Contents

Unit I
SOURCES AND APPROACHES 1
Chapter 1
Sources for the History of Modern India 3
Archival Materials 4
Central Government Archives 4
Archives of the State Governments 5
Archives of Three Presidencies 6
Archives of Other European Powers 6
Judicial Records 7
Published Archives 7
Private Archives 8
Foreign Repositories 8
Biographies, Memoirs and Travel Accounts 9
Newspapers and Journals 10
Oral Evidence 11
Creative Literature 11
Painting 12
Summary 14
Chapter 2
Major Approaches to the History of Modern India 15
Colonial Approach/ Historiography 16
Nationalist Historiography/ Approach 16

(v)
 Contents
Marxist Historiography/ Approach 17
Subaltern Approach/ Historiography 18
Communalist Approach 19
Cambridge School 20
Liberal and Neo-Liberal Interpretations 20
Feminist Historiography 20
Summary 21
Unit II
ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND 23
CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH
POWER IN INDIA
Chapter 3
Advent of the Europeans in India 25
The Portuguese in India 25
The Quest for and Discovery of a 25
Sea Route to India
From Trading to Ruling 27
Portuguese State 31
Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals 34
Decline of the Portuguese 36
Significance of the Portuguese 37
The Dutch 39
Dutch Settlements 39
Anglo-Dutch Rivalry 40
Decline of the Dutch in India 41
The English 41
Charter of Queen Elizabeth I 41
Progress of the English Company 42
The French 46
Foundation of French Centres in India 46
The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the 48
Carnatic Wars
Causes for the English Success and the 55
French Failure

(vi)
 Contents
The Danes 58
Why the English Succeeded against 58
Other European Powers
Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies 58
Naval Superiority 59
Industrial Revolution 59
Military Skill and Discipline 59
Stable Government 59
Lesser Zeal for Religion 60
Use of Debt Market 60
Summary 61
Boxes
Portuguese Rise and Fall 37
Formative Years of the East India Company 45
Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India 51
About the Goods in Trade Initially 56
Chapter 4
India on the Eve of British Conquest 64
Challenges before the Mughals 64
External Challenges 64
Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb—An 67
Internal Challenge
Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire 69
Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars 70
Jagirdari Crisis 70
Rise of Regional Aspirations 73
Economic and Administrative Problems 74
Rise of Regional States 75
Survey of Regional Kingdoms 75
Nature and Limitations of Regional States 79
Socio-Economic Conditions 80
Agriculture 80
Trade and Industry 80
Status of Education 82
Societal Set-up 83

(vii)
 Contents
Development in Art, Architecture and Culture 85
Summary 86
Boxes
Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat? 66
Causes of the Mughals’ Downfall in a Nutshell 74
Chapter 5
Expansion and Consolidation of British 88
Power in India
The British Imperial History 88
Was the British Conquest Accidental or Intentional? 88
When did the British Period Begin in India? 90
Causes of British Success in India 91
Superior Arms, Military and Strategy 91
Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary 92
Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System 92
Brilliant Leadership and Support of Second 92
Line Leaders
Strong Financial Backup 93
Nationalist Pride 93
British Conquest of Bengal 93
Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest 93
Alivardi Khan and the English 94
Challenges Before Siraj-ud-daula 95
The Battle of Plassey 95
Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 97
The Battle of Buxar 98
The Treaty of Allahabad 100
Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72) 101
Mysore’s Resistance to the Company 102
The Wodeyar / Mysore Dynasty 102
Rise of Haidar Ali 102
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) 103
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84) 104
Third Anglo-Mysore War 105

