extra
Maintenance balconies in front of the comfort for occupants
facade are especially suited to take up
sun shading devices. The most advan- If integrated carefully, combining various
ced multi-layer envelopes incorporate and perhaps conflicting requirements,
buffer-zones between the inner insula- an atrium can be used for passive
tion and the outside air. This intermediate heating, natural cooling and day-lighting.
space has to be ventilated in summer. In The effectiveness of an atrium depends
the transition period the warmed air can on its orientation and on daylight and
be used for heat exchange. The prede- insulation control at its glazed surface.
cessors of this concept can be found in
glazed verandas, projecting bay win- An atrium of the first type does not need
dows, winter gardens and glass-covered extra heating or cooling. It functions as
courts of the 19th century. a buffer-zone between the inside and
outside climate. In winter the building
As already discussed these openings facade adjacent to the atrium has a
for light and air incorporated different significantly lower heat loss through
ways of sun shading and additional ventilation and convection than the
glare protection. All these elements exterior facade. Furthermore the glazed
were manually operated and needed a roof of the atrium provides passive solar
lot of maintenance. Today’s atria also heat gains that can be conveyed to
have to be constantly adjusted to adjacent heated rooms in winter and
meteorological and climatic conditions during the transition period. Even in
to maintain comfortable room tempera- summer it is possible that the tempera-
tures. They are equipped with different ture in the atrium is lower than the out-
sun shading devices such as mechani- side temperature. Openings in the glass
cally operated louvres, lamellas and roller roof and openings for cooling rooms
blinds. Mechanically operated and like the basement cause a stack effect
controlled by electronic sensors these that supplies cool air to the atrium
adjustable elements can react immedia- space. Overheating in summer can be
tely to climatic changes. In spite of their further reduced by the following mea-
complex equipment these buffers-zones sures: shading devices on the roof and
are an appropriate solution when the on the south, east and west facades; the
need to save energy becomes more use of reflecting and bright materials for
evident. Undesirable atmospheric roof and facades; thermal insulation on
conditions - cold in winter, heat in sum- surfaces exposed to the sun; reduction
23
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 24
New research undertaken by Oxford For the predominant diurnal energy Conclusion
Brookes University, BSRA, Oscar Faber charge/discharge cycle, the amount of Certainly the physical mass of a building
Consulting Engineers and the Steel thermal storage in the floor slab is limited has an effect on the adaptation of interior
Construction Institute suggests that by surface heat transfer characteristics temperature. However, the often presu-
physical mass and effective thermal rather than by the thickness of the floor med equation “Great mass equals great
mass have only a tenuous relationship slab. Due to the more effective loadbea- thermal storage capacity” is a non
beyond a certain depth of material (50- ring capacity of steel-framed buildings sequitur as it turns out. Intelligent venti-
70mm). Furthermore, it is the choice of in comparison to concrete skeleton lation concepts are far more important
heating and ventilation systems that buildings the floor slabs in the steel- than just mass. The effects of thermal
affects a building’s ability to perform framed buildings are thinner than those mass can easily be put to use in light-
effectively - from both an energy in concrete-framed buildings. Assuming weight steel skeleton buildings. And for
consumption and a temperature- that the floor slab in a steel framed many reasons it is desirable to use
comfort point of view. In principle all building is only 120mm thick there still thermal mass for effective daily regulation
parts of a building have a certain heat is enough concrete to absorb heat of temperature:
storage capacity. The major amount of transferred into the floor by the adjacent
mass lies in the loadbearing structure. air. The top of the floor, which is usually • It reduces the dependence on
In buildings with bearing walls there is carpeted or has a raised floor, is less mechanical services and therefore
potential heat storage capacity in walls effective in heat absorption than its has ecological benefits.
and floor slabs alike. In skeleton buildings underside. But even if both sides of the
heat can only be stored primarily in the construction are active in terms of heat • The life cycle costs of a building can
floor slabs. For thermodynamic reasons, transfer the underside is still dominant be reduced since less energy is
however, the most important structural and there is still more than enough required for mechanical heating and
part for heat-storage is the underside of mass in steel-composite floor systems cooling.
the floor slab. Upward heat transfer is to make use of thermal fabric storage.
always dominant compared with down- • The costs and capacity of mechanical
ward heat transfer. For a case study on Another common misconception exists services can be reduced.
this effect please refer to the Swiss about the effects of “temperature ram-
example of the Administration Centre ping” in the seasonal cycle. “Tempe- • The volume taken up by services can
Langenthal where the predominant ther- rature ramping” is the phenomenon of be reduced.
mal capacity of the underside of floor energy accumulation in building elements
slabs was carefully examined. as a result of excess heat inflow at the
end of the daily cycle thus gradually
increasing the stored energy (and interior
temperature) on a day by day basis.
Research data, however, suggests that
whilst this does occur, net temperature
gains or losses tend to be small, and
their effects extremely marginal.
25
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 26
Sound Insulation
Basic Terms and Physical Principles
Sound Insulation
Basic Terms
and Physical Principles
I. Description of Sound
III. Sound Absorption
IV. Reverberation Time T60
V. Transmission of Sound
Fig. 38 oscillation of a loud and “sharp” sound Fig. 39 oscillation of a low and flat sound
Sound is caused by vibration of an Noise usually consists of a whole variety When a sound wave hits a building ele-
object in an elastic medium. The way of different sounds with different fre- ment one part of the sound energy is
humans perceive sound governs the quencies. The dB rating describes two reflected while the other part is transfor-
way it is measured and described. Two different sound related quantities: first it med into thermal energy. This is called
important characteristics of sound simply represents the volume of sound, sound absorption. It reduces the sound
which humans can detect are: and secondly it describes the quality of level in the room. The grade of absorp-
sound insulation as a measure to quan- tion can be expressed in the sound
• how loud a sound is (level) tify the amount by which sound trans- absorption factor α. It ranges from 0
• whether it is high or low pitched (pitch mitted from one room to another is (= total sound reflection) to 1 (total
or frequency) reduced by the partition construction. absorption, no reflection) (also see
The A-sound level is used for acoustic page 33).
Sound levels and sound insulation measurements in order to take these
values are expressed in Decibels (dB), effects into consideration. Its unit is
whilst pitch or frequency is expressed in dB(A).
Hertz (Hz). III. Reverberation Time T60
Frequency
Sound level The pitch of a sound is described by its The sound absorption can be estimated
The sound level describes how loud a frequency. Human hearing ranges by measuring the reverberation time T60
sound is. Its unit is the decibel (dB). The approximately from 16 to 20,000 Hertz - the time taken for a reverberate noise
human ear is more sensitive to mid- (Hz). Building acoustics usually deal to decay by 60 dB. For residential and
range than to low frequencies. with a frequency range from 100 Hz to office buildings T60 is usually conside-
Thus sounds of a same sound level but 3,150 Hz (see Fig. 40). red to be 0.5 seconds.
of a different frequency may be perceived
differently.
26
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 27
Sould Insulation
Basic Terms and Physical Principles
Fig. 44 Airborne sound insulation of a partition wall with different air-tightness at the
connection wall / floor (apparent sound reduction R’)
27
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 28
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation
28
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 29
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation
Sound and Noise in Buildings I. Sound Insulation in Solid and III. Acoustic Design
Lightweight Constructions
I. Sound Insulation in Solid and Traditional methods of construction with The sound insulation quality of a building
Lightweight Constructions heavy, loadbearing masonry walls or is described as its ability to shield the
III. Subjective Loudness timber framed buildings with infills of interior from outside noise or to stop
IV. Acoustic Design stone can be looked upon as primitive sound created in one room of the building
structures in the sense of concentrating from being transmitted to another room.
V. Tolerable Noise Levels
all functions of a wall or floor in one There are many sources of noise in a
single layer. Walls and floors define building and various routes of transmis-
spaces, they act as loadbearing struc- sion. Therefore no general technique
tures and as dividing layers they sepa- exists to provide good sound insulation.
rate different spaces from each other. Many single measures have to be com-
bined to avoid acoustic disturbances.
These types of construction may have
Sound insulation is a primary architec-
been clumsy and rather inefficient in
tural quality of a building. It cannot be
making use of the material’s capacities.
added as a supplementary detail later
On the other hand they at least fulfilled
on, as for example a coating against
the minimum requirements for thermal
corrosion. Mistakes in planning
and acoustic insulation.
concerning the building’s acoustic qua-
lities cannot be completely corrected
both tables according to Gösele u. The complex requirements for sound after the building is completed.
Schüle: insulation are connected to the develop- Subsequent repairs can only marginally
ment of advanced building techniques. improve the situation. Therefore it is
The development of skeleton load- essential to solve acoustically relevant
Room, Room Tolerable bearing structures has had major questions in the design process.
Location Noise Levels
consequences for all other structural
systems of buildings.
Night The following such questions concerning
Daytime (10 pm - the design of a building have to be
7am) In modern building, technological stan- addressed:
in bedrooms, dards were established as a reference
30 dB(A) 25 dB(A) to rate the performance of each structu-
windows open • How is the building site affected by
ral component, describing for example
noise and what is the orientation of
its loadbearing capacity, its thermal
in living rooms 45 dB(A) 35 dB(A) the proposed building?
insulation properties or its sound insula-
tion quality. In an efficiency-oriented
in gardens,
• How is the floor plan organised
35 dB(A) 30dB(A) context each technical system and
balconies etc. concerning the location of wash-
every element within a structure has to
rooms, toilets, kitchens, elevators and
meet certain requirements with mini-
mechanical rooms?
