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LECTURE 1 & 2
INTRODUCTION
TO
REFRIGERATION
MED, AEC GUWAHATI ME724 REFRIGERATION (3-1-0) 1
PIYUSH SINGH LECTURE 1 & 2 19 & 21 August, 2019
1. INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration can be defined in a number of ways, some of which are as given below:
The process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the surroundings, the
aim being to cool some product or space to the required temperature.
or
The process of removing heat from where it is not wanted. Unwanted heat is transferred
mechanically to an area where it is not objectionable.
or
With these definitions with us, let us answer the following question:
As per the definitions options (b) Cooling of a pot of water by mixing it with a large block of
ice and (d) Cooling of water by creating vacuum over it, fulfill the requirements of a
refrigeration process.
The major applications of refrigeration can be grouped into following four major equally
important areas:
2. TYPES OF REFRIGERATION
The refrigeration methods can be broadly classified into natural refrigeration and artificial
refrigeration. Natural and artificial refrigeration can be further classified into different
techniques based on the mechanism of cooling. Figure 1 shows the classification of
refrigeration.
Thermoelectric Refrigeration
Systems
2.1.2 Ice making by Nocturnal cooling: Ice can be made during night by cooling of water
by radiation to stratosphere (which is at around -55°C). This method was perfected in India
and was very popular. Figure 2 shows an illustration of Bengali ice-making, as described by
Sir Robert Barker in 1775. In this method ice was made by keeping a thin layer of water in a
shallow earthen tray, and then exposing the tray to the night sky. The tray is insulated at the
bottom using some kind of insulation like hay. This method is suitable only on nights with
clear sky and with mild or no breeze.
Figure 2. Bengali ice-making, as described by Sir Robert Barker, 1775 (Ref. The History of
Climate Science - William Charles Wells, https://skepticalscience.com/print.php?n=1350)
2.1.4 Cooling by Salt solutions: Certain substances when added to water dissolve in water
and absorb its heat of solution from water (endothermic process). This reduces the
temperature of the solution. Sodium Chloride salt (NaCl) can yield temperatures up to -20°C
and Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) up to -50°C in properly insulated containers. This process has
limited application, as the dissolved salt has to be recovered from its solution by heating.
2.1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of natural refrigeration: Some of the advantages and
disadvantages of natural refrigeration are listed below:
• Advantages
– Inexpensive
– In general are environment friendly
• Disadvantages
– Uncertain
– Dependent on local conditions
– Discontinuous
The basis of modern refrigeration is the ability of liquids to absorb enormous quantities of
heat as they boil and evaporate. The history of artificial refrigeration began in the year 1755,
when the Scottish professor William Cullen made the first refrigerating machine, which could
produce a small quantity of ice in the laboratory. Professor William Cullen of the University
of Edinburgh in 1755 placed some water in thermal contact with ether under a receiver of a
vacuum pump. The evaporation rate of ether increased due to the vacuum pump and water
could be frozen. This process involves two thermodynamic concepts, the vapour pressure and
the latent heat.
Figure 5 shows some of the important events in the history of artificial refrigeration. The
history of artificial refrigeration starts with Prof. W Cullen demonstrating the production of
ice in his laboratory. Before the refrigerator people used ice boxes and ice houses. These ice
boxes were made out of wood with suitable insulation as shown in Figure 6. Ice used to be
kept at the top of the box, and low temperatures were produced in the box due to heat transfer
from ice by natural convection. A drip pan used to collect the water formed due to the
melting of ice. The box had to be replenished with fresh ice once all the ice melted. Freezers
were developed which held their temperature at −23 to −18 °C which is safe for food storage.
The first “affordable” refrigerator was introduced in 1927. It was called the "monitor
top“(Figure 7).
2.2.2 History of domestic refrigerator: Figure 8 provides the timeline of the history of
domestic refrigerator. The domestic refrigerator using natural ice (domestic ice box) was
invented in 1803. Used for almost 150 years without much alteration. The domestic ice box
used to be made of wood with suitable insulation. Ice used to be kept at the top of the box,
and Low temperatures produced in the box due to heat transfer from ice by natural
convection. A drip pan is used to collect the water formed due to the melting of ice.
1803 1887 First 1924 1926 1930s 1931 1939 Present day
• Domestic • Attempts to Domestic • First • GE introduced • Refrigerants • The domestic • The first dual • Mechanical
Refrigerator develop Refrigerator mechanical the first sulphur refrigerator temperature Refrigerators
using natural domestic refrigerator in refrigerator dioxide and based on (freezer- with hermetic
ice (Domestic refrigerators • 1911: General Japan with a methyl absorption refrigerator) air cooled
ice box) using Electric hermetic chloride were was first domestic compressor
mechanical Company compressor replaced by made by refrigerator • Refrigerant:
systems • 1915: Freon-12 Electrolux HFC-134a
Frigidaire Company in (hydro-fluoro-
• 1918: Sweden. carbon) or iso-
Kelvinator in butane
USA
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Types of compressors: (a) Open type (b) Hermetic
The basic system as shown in Figure 10 consists of an evaporator, compressor, condenser and
an expansion valve. The refrigeration effect is obtained in the cold region as heat is extracted
by the vaporization of refrigerant in the evaporator.