(viii)
 Contents
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 106
Mysore After Tipu 109
Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy 109
Rise of the Marathas 109
Entry of the English into Maratha Politics 110
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) 110
Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-1805) 113
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) 114
Why the Marathas Lost 116
Conquest of Sindh 118
Rise of Talpuras Amirs 118
Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh 119
Criticisms of the Conquest of Sindh 122
Conquest of Punjab 123
Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs 123
Ranjit Singh and the English 124
Punjab After Ranjit Singh 125
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) 126
Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) 128
Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars 129
Extension of British Paramountcy Through 129
Administrative Policy
The Policy of Ring-Fence 130
Subsidiary Alliance 130
Doctrine of Lapse 134
Relations of British India with Neighbouring 135
Countries
Anglo-Bhutanese Relations 136
Anglo-Nepalese Relations 136
Anglo-Burmese Relations 137
Anglo-Tibetan Relations 138
Anglo-Afghan Relations 139
John Lawrence and the Policy of 141
Masterly Inactivity
Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve 142
British India and the North-West Frontier 143
Summary 144

(ix)
 Contents
Boxes
Robert Clive 99
Estimate of Tipu Sultan 107
Annexation of Awadh 135
Unit III
RISING RESENTMENT AGAINST 147
COMPANY RULE
Chapter 6
People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857 149
People’s Resistance: Meaning 149
Genesis of People’s Resistance 150
Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings 150
Civil Uprisings 151
Major Causes of Civil Uprisings 151
General Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 152
Important Civil Uprisings 152
Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones 166
Tribal Revolts 168
Different Causes for Mainland and 168
North-Eastern Tribal Revolts
Characteristics of Tribal Revolts 169
Important Tribal Movements of Mainland 170
Tribal Movements of the North-East 176
Sepoy Mutinies 177
Causes 177
Important Mutinies 178
Weaknesses of People’s Uprisings 179
Summary 179
Boxes
Tribal Movements: Period, Region, Causes at a Glance 174
North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: Year, 176
Region, Major Causes
Chapter 7
The Revolt of 1857 183
Simmering Discontent 183
(x)
 Contents
The 1857 Revolt: the Major Causes 184
Economic Causes 184
Political Causes 185
Administrative Causes 186
Socio-Religious Causes 186
Influence of Outside Events 187
Discontent Among Sepoys 187
Beginning and Spread of the Revolt 188
The Spark 188
Starts at Meerut 188
Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head 189
Civilians Join 190
Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt 190
Suppression of the Revolt 193
Why the Revolt Failed 194
All-India participation was absent 194
All classes did not join 195
Poor Arms and Equipment 195
Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised 195
No Unified Ideology 196
Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor 196
Nature of the Revolt 197
Consequences 200
Significance of the Revolt 204
Summary 205
Box
White Mutiny 202
Unit IV
REFORM MOVEMENTS 207
Chapter 8
Socio-Religious Reform Movements: 209
General Features
Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform 209
Impact of British Rule 209
Social Conditions Ripe for Reform 210

(xi)
 Contents
Opposition to Western Culture 211
New Awareness among Enlightened Indians 211
Social and Ideological Bases of Reform 212
Middle Class Base 212
The Intellectual Criteria 213
Two Streams 215
Direction of Social Reform 215
Fight for Betterment of Position of Women 216
Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation 221
Summary 226
Chapter 9
A General Survey of Socio-Cultural 228
Reform Movements
Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders 228
Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj 228
Prarthana Samaj 234
Young Bengal Movement and Henry 235
Vivian Derozio
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar 236
Balshastri Jambhekar 236
Paramahansa Mandali 237
Satyashodhak Samaj and Jyotiba or Jyotirao Phule 237
Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitawadi’ 238
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 238
The Servants of India Society 239
Social Service League 239
The Ramakrishna Movement and 240
Swami Vivekananda
Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj 244
Seva Sadan 246
Dev Samaj 247
Dharma Sabha 247
Bharat Dharma Mahamandala 247
Radhaswami Movement 248
Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) 248
Movement
(xii)
 Contents
Vokkaliga Sangha 249
Justice Movement 249
Self-Respect Movement 249
Temple Entry Movement 250
Indian Social Conference 250
Wahabi/Walliullah Movement 251
Titu Mir‘s Movement 251
Faraizi Movement 252
Ahmadiyya Movement 252
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement 253
The Deoband School (Darul Uloom) 255
Parsi Reform Movements 256
Sikh Reform Movements 256
The Theosophical Movement 257
Significance of Reform Movements 258
Positive Aspects 258
Negative Aspects 260
Unit V
THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 263
Chapter 10
Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India 265
Factors in the Growth of Modern Nationalism 265
Understanding of Contradictions in Indian 265
and Colonial Interests
Political, Administrative and Economic Unification of
the Country 266
Western Thought and Education 267
Role of Press and Literature 267
Rediscovery of India’s Past 268
Progressive Character of Socio-religious 268
Reform Movements
Rise of Middle Class Intelligentsia 268
Impact of Contemporary Movements in the World 269
Reactionary Policies and Racial 269
Arrogance of Rulers