Fig. 46 tolérable noise levels mum effort
• Is the building con-struction light- or
heavyweight?
29
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 30
Sound Insulation
Sound and Noise in Buildings
The amount of sound insulation requi- instance, for a certain amount of sound walls between offices and a worksho-
red depends on the use of the rooms. tocross between a typical residential kit pare likely to require greater acoustic
The use of a room determines the noise -chen and living-room. However it is not insulation than those between a trade-
level produced in the room (see acceptable in most western cultures for counter and the same workshop.
“Subjective Loudness”) as well as the conversations to be audible between In general sound intruding from the out-
required stillness. Acoustic standards dwellings. It is apparent that the stan- side or from adjacent rooms should not
are a product of both physical needs, dards of acoustic insulation which are exceed the sound level produced by the
for example the need to sleep or to have required in different parts of a building activities in this room.
an undisturbed conversation, and the will vary and that the performance
general expectations of building occu- required of individual building elements
pants. It is generally acceptable, for will reflect these variations. For example,
Between bathrooms 55 48 47 60 51 - 38 70 - -
Between meeting-rooms - - 52 55 - - - - - -
Between gymnasiums/work- - - 57 50 53 45 45 70 - -
shops and rooms which need
quiet
Sound Insulation
Principles of Sound Insulation
The sound insulation quality of a single reasons. In fire walls between dwellings • unequal distribution of mass and
layer wall or partition is almost entirely for example a mass of 450 kg/m2 is cavities affect the insulation quality.
determined by its mass per unit area. necessary to obtain an insulation of 55 Non-homogenous walls or floors,
The weighted sound reduction index R’w dB. The airborne sound insulation per- areas which include hollow spaces
increases with the mass of the wall. formance is influenced by the following and cavities determine the insulation
lightweight materials do not block sound factors: quality of the whole structure
very well.
• oscillations can be transformed into
• non-air-tightness of walls and their
heat energy by absorption. Every
“The more mass per unit area the more intersections
material has different absorption qua-
insulation”
lities.
• gaps, holes and slots substantially
reduce insulation, especially at high
is a common rule-of-thumb for single- • unfortunately thermal insulation
frequency ranges
layer structures. The degree of sound decreases with increasing mass. This
transmission is also influenced by fre- effect has to be taken into considera-
• the lack of plaster is especially bad if
quency, flexural rigidity of the construc- tion when designing a building.
the walls are untight; the sound insu-
tion element and cavity absorption.
lation qualities of a building are
Theoretically the dB rating increases by
dependent on good craftsmanship
6 dB if the mass per unit area is dou-
which has to be ensured by site
bled. The idea of providing good sound
supervision.
insulation by means of mass is espe-
cially convincing where heavy walls are
also needed for other
31
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 32
Sound Insulation
Principles of Sound Insulation
The sound insulation of a single layer High mass per unit area can be undesi- Special care has to be taken of the
wall increases logarithmically with its rable in a structural element. A double width of the airspace. The coincidence
mass. It decreases around a certain fre- layer wall can provide a better sound frequency of the two layers should be
quency which depends on the flexural insulation than a single layer wall of the greater than 3150 Hz.
rigidity of the building material due to a same mass per unit area. Good sound
resonance effect. After reaching a mini- insulation qualities can be achieved with
Flanking transmission can be reduced
mum it increases again. This coincidence lightweight walls composed of two inde-
by introducing a physical break in the
frequency of a single layer wall can be pendent frames with a cavity between
flanking wall at the junction with the
determined as follows: and each frame supporting one surface
separating element. Steel-framed
of the wall. Basically there are three
construction normally uses separate
√
1 σ routes which sound can travel through a
fgr = 6,4 x 104 x panels so that there is a natural junction
d E double layer construction element (see
between flanking and separating ele-
d thickness of wall [m] Fig. 50 and 51)
ment. This junction and the fact that all
wall and floor elements tend to be of
σ specific mass of wall [kg/m3]
A direct transmission similar mass, means that flanking trans-
E modulus of elasticity of material mission is much less of a problem than
[N/m2] B transmission through connections in many masonry buildings. It is likely to
between the two layers (“sound bridge”) be direct transmission which deter-
The threshold frequency is lower the mines the requirements for sound insu-
thicker and more rigid a building ele- C flanking transmission. lation.
ment is.
If two layers are directly connected the
The edges of the wall require special
sound insulation only increases loga-
consideration for good acoustic design.
rithmically according to the mass law.
Any rigid connection between the two
layers might spoil the insulation. Linear
Best results can be obtained with two connections like studs made of wood or
frames which are strictly separated by a sheet metal perform as sound bridges.
cavity which may additionally be filled This type of lightweight wall is minor
with a lightweight resilient insulation than an equivalent masonry wall of the
material. In this way the sound insula- same thickness.
tion properties of the single layers can
be added under certain circumstances.
Fig. 50a sound transmission double-leaf wall Fig. 50b separation + resilient insulation material
32
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 33
Sound Insulation
Principles of Sound Insulation
Porous absorbers
Pores and capillary openings are cha-
Prous absorber Resonance absorber
racteristics of the first group of materials sound absorption factor αs with different sound absorption factor αs with different
which includes textiles, rock wool, cer- frequencies frequencies
tain elastomers, wood-fibre boards and
single-sized concrete. Sound waves are
absorbed by these openings. Oscillating
air is transformed into heat energy due
to friction which occurs at the surface of
the openings. The degree of absorption
depends on the thickness and the flux-
resistance of the material. Generally
sound absorbing material which is atta-
ched to walls or ceilings has to have a
thickness of at least 1 cm. Often the sur-
face of this kind of material is visually
unattractive. They can be covered and
protected by a cladding which has only
aesthetic functions. Perforated sheet
metal and perforated corrugated sheet
metal with a layer of rockwool beneath Fig. 51 (according to Gösele u. Schüle)
is widely used for sound-absorption.
Fig. 52 sound absorption factor of different types of wall coverings (see also page 26)
33
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 34
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
Adequate acoustic privacy in multi- Adequate impact insulation depends • properly designed discontinuities
family dwellings and other structures is on : such as interrupted floor slab top-
an integral quality of a building. pings
Therefore it must not be considered to • the introduction of floating floors,
be a superficial treatment which can be interrupted at partition walls to avoid • resilient joints between exterior walls
applied after the building’s completion. flanking transmission of sound and partitions
In this aspect the control of impact-
sound transmission is as important as • insulation of mechanical services like
the control of airborne sound transmis- • insulating the floating floor surface
from the rest of the structure at the continuous pipes, conduits or ducts
sion. which could act as routes of transmis-
floor perimeter. This is commonly
achieved by folding the resilient layer sion
Floors, walls and stairs are subject to up to the edges of the walking surface
Other precautions are common sense
structure borne or impact sound. Noise measures which can help to minimise
caused by footfalls, dropped objects, • specifying the appropriate resilient problems in multi-family
scraping furniture, slamming of doors layer with the correct dynamic stiff- dwellings:
and even the use of electrical sockets ness under the imposed loads
are sources of structure-borne sound. • door closures or stops can be added
Of the variety of sources the only type of • ensuring that the systems have suffi- to cushion impact energy so that it is
impact-sound covered by code regula- cient durability e.g. that the resilient not transmitted directly into the struc-
tions in most countries is that from layer will not permanently compress ture
footsteps. Therefore specific measures during service and that all
to control impact-sound are commonly components sufficiently withstand • desks should not be placed directly
only associated with floor surfaces. anticipated floor loads against a wall
34
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 35
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
• kitchen cabinets should not be placed from one room to another. Good footfall III. Acoustic Performance of
at a wall adjacent to the neighbours sound insulation of massive slabs with Steel Constructions
bedroom floating floors is obtained if the mass
per unit area of both leaves, floating Materials and Applications
Curtain walls, thin concrete floors and floor and structural floor, are relatively Cold formed sections are manufactured
bar joists require special attention large and if both leaves are separated from cold rolled steel coil. The most
because transverse waves set up in by a resilient intermediate-layer. common sections are the C or the
continuous rigid lightweight walls or Sigma shape, although other sections
floors can cause sound transmission are used for special applications. Steel
Floor Finishes
with little attenuation over a long distance thickness range from 0.5 mm to 3.2 mm.