Table 1 shows some absorbent and refrigerant combinations. The pump power is negligible
hence; the system runs virtually on low- grade energy used for heating the strong solution to
separate the water from ammonia. In 1922, Balzar von Platen and Carl Munters, two students
at Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm invented a three fluid system that did not require
a pump.
Absorbent Refrigerant
Water Ammonia
LiBr Water
2.2.5 Gas cycle refrigeration: If air at high pressure expands and does work its temperature
will decrease. Dalton and Gay Lusaac studied this in 1807. Sadi Carnot mentioned this as a
well-known phenomenon in 1824. However, Dr. John Gorrie a physician in Florida
developed one such machine in 1844 to produce ice for the relief of his patients suffering
from fever. Alexander Carnegie Kirk in 1862 made an air cycle cooling machine. The basic
system as shown in Figure 12 consists of:
– a compressor,
– an expander and
– a heat exchanger
These days air cycle refrigeration is used only in aircrafts whose turbo compressor can handle
large volume flow rates.
Figure 12. Schematic of a basic, open type air cycle refrigeration system
2.2.6 Steam jet refrigeration system: If water is sprayed into a chamber where a low
pressure is maintained, a part of the water will evaporate. The enthalpy of evaporation will
cool the remaining water to its saturation temperature at the pressure in the chamber. The low
pressures (8–22 mbar) required to evaporate water as a refrigerant at 4–7°C for air-
conditioning duty can be obtained with a steam ejector. Figure 13 shows the schematic of a
steam jet refrigeration system. High-pressure steam at 10 bar is commonly used. The COP of
this cycle is somewhat less than with the absorption system, so its use is restricted to
applications where large volumes of steam are available when required (large, steam-driven
ships) or where water is to be removed along with cooling, as in freeze-drying and fruit juice
concentration.
2.2.7 Vortex tube systems: In 1931, the French engineer Georges Ranque discovered a
phenomenon called “Ranque effect” or “vortex effect”. The tangential injection of air into a
cylindrical tube induces to quote his words “a giratory expansion with simultaneous
production of an escape of hot air and an escape of cold air”. In 1945, Rudolph Hilsch, a
German physicist, studied this effect and published a widely read scientific paper on this
device. Thus, the vortex tube has also been known as the "Ranque-Hilsch Tube”. The
efficiency of this system is quite low. It is simple with no moving parts and produces instant
cooling. It requires a supply of compressed air. Applications include spot cooling of machine
parts, in electronic cooling and also in cooling jackets for miners, firemen etc.
2.2.8 Thermoelectric Refrigeration Systems: In 1821 the German physicist T.J. Seebeck
reported that when two junctions of dissimilar metals are kept at two different temperatures,
an electro motive force (emf) is developed, resulting in flow of electric current. The emf
produced is found to be proportional to temperature difference. In 1834, a Frenchmen, J.
Peltier observed the reverse effect, i.e., cooling and heating of two junctions of dissimilar
materials when direct current is passed through them, the heat transfer rate being proportional
to the current. In 1857, William Thomson proved by thermodynamic analysis that Seebeck
effect and Peltier effect are related and he discovered another effect called Thomson effect.
According to this when current flows through a conductor of a thermocouple that has an
initial temperature gradient in it, then heat transfer rate per unit length is proportional to the
product of current and the temperature.
(a)
(b)
Figure 14. (a) Schematic illustration of a vortex tube and fluid inside it (b) A photograph of a
vortex tube
For a long time, thermoelectric cooling remained a laboratory curiosity as the temperature
difference that could be obtained using pure metals was too small to be of any practical use.
Also, insulating materials give poor thermoelectric performance because of their small
electrical conductivity while metals are not good because of their large thermal conductivity.
However, with the discovery of semiconductor materials in 1949-50, the available
temperature drop could be increased considerably, giving rise to commercialization of
thermoelectric refrigeration systems. Figure 15 illustrates a thermoelectric refrigeration
system. These systems due to their limited performance (limited by the materials) are now
used only in certain niche applications such as electronic cooling, mobile coolers etc. Efforts
have also been made to club thermoelectric systems with photovoltaic cells with a view to
develop solar thermoelectric refrigerators.
Table 2 compares artificial and natural refrigeration methods. Artificial refrigeration methods
are continuous, reliable and do not depend on local conditions. However, these methods are
less environment friendly and expensive compared with the natural refrigeration methods.
• Continuous • Discontinuous
• Reliable • Uncertain
• Expensive • Inexpensive
Questions:
1. Choose the correct option:
(i) Which of the following modes of heat transfer is the most dominant in
successfully producing ice by nocturnal cooling?
(ii) In the following figure showing an ice box, which is the best location
for keeping ice,
(c) The present day domestic refrigerators are mechanical refrigerators that
use a _____________ compressor and an ____________ condenser.
3. True or False:
(f) Air cycle refrigeration systems are most commonly used in domestic
refrigerators.
(g) The function of an expansion valve is to maintain high and low side
pressures.