(xiii)
 Contents
Political Associations Before the Indian 269
National Congress
Political Associations in Bengal 270
Political Associations in Bombay 272
Political Associations in Madras 272
Pre-Congress Campaigns 272
Summary 273
Chapter 11
Indian National Congress: Foundation and the 274
Moderate Phase
Foundation of Indian National Congress 274
Was It a Safety Valve? 275
Aims and Objectives of the Congress 276
Era of Modernates (1885-1905) 276
Important Leaders 276
Moderate Approach 276
Contributions of Moderate Nationalists 277
Economic Critique of British Imperialism 277
Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda in 278
Legislature
Campaign for General Administrative Reforms 280
Protection of Civil Rights 281
An Evaluation of the Early Nationalists 282
Role of Masses 282
Attitude of the Government 283
Summary 284
Box
Indian Councils Act 1892 279
Unit VI
NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905-1918) 285
Chapter 12
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909) 287
Growth of Militant Nationalism 287

(xiv)
 Contents
Why Militant Nationalism Grew 287
The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement 291
Partition of Bengal to Divide People 291
Anti-Partition Campaign Under 292
Moderates (1903-05)
The Congress’s Position 293
The Movement under Extremist Leadership 294
The Extremist Programme 294
New Forms of Struggle 295
Extent of Mass Participation 298
All India Aspect 299
Annulment of Partition 300
Evaluation of the Swadeshi Movement 300
The Movement Fizzles Out 300
Movement a Turning Point 301
The Surat Split 303
Run-up to Surat 304
Split Takes Place 305
Government Repression 306
The Government Strategy 307
Morley-Minto Reforms—1909 308
The Reforms 308
Evaluation 310
Summary 311
Box
Differences between Moderates and Extremists 302
Chapter 13
First Phase of Revolutionary Activities 315
(1907-1917)
Why the Surge of Revolutionary Activities 315
The Revolutionary Programme 316
A Survey of Revolutionary Activities 316
Bengal 316
Maharashtra 319
Punjab 320

(xv)
 Contents
Revolutionary Activities Abroad 321
Decline 325
Summary 326
Chapter 14
First World War and Nationalist Response 328
Home Rule League Movement 329
Factors Leading to the Movement 329
The Leagues 330
The Home Rule League Programme 331
Government Attitude 332
Why the Agitation Faded Out by 1919 332
Positive Gains 333
Lucknow Session of the Indian National 333
Congress (1916)
Readmission of Extremists to Congress 333
Lucknow Pact between Congress and 334
Muslim League
Montagu’s Statement of August 1917 337
Indian Objections 337
Summary 338
Unit VII
ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM BEGINS 339
(1919-1939)
Chapter 15
Emergence of Gandhi 341
Why Nationalist Resurgence Now 341
Post-War Economic Hardships 341
Expectations of Political Gains for Cooperation 342
in the War
Nationalist Disillusionment with Imperialism 342
Worldwide
Impact of Russian Revolution (November 7, 1917) 343
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Government 343