A resilient floor finish (e.g. carpeting) on
from the source to other parts of the Corrosion protection is usually achieved
top of a floating floor can further impro-
structure. through galvanising.
ve footfall sound insulation. When used
as part of a calculation one has to take
Massive Floor Slabs into account that resilient floor finishes Floor joists
The peak footfall sound of homoge- are subject to wear and tear and indivi- Cold formed steel sections can be used
neous floor slabs can be predicted dual taste of the occupants and thus instead of timber floor joists. They can
approximately. If the frequency is might be changed. While floating floors be supported by masonry walls or joist
increased by ten times an increase of improve airborne and impact-sound hangers as well as by steel frames. Cold
the sound peak of 5 dB will be detected. insulation of a floor, resilient floor formed steel sections generally make a
The footfall sound peak can be reduced finishes can only improve footfall sound lighter floor than either timber or hot
by increasing the thickness of the floor insulation. rolled steel.
slab. Doubling the thickness of the floor
slab leads to a sound peak reduction of
Stairs and Stair Landings
about 10 dB. The interrelationship of the Stud walling
Footfall sound insulation of stairs and
degree of footfall, sound insulation and Using steel studs to build lightweight
stair landings in relation to adjacent
mass per unit area of the floor is shown partitions is very common in commercial
rooms depends on the structural
in Fig. 53. buildings and is becoming increasingly
connections. Very good footfall sound
popular for residential applications, too.
insulation can be obtained if the stairs
The airborne sound insulation of floors are separated from the staircase and if
basically follows the same principles as the partition walls between dwellings Residential Building
the sound insulation of walls. It is usually are doubled up. Additionally the stairs Systems for residential construction
determined by the mass per unit area of should have resilient supports. using structural steel sections have
the floor construction. been offered for many years. Three
basic forms exist.
Multi-layer Floors
The introduction of a floating floor and a • Column and beam systems
resilient floor topping is a prerequisite
for good footfall sound insulation. An • Prefabricated panel systems
additional measure to reduce footfall
sound transmission is a suspended • Volumetric systems where buildings
ceiling which acts as a resilient single are designed and delivered as a
leaf element maybe with an additional series of prefabricated modules which
insulation layer of mineral wool fibre. are assembled on site.
Suspended ceilings are especially
effective in skeleton buildings with light-
weight partitions. These partitions can Cladding
be easily insulated with a resilient joint Various types of steel cladding are avai-
between partition and loadbearing floor. lable including:
In this way impact-sound transmission
through the floor to the adjacent rooms • Systems comprising an interior liner
can be avoided. Horizontal resilient sheet and exterior corrugated sheet
joints are needed between ceiling and with insulation and spacers between.
partitions when using a suspended cei-
ling for impact-sound insulation in ske-
• Systems comprising an inner structural
leton buildings.
tray and exterior corrugated sheet
In buildings with loadbearing walls
fastened to the returned edges of the
impact sound is immediately transmitted
tray with insulation between.
by rigid parts of the structure because
of the rigid connection of wall and floor • Composite panels
slab. Therefore a suspended ceiling
cannot stop impact-sound transmission
35
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 36
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
Exterior Walls
Fig. 54 Built-up cladding system comprising Fig. 55 Built-up cladding system compri- Fig. 56 Built-up cladding system, com-
inner structural tray and exterior sing inner liner sheet and exterior prising brick outer leaf, cavity,
corrugated sheet with insulation corrugated sheet with insulation and insulation, cold formed steel framed
between the layers spacers between the layers. inner leaf, plasterboard
interior lining.
Typical airborne sound insulation: Typical airborne sound insulation:
23-30 Rw 28-38 Rw Typical airborne sound insulation:
48-56 Rw
Fig. 57a Composite panels comprising inner Fig. 57b Built-up cladding system, com- Fig. 57c Built-up cladding system, com-
and outer steel sheets bonded to prising inner slid stud wall with prising slit metal studs with plas-
either side of an insulated core. plasterboards on both sides and terboard lining on both sides and
insulation in between and corru- brick outer leaf
Typical airborne sound insulation: gated sheet metal as outer leaf
23-30Rw Typical airborne sound insulation:
Typical airborne sound insulation 48-56 Rw
30-38 Rw
36
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 37
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
Floors
Basic Interior floors Interior floors / compartment floors Interior floors, compartment floors
with enhanced acoustic insulation with composite steel and concrete
construction
Fig. 58 Timber flooring on steel joists with Fig. 59 Floating timber floor on isolated quilt Fig. 60 Composite slab on steel joists with
plasterboard ceiling. on timber layer on steel joists with plasterboard ceiling
plasterboard ceiling.
Typical airborne sound insulation: Typ. airborne sound ins.:39-43 Rw
45-54 Rw Typical airborne sound insulation: Typ. impact sound ins.:82-89 Ln,w
Typical impact sound insulation: 47-52 Rw
70-78 Ln,w Typical impact sound insulation: With additional floating layer -
60-65 Ln,w Typ. airborne sound ins.:44-50 Rw
Typ. impact sound ins.:58-65 Ln,w
Fig. 61 Timber flooring on steel deck joists Fig. 62 Floating timber floor with plaster- Fig. 63 Slim floor comprising deep deck
with plasterboard ceiling. board planking on isolated quilt on composite slab.
steel deck supported by steel joists
Typical airborne sound insulation: with plasterboard ceiling. Typ. airborne sound ins.:39- 43 Rw
45-54 Rw Typ. impact sound ins.:82 - 89 Ln,w
Typical impact sound insulation: Typ. airborne sound ins.: 47-52 Rw
70-78 Ln,w Typ. impact sound ins.:60-65 Ln,w With additional floating layer -
Typ. airborne sound ins.:44- 50 Rw
Typ. impact sound ins.:58 - 65 Ln,w
37
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 38
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
Interior Walls
Fig. 64a Steel studs, one layer of plaster- Fig. 64b Steel studs, one layer of plaster- Fig. 65 Steel studs, two layers of plaster-
board on one side board each side. board each side.
Typical airborne sound insulation: Typical airborne sound insulation: Typical airborne sound insulation:
30-34 Rw 30-34 Rw 46-54 Rw
Fig. 66a Steel studs, two layers of plaster- Fig. 66b Steel studs, two layers of plaster- Fig. 66c Boxed steel studs, two layers of
board on one side with additional board on each side with additional plasterboard each side
insulation insulation
Typical airborne sound insulation:
Typical airborne sound insulation: Typical airborne sound insulation: 44-49 Rw
30-36Rw 40-44 Rw
38
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 39
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
Interior partitions / compartment Interior staggered stud partitions / Interior partitions / compartment
walls with enhanced acoustic insula- compartment walls walls with independent framing
tion
Fig. 67 Large steel studs, two layers of Fig. 68 Staggered stud partitions / compart- Fig. 69 For normal height, two layers of
plasterboard each side ment walls plasterboard each side, with quilt in
cavity
Typical airborne sound insulation: Typical airborne sound insulation:
52-58 Rw 49-68 Rw Typical airborne sound insulation:
60-70 Rw
Fig. 70 Large boxed steel studs, two layers Fig. 70b Staggered stud partitions, two Fig. 71 Independent steel stud framing for
of plasterboard each side layers of plasterboard on each side auditorium ceiling height applica-
and additional insulation tions, multiple layers of plaster-
Typical airborne sound insulation: board each side, with quilt in
52-55 Rw Typical airborne sound insulation: cavity
49-68 Rw
Typical airborne sound insulation:
60-70 Rw
39
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 40
Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna
Client
Kuratorium Wiener Pensionistenheim,
Seegasse 9, 1090 Wien
Architect
Dipl.-Ing. Hedy Wachberger,
Architekt Dipl.-Ing. Peter Mikolasch,
Franzenbrückenstraße 8, 1020 Wien
Gesiba Gemeinnôutzige Siedlungs- und Fig. 72 courtyard with entrance
Baugesmbh, Eßlinggasse 8-10, 1013
Wien
Civil-Engineer,
physics relating to construction,
general contractor
Doubrava Gesmbh & Co. KG,
Industriestraße 17-20,
4800 Attnang-Puchheim
Interior finishes
Leistungsgemeinschaft Lindner
GmbH, A. d. Heide 1, 2500 Baden,
Willich Trockenbau GmbH,
Wehlingstraße 29, 1200 Wien Fig. 73 site plan, scale 1:4000
Dry-construction
Knauf Gesellschaft mbH,
1050 Wien,
8940 Wei§enbach/Liezen, Stmk.
Location
Engerthstraße 255, Wien
Completed
1995
Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna
The complex also includes three staff A spacious hall with the kitchen under- The facade of the penthouse floor is set
apartments, 17 bedrooms for the nur- neath is used as a room for festivities, back and forms a distinct silhouette with
sing staff, administrative offices and dining room and central meeting point the projecting roofline.
numerous recreational facilities for indi- next to the entrance.
vidual and group activities.
Facilities include: library, skittle-alleys, The U-shaped building makes a clear
billiards, hobby-rooms, gymnasium, urban design statement. Different
sauna, table tennis. facades indicate different functions.
A transparent intermediate level sepa-
Special services like doctors, physio- rates the public functions of the ground
therapy, pedicure, hairdresser and floor from the apartment-storeys above
laundry are constantly available. with their characteristic loggias.
Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna
Structure
Fire proofing
Fig. 79 structural joint in centre of bay Fig. 80 structural joint betw. bays, scale 1:50
42
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 43
Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna
Assembly
Thermal Insulation
Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna
Sound insulation
Fig. 85 horiz. section internal wall, scale 1:20 Fig. 86 airborne sound measurement
Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna
1 3 mm PVC
2 60 mm screed
3 interlayer
4 20 mm impact-sound insulation board
5 20 mm insulation board
6 70 mm precast concrete
7 265 mm air space
8 15 mm gypsum board
Fig. 90 stand. weight. level difference R’w=57 dB Fig. 91 impact sound pressure T’n,T,W= 45dB
45
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 46
Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen
Client
Fa. Josef Gartner & Co.
Architect
Prof.Dr.techn.h.c. Kurt Ackermann &
Partner Jürgen Feit, Munich
Technical installations
Dr. Karl Pitscheider, Munich
Location
Gundelfingen/Donau
Completed
1992
Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen
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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 48
Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen
The primary load-bearing structure of The building envelope is made of glass, On the building’s outside pivoted glass
the building consists of pairs of Y- aluminium and steel. The support struc- fins are attached to projecting mainte-
shaped steel frames based on a 6.8m ture of the facade is a steel framework nance catwalks to provide adjustable
grid. The clear span between the frames of rectangular hollow sections welded solar protection. These fins can also be
is 13.6m. Both frames cantilever 3.4m together to form a continuous grid of used to project daylight towards the
towards the facade and 4.2m toward the tubes. The resulting circulatory system building’s ceiling and thus provide ideal
middle axis of the building. The remaining is used for seasonal heating or cooling. glare-free daylight to each computer
space in the centre is covered by a During the heating period water with a workstation.
cable suspended skylight structure. flow temperature of up to 40°C circu-
The leg of the steel frame running lates through the hollow sections. On top of the skylight adjustable alumi-
through both storeys of the building is This way the facade acts as a low-tem- nium fins keep out direct sunlight and
made of tubular steel while the horizon- perature radiator. In summer cold water allow only reflected light to pass
tal members are made from welded can be used instead to cool down the through. The fins are adjusted automati-
steel sections. room air. cally to the sun’s position.
The first floor slab is a composite struc- The steel grid is infilled with either insu- On the roof I-beams support load-
ture of steel and concrete which is deta- lated glazing or aluminium panels for bearing, lightweight aluminium sandwich
ched from the steel structure of the roof the closed areas. The use of triple elements. The outer and inner leaf of
and the facade. Rectangular openings glazing with two infra-red reflecting these self-supporting sandwich ele-
are cut out of the slab to bring daylight layers and Argon in the gaps between ments consist of 3 mm sheet-aluminium.
down to the ground floor. the two panes reduces transmission 120 mm of rockwool is used as thermal
heat-loss by 70% compared to standard insulation. Next to the inner leaf an addi-
double-glazing. tional heavyweight hardboard adds
thermal inertia to the roof panel.
Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen
Interior climate
Draught-free room air is one of the Fig. 100 meeting area underneath the skylight
major issues for creating a comfortable
working environment.
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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 50
Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen
Fig. 102 junction cooling roof/facade Fig. 103 column and cooling-roof Fig. 104 facade detail (interior)
Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen
Switzerland
Administration Centre, Langenthal
Administration Centre
in Langenthal,
Switzerland
Client
Baudirektion des Kantons Bern
Einwohnergemeinde Langenthal
Architect
Frank Geiser, Bern
Civil-Engineer
Duppenthaler + Wälchli, Langenthal
Electrical Engineers
Bering AG, Langenthal
Lighting equipment
RM Mazzoleni Licht, Zürich
Location
Jurastraße 22/24, Langenthal, CH
Fig. 107 site plan, scale 1:1500
Completed
1992
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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 53
Switzerland
Administration Centre, Langenthal
Fig. 109 south-west corner Fig. 110 vertical section, scale 1:100
53
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 54
Switzerland
Administration Centre, Langenthal
Floor plan
Fig. 114 cross section, scale 1:750 Fig. 115 longitudinal section, scale 1:750
54
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 55
Switzerland
Administration Centre Langenthal
Fig. 116 vertical section: integration of load-bearing structure and building envelope
Structure
55
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 56
Switzerland
Administration Centre, Langenthal
Sound Insulation
Thermal Insulation
The thermal effect of 76 I-beams inten- Fig. 119 internal circulation space
tionally penetrating the building envelo-
pe was closely examined at full-scale
under laboratory conditions. The experi-
ment was set up to compare the heat
loss through an uninterrupted section of
the beam to a beam with a neoprene
thermal break. Interestingly enough the
uninterrupted beam showed a substan-
tially lower heat flow resulting in a heat
loss of only 126.9 kW/h for all 76 beams,
compared to 734.9 kW/h for the ther-
mally broken beams. The amount of
126.9 kW/h represents 0.03% of the
buildings overall heat loss. The heat loss
56
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 57
Switzerland
Administration Centre, Langenthal
Fig. 122 surface temperatures of test rigs, 45% relative humidity (locations of reading = 1-9)
57
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 58
France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims
Multi-Storey Dwellings
“La Ferronniere”
in Reims, France
Client
OPR - Office Public HLM, Reims
Architect
BCDE Architecture - Laurent Debrix
Location
Quartier de Val de Murigny, Reims
Completed
November 1991
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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 59
France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims
59
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 60
France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims
The steel skeleton rests on a concrete In the longitudinal direction fixed For this type of multi-storey “low rise”
basement which, among other rooms, columns and rigid connections between building a fire rating of half an hour for
includes the garage. It is based on a beams and columns were used to stiffen all structural parts such as beams,
modular grid with varying spans. Typical the frame. Standard cross bracing in the columns and floors is required.
spans range from 4,75 m to 6,15 m in three separating walls within one buil- Therefore all structural steel was clad in
cross direction and 2,93 m and 5,86 m ding was used in the cross direction. gypsum board. Separating walls bet-
in longitudinal direction. IPE sections The 18 cm thick concrete floors were ween the three units in each building
ranging from IPE 200 to IPE 330 were cast in situ on top of metal decking and all staircases have a one hour fire
used as floor beams. In all three buil- which acts as reinforcement in the rating.
dings the columns are made of HEA 140 resulting composite structure.
sections.
Fig. 133 longitudinal and cross section of the loadbearing steel skeleton scale 1:500
France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims
What are the advantages of a steel • The roofs and facades were desi-
skeleton used as load bearing structure gned with a high standard of acoustic
in a multi-storey dwelling? and thermal insulation.
These three buildings with their uncon- • The facade is maintenance free
ventional use of materials and construc- through the use of durable materials.
tion methods originally developed for
industrial applications give the answer • Resolving the exterior walls, interior
to this question. This experimental walls and floors into multi-leaf
housing project leads to a series of construction resulted in components
architectural and technological innova- adjusted to their specific functions
tions which were rather unexpected and and engineered to meet exact requi-
are quite remarkable in comparison with rements of thermal insulation, acoustic
conventional building methods: insulation and fire safety.
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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 62
France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims
Floor
Separation Walls
1 cold rolled section, rail 70 mm
2 plastic foil
3 cold rolled section, post 70 mm
4 gypsum board 18 mm
5 grout jointing
6 2 x gypsum board 13 mm
7 air tight sealing
8 mineral wool
9 gypsum board 13 mm
10 sealing
11 holding clip
12 IPE beam Fig. 138 vertical section sep. wall, scale 1:10 Fig. 139 horizontal section sep. wall, scale 1:10
Outer Walls
Fig. 141 vertical section outer wall, scale 1:10 Fig. 142 vertical section outer wall, scale 1:10
62
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 63
France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims
Sound insulation A more economical way to improve enhancing acoustic and thermal insula-
sound insulation than just increasing tion as well as ensuring fire safety.
Sound transmission between adjacent mass is to double up a separating wall Flanking sound transmission is preven-
rooms - next to each other or on top of or floor by an additional layer of e.g. ted because all structural parts that
each other - is either caused by airborne gypsum board and maybe adding might conduct vibration are encased.
transmission through separating building thermo-acoustic absorber materials like
elements (walls or floors) or impact mineral wool. The table below gives a summary of
sound transmission caused by vibration lightweight building methods and their
in building elements that can be However, the limits of this kind of acoustic relative physical parameters.
conducted over a distance to the affected enhancement are also predictable.
room. In conventional multi-storey
dwellings with load bearing concrete or If a substantially improved level of
masonry walls, the standard sound sound insulation is desired a more
insulation between adjacent units is sophisticated approach is needed.
Dn= 51 dB(A) and Ln= 70 dB(A).