(xvi)
 Contents
of India Act, 1919
Main Features 343
Drawbacks 346
Congress’s Reaction 346
Making of Gandhi 347
Early Career and Experiments with 347
Truth in South Africa
Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa 351
Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha 351
Gandhi in India 352
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)—First Civil 353
Disobedience
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)—First Hunger Strike 354
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)—First Non-Cooperation 355
Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda 356
Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 356
The Rowlatt Act 356
Satyagraha Against the Rowlatt Act— 357
First Mass Strike
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) 358
The Hunter Committee of Inquiry 361
Congress View 363
Summary 364
Box
Tolstoy Farm 350
Chapter 16
Non-Cooperation Movement and 366
Khilafat Aandolan
Background 366
The Khilafat Issue 367
Development of the Khalifat-Non-Cooperation 368
Programme
Congress Stand on Khilafat Question 368
Muslim League Support to Congress 369
The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement 369

(xvii)
 Contents
Spread of the Movement 371
People’s Response 373
Government Response 374
The Last Phase of the Movement 374
Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement 376
Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement 377
Summary 378
Chapter 17
Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, 379
Revolutionary Activities and Other New Forces
Swarajists and No-Changers 379
Genesis of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party 379
Swarajists’ Arguments 380
No-Changers’ Arguments 380
Agree to Disagree 381
The Swarajist Manifesto for Elections 381
Gandhi’s Attitude 382
Swarajist Activity in Councils 382
Constructive Work by No-Changers 384
Emergence of New Forces: Socialistic Ideas, 385
Youth Power, Trade Unionism
Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas 385
Activism of Indian Youth 387
Peasants’ Agitations 387
Growth of Trade Unionism 387
Caste Movements 387
Revolutionary Activity with a Turn towards 388
Socialism
Revolutionary Activity During the 1920s 388
Why Attraction for Revolutionary Activity 388
after Non-Cooperation Movement
Major Influences 389
In Punjab-United Provinces-Bihar 389
In Bengal 391

(xviii)
 Contents
Official Reaction 394
Ideological Rethinking 394
Summary 396
Chapter 18
Simon Commission and the Nehru Report 398
Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission 398
Indian Response 399
Police Repression 401
Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission 401
on the National Movement
The Simon Commission Recommendations 402
Nehru Report 403
Main Recommendations 403
The Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses 404
Amendments Proposed by Jinnah 406
Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory 407
Summary 407
Box
Dr Ambedkar and the Simon Commission 400
Chapter 19
Civil Disobedience Movement and Round 408
Table Conferences
The Run-up to Civil Disobedience Movement 408
Calcutta Session of Congress 408
Political Activity during 1929 409
Irwin’s Declaration (October 31, 1929) 409
Delhi Manifesto 410
Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj 410
January 26, 1930: the Independence Pledge 412
Civil Disobedience Movement—the Salt Satyagraha 413
and Other Upsurges
Gandhi’s Eleven Demands 413
Why Salt was Chosen as the Important Theme 414
Dandi March (March 12-April 6, 1930) 414

(xix)
 Contents
Spread of Salt Disobedience 415
Impact of Agitation 420
Extent of Mass Participation 420
Government Response—Efforts for Truce 421
Gandhi-Irwin Pact 422
Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement 423
Karachi Congress Session—1931 425
Congress Resolutions at Karachi 425
The Round Table Conferences 426
First Round Table Conference 426
Second Round Table Conference 428
Third Round Table Conference 431
Civil Disobedience Resumed 432
During Truce Period (March-December 1931) 432
Changed Government Attitude After Second RTC 432
Government Action 433
Popular Response 433
Communal Award and Poona Pact 434
Main Provisions of the Communal Award 435
Congress Stand 436
Gandhi’s Response 436
Poona Pact 437
Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits 437
Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign and thoughts on Caste 438
Ideological Differences and Similarities between 441
Gandhi and Ambedkar
Summary 445
Chapter 20
Debates on the Future Strategy after Civil 448
Disobedience Movement
The First Stage Debate 448
Nehru’s Vision 449
Nehru’s Opposition to Struggle-
Truce-Struggle Strategy 450
Finally, Yes to Council Entry 450