In a building structure with linear load
The amount of sound transmission in this bearing elements like a steel skeleton
type of structure is predictable and with columns and beams the enclosure
depends on material properties which are is usually supported by a secondary
well known. Special measures to prevent structure.
lateral sound transmission are neces-
sary if a significant increase of sound The complete encasement of all structural
transmission (6-10 dB (A) is desired. steel in layers of plasterboard conse-
When airborne sound exceeds 59 dB (A), quently results in a two fold make-up of
it is recommended that the mass of sepa- all enclosing building elements creating
rating building elements is increased. thermal and acoustical breaks, thus
Fig. 143 Thermal insulation and sound insulation qualities of the buildings
63
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 64
Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette
Arbed Headquarter
in Esch-sur-Alzette,
Luxembourg
Client
ProfilARBED
Architect
Prof.Gottfried Böhm, Jürgen Minkus
Civil-Engineer
Schröer Associates, Luxembourg; Arne
Hill A.S., Oslo / Paris
Frame System
Lindab Profil AB / Danogips AB
Acoustics
TÜV Rheinland, Köln
Location
Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
1 old tower
Completed 2 enclosed walkway
September 1993 Fig. 144 site plan, scale 1:1000 3 existing office building
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Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette
Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette
Structure
The building’s load bearing structure is The system combines the advantages of
a steel skeleton. In each wing of the dry construction with the advantages of
building seven rows of columns define monolithic concrete floor slabs. There
six bays on a regularly spaced grid of are no ceiling joists and the floor top is
6 x 7,20 m. The columns are connected of a quality ready for decoration with
by custom-made floor beams. The only minimal site making good required.
beam’s asymmetrical section consists The in situ concrete topping bonds with
of a regular IPEa 500 in tempered steel the prefabricated elements of the floor
460 of highest quality, cut in half, and a to form a rigid diaphragm which trans-
10 mm steel plate welded to its web. fers lateral loads to the building’s verti-
One of the advantages of this asymme- cal and longitudinal bracing. To further
trical design is that it is possible to reduce lateral stress rigid and semi-
place prefabricated hollow core slabs to rigid column-beam connections were
receive an in situ concrete topping. used within the braced frames.
Fig. 150 fireproof escape stairwell
Special slotted steel plates are welded
to the end cross-sections floor beams
fascia on each end. This facilitates
connecting the beams to the columns
and substantially reduces the erection-
time of the steel-frame.
This type of a slim floor was developed
by ProfilARBED and became known as
IFB-system (integrated floor beams).
1 steel column
2 bolt bridging
3 slotted steelplate “quick-erect”
4 pre-fabricated hollow core slab-elements
5 composed IFB-beam
Fire proofing
Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette
Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette
1 stainless steel sheet “Miniwelle”, 1mm 10 precast concrete stair landing 20 steel plate 150 x 100 x 10 mm
2 bent corner element, stainless steel, 11 bracket 21 non transparent reflective glass with
50 x 30 x 2 mm 12 HE 140 M/B/AA thermal insulation 30 mm
3 counter rail, stainless steel, 1mm 13 extra thermal insulation, 40mm, at nodal 22 sash window with insulated double gla-
4 stainless steel sheet, 1mm joint, stainless steel flashing, 1mm zing and reflective sun protection glass
5 rectangular tubular section, stainless 14 stainless steel batten, 1mm 22 mm
steel, 80 x 40 x 2 mm 15 interior partition 23 double glazing with incorporated reflecti-
6 stainless steel connecting plate 16 thermal insulation and steel cladding of ve daylight deflectors 30 mm
7 U 160 with fire-retarding coating facade column 24 joint element between glazed facade and
8 PUR sandwich element: 17 facade column HE 180 B stair case enclosure
coated steel sheet 0,5 mm 18 prefabricated parapet element
thermal insulation, 40 mm 19 pocketed connection 80 x 80 x 100 mm
coated steel sheet 0,5 mm of parapet element to column
9 connection to glazed atrium
Fig. 155 vertical section of facade Fig. 156 horizontal section of insulated facade column; facade column at cross section
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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 69
Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette
Environmental Services
The building makes effective use of To ensure maximum thermal comfort in supplementary installation. In this buil-
natural light, which not only shines the individual workspace warm water ding it becomes clear that thermal and
through the glazed areas of the facade radiators can be adjusted to individual sound insulation are only two out of
but is also projected deep into the buil- comfort by the staff. many criteria that determine environ-
ding by reflective lamellas which are mental comfort. To achieve optimum
incorporated in double-glazed panels. Peak temperatures in summer are redu- environmental quality at each workspa-
The partitions between individual offices ced by water-cooled ceiling convectors. ce an integrated design solution is
have a continuously glazed toplight and Air exchange is ensured by central air- much more important than just to meet
are almost completely glazed towards conditioning; in addition there is the single requirements. This building
the common area in the centre. Natural opportunity to make individual use of demonstrates, quite impressively, that a
light is also filtered into the building the operable windows in each office. modern steel-skeleton building can pro-
through glazed surfaces in the roof and vide optimum working conditions even
the side walls of the central atrium. It Ceiling mounted noise absorber panels when compared to a castle which was
adds to the light coming in through the made of perforated sheet metal with a the former “residence” of ARBED’s
facade and illuminates nearly every mineral wool infill effectively reduce the Headquarters.
space within the building so well that ambient noise level. All parts of the
there is no need for artificial lighting building’s mechanical equipment are
during daytime. When artificial lighting is left exposed to express the way the buil-
necessary its intensity can be manipu- ding functions. More importantly this
lated individually. also facilitates maintenance and
69
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 70
Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen
Multi-Storey Dwellings
“Domus Flandria”
in Mechelen, Belgium
Client
De Mechelse Goedkope Woning
Architect
Projectbureau Signa n.v., Brussel
Civil-Engineer
Bureau d’Etudes C.E. Schwachhofer,
Nivelles
Location
Lange Heergracht, Zwartezusterstraat,
Mechelen
Completed
1995-96
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Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen
71
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 72
Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen
Structure
Fire proofing
1 hall
2 living room
3 kitchen
4 bedroom
5 bathroom
6 toilet
7 access balcony
8 storage
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Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen
1 access terrace
2 baseboard
3 IPE 270
4 fair-faced masonry, clinker, 90 mm
5 ventilated cavity, 20 mm
6 mineral wool, 50 mm (thermal insulation)
7 masonry infill, 140 mm
8 linoleum on anhydrite concrete, 50 mm
9 extruded PE, 5 mm (acoustic insulation)
10 mineral wool, 40 mm (thermal insulation)
11 concrete, cast in place
12 prefabricated hollow core slab, pre-
stressed concrete (200)
13 HEB 280
14 prefabricated hollow core slab, pre-
stressed concrete (250)
15 PUR-insulation, 70 mm
16 EPDM membrane
17 concrete blocks on sand bed
Fig. 165 vertical section of outer wall and access balcony, scale 1:20
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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 74
Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen
Separation wall, 75 mm
Fig. 166 vertical section of partition wall, partition wall / separation wall 100 mm separation wall 100 mm and 75 mm
210 mm, scale 1:10
Fig. 167 horizontal section (partition wall, separation walls and outer wall), scale 1:10
74
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 75
Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen
Sound Insulation
Fig. 169 on-site measurement of the sound insulation quality of a partition wall
(measured in the middle of the source room and the receiving room)
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IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 76
Germany
Commerzbank Headquarters, Frankfurt am Main
Commerzbank
Headquarters
in Frankfurt am Main,
Germany
Client
Immobilien Vermietungsgesellschaft
Alpha/Beta Dr. Grubelt - Objekt
Hauptverwaltung Frankfurt AG
Architect
Sir Norman Foster and Partners
Fig. 170 site plan, scale 1:5000
Civil-Engineer
Ove Arup and Partners/ Krebs & Kieferle
Location
Frankfurt am Main
Completed
1997
Germany
Commerzbank Headquarters, Frankfurt am Main
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IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 78
Germany
Commerzbank Headquarters Frankfurt am Main
Structure
Germany
Commerzank Headquarters, Frankfurt am Main
Fig. 178 open-plan-office, scale 1:1000 Fig. 179 east-west section, scale 1:1000
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IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 80
Germany
Commerzbank Headquarters, Frankfurt am Main
The inner layer of the building’s skin is Consisting of two rigid shells of different
thermally insulated and double-glazed. stiffness the building’s double layered
Louvres at top and bottom of the centre- envelope performs very well with regard
hung sash windows connect inner and to sound insulation. Additional mea-
outer skin and enable individual control sures are not required.
of natural ventilation. They run around
the outer skin in a band of 1.5 m height. An insulation capacity of (-18dB) was
The centre-pivoted sash windows are achieved with a double layer pane of
glazed with double layer insulated safety glass internally equipped with
glass. A single layer of 8 mm safety thin metal strings of 23 µm diameter for
Fig. 180 natural ventilation in summer glass, 1400 x 2250 mm, is used for the the transparent part and an additional
transparent part of the outer skin. An layer with a defined deflection and
8mm layer of grey enamelled opaque absorption capacity in the opaque part
glass covers the insulated part of the of the outer skin.
non-transparent facade in front of the
Vierendeel-beams. This layer covers For air-traffic safety a radar-reflection
the structure and is also part of its fire damper had to be incorporated into the
proofing. The metal framework of the building’s outer skin above 160 m. For
glazed winter gardens serves as a low the same reason all facades of the winter
temperature radiator. The entire load- gardens have a downward inclination of
bearing structure of these facades is three degrees.
made from tubular steel which is used to
circulate warm water for heating pur-
poses (integrated facade, Gartner).
Germany
Commerzbank Headquarters, Frankfurt am Man
Fig. 186 vertical section through floor and upstand wall, scale 1:5
81
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 82
Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood, Ängelholm
Housing Complex in a
Residential Neighbour-
hood in Ängelholm,
Sweden
Client
Ängelholmshem
Architect
Pontus Möller Arkitektkontor
Structural Design
Bloco AB
Construction Company
Consortium Wigralbyggarna
Location
Storgatan, Ängelholm, Sweden
Completed
1996
Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood , Ängelholm
Fig. 191 second floor, scale 1:300 Fig. 192 third floor, scale 1:300 Fig. 193 attic floor, scale 1:300
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IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 84
Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood, Ängelholm
Structure
Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood, Ängelholm
Fig. 196 vertical (cross- and longitudinal) sections: floors, partition wall and outer walls, scale 1:20
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IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 86
Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood, Ängelholm
Sound insulation
Fig. 199 standardized weighted level difference R’w of a floor between two apartments
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IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 87
Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood, Ängelholm
Thermal insulation
Fig. 203 correlation between total U-value for outer wall and thickness of insulation layer
87
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 88
Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge
Office Building in
St. John’s Innovation
Park in Cambridge,
Great Britain
1 raised planting bed
2 meeting room
3 open plan office
Client 4 office
St John’s College Cambridge 5 plant
6 entrance hall
Architect 7 kitchen
R H Partnership 8 future restaurant
9 sub-lettable space
Civil-Engineer
Hannah, Reed and Associates Fig. 204 site plan, scale 1:10000
Location
St John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge,
England
Completed
1995
Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge
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IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 90
Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge
Structure
Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge
Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge
Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge
4. Energy strategy
Although the building is intended to be
naturally ventilated for most of the year,
an energy strategy has evolved to take
advantage of the seasons.
5. Performance monitoring
Performance monitoring during the first
year should show a predicted energy
use saving of 103 kWh/m2a, a saving of
46% on a good standard air conditioned
building. Full commissioning will also
take a year due to seasonal changes.
Fig. 218
Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Reseach, Leiden
Client
Centre for Human Drug Research
Architect
CEPEZED, Delft
Civil-Engineer:
ECCS bv, Hoofdoorp
Fig. 219 site plan, scale 1:2000
Location
Leiden, Netherlands
The Centre for Human Drug Research in Fig. 221 longitudinal section, scale 1:500
Leiden was founded in 1988. At the
beginning of the planning process for a
research building for this new firm the
scope was somewhat indeterminate
because present activities and future
development of this young and evolving
company were subject to constant
change. One of the key issues of the
design was to provide maximum flexibi-
lity and offer potential for future expan-
sion. Furthermore the building should
provide a stimulating environment for its
occupants. The Dutch standard layout
for an office building based on a grid of
5.4 x 1.8 x 5.4 m was proved to be Fig. 222 ground floor, scale 1:500
unsuitable in this case. Instead an
asymmetric grid with a 7.4 m span for
office spaces and a 9.2 m span for labo-
ratories, examination rooms and confe-
rence rooms was developed. The local
zoning plan required a minimum building
height of 10 m above ground level. This
led to a three-storey design solution.
The ground floor includes the reception
area, administration, the central computer
space, archives and a cafeteria. The first
and second floor are reserved for the
laboratories, scientist’s offices and
assorted facilities.
Fig. 223 second floor, scale 1:500
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IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 95
Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden
Fig. 224 view on the private garden, terrace and balconies between the two screens at the south
Design concept
The integration of functional and struc- The screens weren’t designed purely for
tural aspects in the design process led aesthetic reasons, they clearly have a
to a unique structural solution that is a practical use as part of the building’s
true expression of the design priorities loadbearing structure and envelope and
which were maximum flexibility, possibi- as a fire escape. They also shield the
lity of future expansion, cost efficiency building against solar radiation and
and a minimum use of mechanical wind.
conditioning systems.
Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden
The vertical supports of the 2 m wide The special lay-out of the building with
screens are spaced on a regular grid of easy access to fire escapes on each
3.6 m. Most of the building’s lateral floor made it possible to leave the load
bracing is part of this screen structure. bearing steel skeleton exposed. Only
the internal hollow core columns needed
In the enclosed part of the building the a concrete infill to enhance their fire
structural grid of 3.6 m is continued. The resistance. The two screen elements
20.2 m wide space between the screens serve as fire escape with associated
is subdivided in three bays: 9.2 m in the escape stairs on each side.
west, 3.6 m in the middle and 7.4 m in
the east. All floor and roof slabs are Fire load is considered to be relatively
braced to distribute horizontal loads to low and no extra precautions were
the rigid screen structure. required for fire safety. The fire safety
concept is based on a fire rating of 30
Since most of the lateral bracing is inte- minutes.
grated in the screen elements additional
diagonal cross bracing was necessary
only in one bay in the middle. Of course
this is very important to achieve maxi-
mum flexibility.
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IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 97
Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden
The building’s envelope consists of the Above each sliding element there are
roof and the foundation slab with closed panels with fixed louvres on the
concrete piles as horizontal elements. outside face. If necessary fan-coil units
The north and south facades are for air intake can be installed in place of
enclosed in a single-layer structure, the these panels to improve air supply
east and west facades are completely mechanically. The central hall and the
glazed with a multi-layer structure. elevator shaft are used as natural draft
air ducts for exhaust air.
The outer layer of the building’s envelope
in the east and west consists of a perfo- Most parts of the facades in the north
rated metal sheet which is mounted and the south are closed with metal
onto the screen structure. This layer panels. The glazed middle strip in the Fig. 228 detail A, scale 1:20
appears almost transparent. south is shielded by projecting horizontal
sun shades. On the first and second
The escape balconies, decked with floor there are balconies laid out with
grating, act as additional sun shading grating. These balconies provide addi-
for the completely glazed inner layer of tional sun protection.
the east and west facade. It consists of
1.8 m wide sliding glass panels.
1 PVC membrane
2 sandwich panel
3 thermal insulation (PS) 80-180 mm
4 concrete floor 200 mm, prestressed
5 L 150 x 15
6 UNP 220
7 rectangular section profile 70 x 2,9 mm
8 facade profile, 120 mm
9 anhydrite screed 40-80mm
10 steel junction plate 400 x 200 mm
11 rectangular section profile 100 x100mm
12 UNP 280
13 cross bridging 70x70 mm
14 thermal insulation (PS) 80 mm
15 concrete floor 170 mm
16 steel grating
Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden
Environmental Control
Heat requirement calculation
In order to reduce air conditioning
which is usually standard in this type of
Prerequisits
building a new approach was chosen to
achieve the required flexibility and to net floor area 1158 m2
stay within the limits of the budget. gross floor area 1287 m2
mass of construction 100-400 kg/m2
Due to today’s improved insulation
room temperature 20°C
standards heat loss in winter is not the
U-value (K-factor) 0.65 W/m2K
major challenge of climate control any
more. In summer and the transition building surface 1738 m2
periods internal heat sources such as volume mechanical fresh air 2130 m3/h
machines, computers, artificial lighting internal heat load machines 10.00 W/m2
and the occupants themselves cause lighting 8.00 W/m2
excess heat which has to be removed. occupants 5.00 W/m3
One possibility to cut down internal heat radiant heat surface area shadow solar gain
gain is to reduce artificial lighting. As a [m2] factor value
consequence daylight supply was maxi- north side 76.4 1.00 0.70
mised through large areas of glass on east side 157.0 0.85 0.35
the east and west facades. Glazed south side 50.4 0.40 0.70
facades without proper sun protection west side 157.0 0.85 0.35
however lead to tremendous solar heat
gains that ruin the room climate. Insulation quality of the building’s enveloppe
Therefore the quality of sun protection
is crucial for human comfort. Perforated total transmission heating demand 316401 MJ
steel sheets on the outside of the
total ventilation heating demand + 333846 MJ
screen structure act as a filter against
= 650247 MJ
solar radiation and screen out 50% of
internal and solar heat gains – 154099 MJ
the radiated energy even in the most
adverse case of a sun angle nearly per- = 496148 MJ
pendicular to the facade. For all other system efficiency + 80%
angles the performance is even better. total heat demand = 620185 MJ
perspective gas consumption 17688 m3
The unconventional concept of the
Centre for Human Drug Research not Power consumption caused by conditioning systems
only provides comfortable climatic
conditions for its occupants. It also uses ventilation 7101 kWh
steel as a structural material to provide central heating 1390 kWh
open space for maximum freedom cooling 6000 kWh
within the load bearing structure. A total 14490 kWh
sense of spaciousness characterises
this building and conveys an architectural Power consumption caused by lighting and other mechanical systems
expression which is adequate for a
contemporary steel skeleton building. lighting 34740 kWh
a) total consumption
total gas consumption p.a. 17668 m3
total power consumption p.a. 49230 kWh
98
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:37 Page 99
Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden
orientation outer wall building surface A Thermal resistance values U-value weeg- a.A.U
components [m2K/W] factor
north glazed parts 168.35 0.46 0.17 0.63 1.59 1.00 267.22
closed parts 79.97 2.50 0.17 2.67 0.37 1.00 29.95
east glazed parts 157.68 0.46 0.17 0.63 1.59 1.00 250.29
closed parts 43.20 2.50 0.17 2.67 0.37 1.00 16.18
south glazed parts 190.55 0.46 0.17 0.63 1.59 1.00 267.22
west glazed parts 157.05 0.46 0.17 0.63 1.59 1.00 249.29
glazed parts 43.20 2.50 0.17 2.67 0.37 1.00 16.18
horizontal roof 460.40 3.23 0.17 3.40 0.29 1.00 135.41
foundation slab 483.20 2.50 0.26 2.76 0.36 0.73 127.80
Total 1783.60 1394.78
Sound Insulation
Physical Symbols and Units
d thickness [m]
t time [s]
a thermal diffusivity [m2/s] G amount of water migrated by θ sound absorption factor [0-1]
diffusion [kg]
b thermal intrusion [J/s √m2K] D level difference [dB]
kD specific vapour diffusion coeffi-
c specific thermal capacity [J/kgK] cient of element [kg/m2hPa] D nT
weighted level difference [dB]
h heat transfer coefficient of building I amount of water migrated by DnT,w standardised weighted level
element’s surface diffusion per hour [kg/s] difference [dB]
[W/m2K]
µ diffusion resistance factor f frequency [Hz = Hertz]
λ thermal conductivity of building
material [W/mK] ϕ relative humidity [0-1 or %] fgr coincidence frequency [Hz]
ρ density [kg/m3] p partial vapour pressure [Pa] L impact sound pressure level
[dB]
q density of heat flow [W/m2] ps saturated vapour pressure [Pa]
L n. normalised impact sound pres-
Q amount of thermal energy [Ws] s diffusion equivalent air-layer [m] sure level [dB]
Qs heat storage capacity [J/m2] θs dewpoint temperature [°C] L’nT standardised impact sound
pressure level [dB]
R thermal resistance [m2K/W] v absolute humidity [g/m3]
R sound reduction index [dB]
θ temperature [°C] vs amount of vapour necessary
to reach saturation [g/m3] R’w standardised weighted sound
∆θ temperature difference [K] reduction index [dB]
Z vapour diffusion resistance
U (“U-value”) Thermal transmit- [m2hPa/kg] sound level [dB = Decibel]
tance [W/m2K]
A-sound level [dB(A)]
100
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:37 Page 101
Appendix
Technical Standards and Building Codes
Appendix
Technical Standards and Building Literature 11] Saxon, R.: Atrium Buildings -
Codes Development and Design. Publ. by
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Books BAS Printers Limited, 1983.