(xx)
 Contents
Government of India Act, 1935 451
Main Features 451
Evaluation of the Act 454
Nationalists’ Response 455
The Second Stage Debate 455
Divided Opinion 456
Gandhi’s Position 457
Congress Manifesto for Elections 457
Congress’ Performance 458
Summary 458
Chapter 21
Congress Rule in Provinces 459
Gandhi’s Advice 459
Work under Congress Ministries 459
Civil Liberties 460
Agrarian Reforms 460
Attitude Towards Labour 461
Social Welfare Reforms 462
Evaluation 462
Summary 464
Unit VIII
TOWARDS FREEDOM AND 465
PARTITION 1939-1947
Chapter 22
Nationalist Response in the Wake of 467
World War II
Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle 467
Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhash 467
Bose’s Views
Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences 472
Non-Violence versus Militant Approach 473
Means and Ends 473
Form of Government 474

(xxi)
 Contents
Militarism 477
Ideas on Economy 478
Religion 480
Caste and Untouchability 482
Women 482
Education 485
Second World War and Nationalistic Response 486
Congress Offer to Viceroy 487
CWC Meeting at Wardha 487
Government Attitude and Congress 488
Ministries’ Resignation
Government’s Hidden Agenda 489
August Offer 492
Responses 493
Evaluation 493
Individual Satyagrahas 493
Gandhi Designates Nehru as his Successor 494
Cripps Mission 495
Why Cripps Mission was Sent 495
Main Proposals 496
Departures from the Past and Implications 496
Why Cripps Mission Failed 497
Summary 499
Chapter 23
Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan, 501
and the INA
Quit India Movement 501
Why Start a Struggle Now 501
The ‘Quit India’ Resolution 502
Gandhi’s General Instructions to 502
Different Sections
Spread of the Movement 503
Extent of Mass Participation 505
Government Repression 506
Estimate 506

(xxii)
 Contents
Gandhi Fasts 507
Famine of 1943 507
Rajagopalachari Formula 508
The Formula 508
Objections 508
Desai-Liaqat Pact 509
Wavell Plan 509
Why the Government was Keen on a Solution Now 509
The Plan 510
Muslim League’s Stand 510
Congress Stand 511
Wavell’s Mistake 511
The Indian National Army and Subhash Bose 511
Origin and First Phase of the Indian National Army 512
Summary 516
Chapter 24
Post-War National Scenario 518
Two Strands of National Upsurge 518
Why a Change in Government’s Attitude 519
Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials 520
Election Campaign for Nationalistic Aims 520
Congress Support for INA Prisoners 521
The INA Agitation—A Landmark on Many Counts521
Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945-46 522
Three-Stage Pattern 523
Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the 524
Three Upsurges
Congress Strategy 525
Election Results 526
Performance of the Congress 526
Muslim League’s Performance 526
Significant Features of Elections 527
The Cabinet Mission 527
Why British Withdrawal Seemed Imminent Now 527
On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan 529
(xxiii)
 Contents
Cabinet Mission Arrives 529
Cabinet Mission Plan—Main Points 529
Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause 531
Main Objections 531
Acceptance and Rejection 532
Communal Holocaust and the Interim Government 533
Changed Government Priorities 533
Interim Government 533
Obstructionist Approach and Ulterior 535
Motives of League
Birth and Spread of Communalism in India 535
Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism 536
Reasons for Growth of Communalism 537
Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory 543
Summary 547
Box
Wavell’s “Breakdown Plan” 532
Chapter 25
Independence with Partition 550
Attlee’s Statement of February 20, 1947 550
Main Points of Attlee’s Statement 550
Why a Date Fixed by Government for Withdrawal 551
Congress Stand 551
Independence and Partition 551
Mountbatten as the Viceroy 552
Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947 552
Indian Independence Act 555
Problems of Early withdrawal 556
Integration of States 556
Inevitability of Partition 557
Why Congress Accepted Partition 557
Gandhi’s Helplessness 559
Summary 560
Box
Plan Balkan 555
(xxiv)
 Contents
Unit IX
INDIA UNDER BRITISH RULE: 561
GOVERNANCE AND OTHER ASPECTS