6] Gösele, K. und Schüle, W.: Schall - 6] Froelich, Dipl.-Ing. H., Hepp, Dipl-
Wärme - Feuchte. Bauverlag, Ing. B., Löffel, G., Schmid, Dipl.-Ing.
Wiesbaden-Berlin, 1985. J: Konstruktionsmerkmale für
Fenster. Fenster und Fassade.
7] Grimm, F. und Richarz, C.: Forschungsbericht des Instituts für
Hinterlüftete Fassaden - Fenstertechnik e.V., Rosenheim,
Konstruktionen vorgehängter hin- 1986.
terlüfteter Fassaden aus
Faserzement. Karl Krämer Verlag, 7] Gertis, Prof. Dr.-Ing. K. und Erhorn,
Stuttgart + Zürich, 1994. Dipl.-Ing. H.: Wohnfeuchte und
Wärmebrücken. Sonderdruck aus
8] Hitchcock, H. R. und Danz, E.: HLH 36 (1985) Heft 3.
Architektur von Skidmore, Owings
& Merrill, 1950 - 1962. Verlag Gerd 8] Gertis, Prof. Dr.-Ing. K. und
Hatje, Stuttgart, 1962. Soergel, C.: Tauwasserbildung in
Außenwandecken - Kritische bau-
9] Ernst Neufert: Bauentwurfslehre. physikalische und rechtliche
F. Vieweg & Sohn, 1980. Anmerkungen zu einem Urteil des
Oberlandesgerichts Hamm. DAB
10] Ramsey/Sleeper: Architectural 10/83.
Graphic Standards. The American
Institute of Architects, 1994.
101
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:37 Page 102
Appendixc
Technical Standards and Building Codes
9] Gertis, Prof. Dr.-Ing. K.: Jetzt: 21] Krahmer, R.: Konzepte zur rationel-
Wärmebrücken im Kreuzfeuer? len Wärme- / Kälteerzeugung in
BAUPHYSIK, Sonderdruck aus 4 Gebäuden mit Tagesnutzung.
(1982), Heft 4, Verlag Wilhelm Ernst Vortrag anläßl. des Seminars 2023,
& Sohn, Hohenzollerndamm, 1982. Minimal-Energie-Architektur, der
Umweltakademie Oberpfaffenhofen,
10] Gertis, Prof. Dr.-Ing. K.: Passive Mai 93.
Solarenergienutzung - Umsetzung
von Forschungserkenntnissen in 22] Krings, E.: Ausführung und Kosten
den praktischen Gebäudeentwurf. verschiedener Wärmeschutzmaß-
BAUPHYSIK, Sonderdruck aus 5 nahmen bei der Altbaumoder-
(1983), Heft 6, Verlag Wilhelm Ernst nisierung. DAB 8/89.
& Sohn, Hohenzollerndamm, 1983.
23] Merkblatt Stahl 259: Korros-
11] Gertis, Prof. Dr.-Ing. K.: Zehn Jahre ionsschutz im Stahlbau.
Energieeinsparung im Hochbau -
Können wir zufrieden sein?. wksb 24] Molitor, Dr.-Ing. K.: Minimierung
(31), Heft 20, Grünzweig + von Energiebedarf durch Integrierte
Hartmann und Glasfaser AG, Gebäudesimulation. Frechen.
Ludwigshafen, 1986.
25] Österreichischer Stahlbauverband,
12] Grimm, F.: Klimahüllen. Der Wien: Bau-Biologie und Bau-
Architekt 8/94. Ökologie im Stahlhochbau.
13] Grimm, F.: Metallfassaden. DETAIL 26] Oswalt, P.: Licht, Luft, Sonne.
3/93. ARCH+ 114/115.
14] Hass, Dr. R.: Schallschutz. From 27] Pohl, Dr.-Ing. R.: Metalldeckungen -
“Stahlbau im Detail”, Hrsg. F. auch als Warmdächer eine sichere
Grimm. WEKA-Verlag, Stuttgart. Sache. DBZ 3/93.
15] Hegger, M.: Energie und 28] Pohlenz, R.: Bauen mit Stahl - Die
Architektur - Auswirkungen des neue Leicht(sinn)igkeit - Gestalten
energiesparenden und solaren mit Stahl ohne Kältebrücken
Bauens auf die Baugestalt. Vortrag unmöglich? DAB 11/91.
im Seminar 2023 “Minimal-
Energie-Architektur” der Umwel- 29] Pohlenz, R.: Stahlgeschoßbau -
takademie Oberpfaffenhofen, Mai Konstruktion und Bauphysik.
93.
30] Pohlenz, R.: Wärmebrücken.
16] Heinemann, Prof. Dr. H. D.:
Stahltrapezprofile DIN 18807 - 31] RSB Rheiner Stahlbau GmbH: Der
Entwicklung - Stand der heutigen thermisch-getrennte Stoß. Bau-
Technik - Zukunftsperspektiven. system zur Vermeidung von
DBZ 6/92. Feuchtschäden.
17] Helmle, J.: Tageslicht und 32] Schwarz, R.: Bleche - ein †berblick.
Sonnenschutz. DAB 2/94. Der Architekt 9/1989.
18] Hullmann, Dr.-Ing. H. und Pfeiffer, 33] Steffan, C.: Die Gebäudehülle als
Dipl.-Ing. M.: Fassaden mit kybernetisches System Vortrag im
Stahlbauteilen. DBZ 4/90. Seminar 2023 “Minimal-Energie-
Architektur” der Umweltakademie
19] Köster, H.: Neues Oberpfaffenhofen, Mai `93.
Energiemanagement in der
Fassade. DAB 3/90. 34] Seidlein, P.: Glas und / oder
Energiesparen? Referat anläßlich
20] Informationsschrift der Fa. Josef eines VDI-Seminars in Stuttgart.
Gartner & Co., Gundelfingen: glasforum 2/83.
Amplitudendämpfung und
Zeitverschiebung. 35] Taus,M.: Schallschutz im Stahl-
hochbau. 5. Entwurf 12/ 1994.
102
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Appendix
Figures
Figures
Title: Southwest-view Langenthal Fig. 21: Diagram Fig. 41: Airborne sound
Photo: Sacha Geiser Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after
Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle
Fig. 1: Painting by Christopher Fig. 22: Table Fig. 42: Impact sound
Vilhelm Eckersberg Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 2: Bourgeois-Residenz Rue Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle
Réaumur, Paris Fig. 23: University of Lüneburg, Mensa Fig. 43: Flanking sound
Photo: F. Grimm Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 3: Mies van der Rohe, Lakeshore Fig. 24: Diagram Gösele / Schüle
Drive Appartments 860/880 Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 44: Airborne sound insulation
Photo: F. Grimm, Gösele / Schüle Illustration: F. Grimm after
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 25: Diagram Gösele / Schüle
Fig. 4: Lever-Building, New York Illustration: F. Grimm after Prof. Fig. 45: Calculation of DnT,w
Photo: F. Grimm Karl Gertis Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 5: Detail Lever-Building Fig. 26: Diagram Gösele / Schüle
Drawing: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm Prof. Karl Fig. 46: Tolerable noise levels
Fig. 6: Lever-Building, New York Gertis Illustration: F. Grimm after
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 27: VdAK Siegburg Gösele / Schüle
Fig. 7: University of Magdeburg, Otto Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 47: Noise level - Rw
van Guericke Institute Fig. 28: Single-layered metal panel Illustration: F. Grimm after
Photo: Werkfoto Gartner system, Gösele / Schüle
Fig. 8: University of Bonn, Detail Fig. 48: Required sound insulation
Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Drawing: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 9: Diagram Fig. 29: Centre de Television, Luxem- Gösele / Schüle
Illustration: F. Grimm after burg - Kirchberg Fig. 49: Weighted sound reduction
Gösele / Schüle Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 10: Diagram Fig. 30: Multi-layered metal cladding Gösele / Schüle
Illustration: F. Grimm after system, Fig. 50: Diagram
Gösele / Schüle Detail Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 11: Diagram Drawing: F. Grimm Gösele / Schüle
Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 31: Diagram Fig. 51: Diagram
Gösele / Schüle Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 12: Table Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle
Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 32: Diagram Fig. 52: Sound absorption factor
Gösele / Schüle Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 13: Table Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle
Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 33: Geometrical Order Fig. 53: City Gate Düsseldorf
Gösele / Schüle Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Werkfoto Gartner
Fig. 14: Diagram Fig. 34: Illustration Fig. 54: Brick outer leaf
Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after Detail
Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 15: Diagram Fig. 35: Illustration Fig. 55: Built-up cladding system
Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after Detail
Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 16: Diagram Fig. 36: Atria Fig. 56: Built-up cladding system
Illustration: F. Grimm after Drawing: F. Grimm Detail
Gösele / Schüle Fig. 37: Diagram Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 17: Table Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 57: Composite panels
Illustration: F. Grimm after Gösele / Schüle Detail
Gösele / Schüle Fig. 38: Oscillation Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 18: Diagram Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 58: Timber Flooring
Illustration: F. Grimm after Gösele / Schüle Detail
Gösele / Schüle Fig. 39: Oscillation Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 19: Diagram Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 59: Floating timber floor
Illustration: F. Grimm after Gösele / Schüle Detail
Gösele / Schüle Fig. 40: Frequencies Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 20: Diagram Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 60: Composite slab
Illustration: F. Grimm after Gösele / Schüle Detail
Gösele / Schüle Drawing: F. Grimm
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Appendix
Figures
Fig. 61: Timber flooring Fig. 87: Diagram Fig. 117: Solar protection blinds
Detail Illustration: F. Grimm Photo: Sacha Geiser
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 88: Vertical section Fig. 118: Maintenance catwalk
Fig. 62: Floating timber floor Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Sacha Geiser
Detail Fig. 89: Vertical section Fig. 119: Circulation space
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Sacha Geiser
Fig. 63: Slim floor Fig. 90: Diagram Fig. 120: Diagram
Detail Illustration: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 91: Diagram Fig. 121: Diagram
Fig. 64: Steel studs Illustration: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm
Detail Fig. 92: South elevation Fig. 122: Diagram
Drawing: F. Grimm Konstruktionsbüro Gartner Illustration: F. Grimm
Fig. 65: Steel studs Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 123: Diagram
Detail Fig. 93: Site plan Illustration: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 124: Frontage view
Fig. 66: Boxed steel studs Fig. 94: Longitudinal section Drawing: F. Grimm
Detail Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 125: Site plan
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 95: Ground floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 67: Large steel studs Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 126: West elevation
Detail Fig. 96: Lower floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 127: East elevation
Fig. 68: Staggered stud partitions Fig. 97: South elevation Drawing: F. Grimm
Detail Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 128: South elevation
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 98: Perspective view Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 69: Steel studs with plasterboards Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 129: North elevation
Detail Fig. 99: Cross section Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 130: Balconies
Fig. 70: Boxed steel studs Fig. 100: Underneath the skylight Photo: BCDE Architecture -
Detail Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Laurent Debrix
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 101: Vertical section Fig. 131: Typical facade
Fig. 71: Steel stud framing Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: BCDE Architecture -
Detail Fig. 102: Junction Laurent Debrix
Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 132: Balconies
Fig. 72: Courtyard Fig. 103: Column and cooling-roof Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: doubrava Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 133: Sections
Fig. 73: Site plan Fig. 104: Facade detail Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 134: Site assembly
Fig. 74: Ground floor Fig. 105: Horizontal section Photo: BCDE Architecture -
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Laurent Debrix
Fig. 75: Bird’s eye view Grimm Fig. 135: Typical floor plan
Photo: doubrava Fig. 106: Facade section Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 76: Hexagonal grid Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 136: Vertical section
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 107: Site plan Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 77: Structural bay Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 137: Composite floor
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 108: North-west elevation Photo: BCDE Architecture -
Fig. 78: Column/beam Photo: Sacha Geiser Laurent Debrix
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 109: South-west corner Fig. 138: Vertical section
Fig. 79: Structural joint Photo: Sacha Geiser Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 110: Vertical section Fig. 139: Horizontal section
Fig. 80: Structural joint Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 111: Ground floor Fig. 140: Horizontal section
Fig. 81: Assembly Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: doubrava Fig. 112: Third floor Fig. 141: Vertical section
Fig. 82: Structural unit Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: doubrava Fig. 113: Penthouse-floor Fig. 142: Vertical section
Fig. 83: Star connection Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: doubrava Fig. 114: Cross section Fig. 143: Table
Fig. 84: Typical floor plan Drawing: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 115: Longitudinal section Fig. 144: Site plan
Fig. 85: Horizontal section Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 116: Vertical section Fig. 145: Floor plan
Fig. 86: Airborne sound Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm
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Appendix
Figures
Fig. 146: Isometric view of structure Fig. 173: View from River Main Fig. 203: Diagram
Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Richard Davies Illustration: F. Grimm
Fig. 147: North-east view Fig. 174: Structure Fig. 204: Site plan
Photo: ARCHITEKTON, Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Dieter Leistner Fig. 175: Construction stage Fig. 205: Ground floor
Fig. 148: Longitudinal section Photo: Richard Davies Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 176: Typical floor plan Fig. 206: First floor
Fig. 149: Longitudinal section Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 177: Combi-office Fig. 207: Second floor
Fig. 150: Escape stairwell Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: ARCHITEKTON, Fig. 178: Open-plan-office Fig. 208: South elevation
Dieter Leistner Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: British Steel
Fig. 151: Isometric view Fig. 179: East-west-section Fig. 209: Cross section
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 152: Steel structure Fig. 180: Diagram Fig. 210: Longitudinal section
Photo: ARCHITEKTON, Illustration: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Dieter Leistner Fig. 181: Diagram Fig. 211: Assembly
Fig. 153: Vertical section Illustration: F. Grimm Photo: British Steel
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 182: Diagram Fig. 212: Connection
Fig. 154: Horizontal section Illustration: F. Grimm Photo: British Steel
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 183: Winter garden Fig. 213: The interactive facade
Fig. 155: Vertical section Photo: Richard Davies Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm (Werkfoto Gartner) Fig. 214: South facade
Fig. 156: Horizontal section Fig. 184: Typical window Photo: British Steel
Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Richard Davies Fig. 215: Diagram
Fig. 157: Steel structure Fig. 185: Montage of the facade Illustration: F. Grimm
Photo: ARCHITEKTON, Photo: Richard Davies Fig. 216: Diagram
Dieter Leistner Fig. 186: Vertical section Illustration: F. Grimm
Fig. 158: Site plan Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 217: Diagram
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 187: Site plan Illustration: F. Grimm
Fig. 159: Elevation Lange Heergracht Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 218: Diagram
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 188: Ground floor Illustration: F. Grimm
Fig. 160: Typical floor plan Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 219: Site plan
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 189: First floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 161: Elevation Lange Heergracht Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 220: West elevation
Photo: Projectbureau Fig. 190: View from River Rönne Drawing: F. Grimm
Signa n.v., Brussel Photo: Pontus Möller Fig. 221: Longitudinal section
Fig. 162: Court yard Fig. 191: Second floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: Projectbureau Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 222: Ground floor
Signa n.v., Brussel Fig. 192: Third floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 163: Footbridge Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 223: Second floor
Photo: Projectbureau Fig. 193: Attic floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Signa n.v., Brussel Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 224: Privat garden
Fig. 164: Partial floor plan Fig. 194: Perspective views Photo: CEPEZED, Delft
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: Pontus Möller Fig. 225: Screen structure
Fig. 165: Vertical section Fig. 195: Steel girder Photo: CEPEZED, Delft
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 226: Fire escape
Fig. 166: Vertical section Fig. 196: Vertical section Photo: CEPEZED, Delft
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 227: Perspective view
Fig. 167: Horizontal section Fig. 197: Floor Drawing: CEPEZED, Delft
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 228: Detail
Fig. 168: Diagram Fig. 198: Interior partition Drawing: F. Grimm
Illustration: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 229: Detail
Fig. 169: Diagram Fig. 199: Diagram Drawing: F. Grimm
Illustration: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm Fig. 230: Detail
Fig. 170: Site plan Fig. 200: Diagram Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm Fig. 231: Cross section
Fig. 171: Sketch Fig. 201: Diagram Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: Sir Norman Foster Illustration: F. Grimm Fig. 232: East facade
and Partners Fig. 202: Light gauge metal studs Photo: CEPEZED, Delft
Fig. 172: Sketch Photo: Pontus Möller
Drawing: Sir Norman Foster
and Partners
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