Chapter 26
Constitutional, Administrative and Judicial 563
Developments
Constitutional Development between 1773 and 1858 563
The Regulating Act of 1773 564
Pitt’s India Act of 1784 565
The Act of 1786 565
The Charter Act of 1793 566
The Charter Act of 1813 566
The Charter Act of 1833 567
The Charter Act of 1853 568
The Act for Better Government of India, 1858 569
Developments after 1858 till Independence 569
Indian Councils Act, 1861 569
Indian Councils Act, 1892 570
Indian Councils Act, 1909 571
Government of India Act, 1919 571
Simon Commission 573
Government of India Act, 1935 574
Evolution of Civil Services in India 576
Cornwallis’ Role 576
Wellesley’s Role 577
Charter Act of 1853 577
Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 577
Statutory Civil Service 578
Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee 578
Montford Reforms (1919) 578
Lee Commission (1924) 579
Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule 579
Evolution of Police System in Modern India 580
Military Under the British 582

(xxv)
 Contents
Development of Judiciary in British India 584
Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772-1785) 585
Reforms under Cornwallis (1786-1793)— 585
Separation of Powers
Reforms under William Bentinck (1828-1833) 586
Later Developments 587
Evaluation 587
Major Changes in Administrative Structure after 1857 588
Genesis of Administrative Changes: 588
New Stage of Colonialism
Administration: Central, Provincial, Local 589
Central Government 589
Provincial Government 590
Local Bodies 591
Chapter 27
Survey of British Policies in India 597
Administrative Policies 597
Divide and Rule 597
Hostility Towards Educated Indians 597
Attitude Towards the Zamindars 598
Attitude Towards Social Reforms 598
Underdeveloped Social Services 598
Labour Legislations 599
Restrictions on Freedom of the Press 600
White Racism 601
British Social and Cultural Policy in India 601
Characteristics of New Thought 602
Schools of Thought 602
Indian Renaissance 603
Dilemma Before the Government 603
Role of Christian Missionaries 604
British Retreat 604
British Policy Towards Princely States 604
British Foreign Policy in India 605

(xxvi)
 Contents
Chapter 28
Economic Impact of British Rule in India 607
Deindustrialisation—Ruin of Artisans and 607
Handicraftsmen
One-Way Free Trade 607
No Steps towards Modern Industrialisation 608
Ruralisation 608
Impoverishment of Peasantry 609
Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee Landlordism, 610
Ruin of Old Zamindars
Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture 610
Famine and Poverty 610
Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture 611
Destruction of Industry and Late Development 612
of Modern Industry
Nationalist Critique of Colonial Economy 614
British Policies Making India Poor 615
Growth of Trade and Railways to Help Britain 617
One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy 617
Effect of Economic Drain 618
Economic Issue a Stimulant to National Unrest 619
Stages of Colonialism in India 619
First Stage 619
Second Stage 620
Third Stage 622
Summary 623
Box
Economic Drain 615
Chapter 29
Development of Indian Press 625
Early Regulations 625
Struggle by Early Nationalists to Secure 626
Press Freedom
Vernacular Press Act, 1878 628

(xxvii)
 Contents
During and After the First World War 631
During the Second World War 631
Chapter 30
Development of Education 632
Under Company Rule 632
A Humble beginning by Charter Act of 1813 633
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy 633
Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) 634
Efforts of Thomson 634
Wood’s Despatch (1854) 635
After the Crown Took Over 636
Hunter Education Commission (1882-83) 636
Indian Universities Act, 1904 637
Government Resolution on Education 638
Policy—1913
Saddler University Commission (1917-19) 638
Education Under Dyarchy 639
Hartog Committee (1929) 639
Sergeant Plan of Education 640
Development of Vernacular Education 641
Development of Technical Education 642
Evaluation of British Policy on Education 642
Box
Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) 640
Chapter 31
Peasant Movements 1857-1947 644
Peasantry Under Colonialism 644
A Survey of Early Peasant Movements 645
Indigo Revolt (1859-60) 645
Pabna Agrarian Leagues 646
Deccan Riots 646
Changed Nature of Peasant Movements after 1857 647
Weaknesses 648
Later Movements 648

(xxviii)
 Contents
The Kisan Sabha Movement 648
Eka Movement 649
Mappila Revolt 650
Bardoli Satyagraha 650
The All India Kisan Congress/Sabha 652
Under Congress Ministries 652
Peasant Activity in Provinces 652
During the War 653
Post-War Phase 654
Balance-Sheet of Peasant Movements 656
Chapter 32
The Movement of the Working Class 657
Early Efforts 658
During Swadeshi Upsurge 658
During the First World War and After 659
The AITUC 659
The Trade Union Act, 1926 660
Late 1920s 660
Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) 661
Under Congress Ministries 661
During and After the Second World War 661
After Independence 662

Unit X
INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER 663
Chapter 33
Challenges Before the New-born Nation 665
First Day of Independent India 665
First Cabinet After Independence 665
Radcliffe’s Boundary Award and the Communal Riots 667
Challenges before the Boundary Commission 668
Regions Most Affected by Riots 669
Challenges Associated with Division of Resources 671
Division of Civil Government 671
(xxix)
 Contents
Division of Finances 671
Division of Defence Personnel and Equipment 672
Assassination of Gandhi 672
Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Refugees 673
East Punjab 674
Bengal 674
Delhi Pact on Minorities 675
Centres of Refugee Settlements in India 676
Communists and Independence 676
Why Communists were Skeptical about 677
Independence?
Shift from Antagonistic Strategy to 677
Constitutional Democracy
Chapter 34
The Indian States 679
I. The Company’s Struggle for Equality from
a Position of Subordination (1740-1765) 679
II. Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813) 680
III. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813-1857) 680
IV. Policy of Subordinate Union (1857-1935) 681
Curzon’s Approach 682
Post-1905 682
V. Policy of Equal Federation (1935-1947): 683
A Non-Starter
VI. Integration and Merger 683
Plebiscite and Army Action 684
Gradual Integration 685
Chapter 35
Making of the Constitution for India 686
Background 686
Constituent Assembly 689
Formation 689
Two Constituent Assemblies: India and Pakistan 691
Evaluation of the Assembly for India 691

(xxx)
 Contents
After Independence 692
Work : Committees and Consensus 693
Box
Drafting Committee 693
Chapter 36
The Evolution of Nationalist Foreign Policy 696
1880 to First World War: Anti-Imperialism and 697
Pan-Asian Feeling
World War I 698
1920s and 1930s—Identifying with Socialists 698
After 1936—Anti-Fascism 699
After Independence 699
Panchsheel and Non-Alignment 700
Boxes
Historical Perspective on Panchsheel 701
Five Criteria of Non-alignment 703
Chapter 37
First General Elections 705
Groundwork for the Elections 705
The Election Commission 705
Legislation for Polls 706
Independent India Goes to the Polls for the 707
First Time
Challenges 707
Parties in the Fray for the Lok Sabha 709
Conduct of Elections 710
Results 711
Box
First General Elections: Winners 711
Chapter 38
Developments under Nehru’s Leadership (1947-64) 713
Political Developments 714
Debate Over National Language 714

(xxxi)
 Contents
Linguistic Reorganisation of the States 715
Growth of other Political Parties 718
An Undemocratic Deed 723
Concept of Planning for Economic Development 724
Progress of Science and Technology 725
Social Developments 726
Developments in Education 726
Social Change Under Nehru 727
Foreign Policy 728
Relations with Neighbours 729
India and Pakistan 729
India and China 730
India and Nepal 732
India and Bhutan 732
India and Sri Lanka 732

APPENDICES 733
1. Personalities Associated with Specific Movements 735
Swadeshi Movement 735
Non-cooperation Movement 739
Civil Disobedience Movement 743
Quit India Movement 747
2. Governors-General and Viceroys of India: 750
Significant Events in their Rule
3. Indian National Congress Annual Sessions 760
4. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 765
(late 18th to mid-20th century)
5. Famous Trials of the Nationalist Period 772
6. Caste Movements 774
7. Peasant Movements 776
8. Newspapers and Journals 779

(xxxii)