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PIYUSH SINGH LECTURE 1 & 2 19 & 21 August, 2019

LECTURE 1 & 2
INTRODUCTION
TO
REFRIGERATION
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PIYUSH SINGH LECTURE 1 & 2 19 & 21 August, 2019

The specific objectives of these lectures are:


1. Define refrigeration and distinguish it from cooling.
2. Discuss classification of refrigeration.
3. Discuss natural methods of refrigeration.
4. Discuss artificial methods of refrigeration.
5. Discuss historical aspects of refrigeration.
At the end of these lectures the learner should be able to:
1. Identify refrigeration processes.
2. Distinguish between natural and artificial refrigeration.
3. Illustrate the schematic of various artificial refrigeration techniques and list their salient
points.
4. List some of the important landmarks in the history of refrigeration.

1. INTRODUCTION

Refrigeration can be defined in a number of ways, some of which are as given below:

The process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the surroundings, the
aim being to cool some product or space to the required temperature.

or

The process of removing heat from where it is not wanted. Unwanted heat is transferred
mechanically to an area where it is not objectionable.

or

The science of moving heat from low temperature to high temperature.

With these definitions with us, let us answer the following question:

Which of the following can be considered as a refrigeration process?

(a) Cooling of hot ingot from 1000oC to room temperature


(b) Cooling of a pot of water by mixing it with a large block of ice

(c) Cooling of human beings using a ceiling fan

(d) Cooling of water by creating vacuum over it

(e) Cooling of hot water by mixing it with tap water

(f) Cooling of a hot cup of coffee/ tea by leaving it on a table

As per the definitions options (b) Cooling of a pot of water by mixing it with a large block of
ice and (d) Cooling of water by creating vacuum over it, fulfill the requirements of a
refrigeration process.
The major applications of refrigeration can be grouped into following four major equally
important areas:

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• Food processing, preservation and distribution


• Chemical and process industries
• Special Applications such as cold treatment of metals, medical, construction, ice
skating etc.
• Air-conditioning

2. TYPES OF REFRIGERATION

The refrigeration methods can be broadly classified into natural refrigeration and artificial
refrigeration. Natural and artificial refrigeration can be further classified into different
techniques based on the mechanism of cooling. Figure 1 shows the classification of
refrigeration.

Natural ice (Harvesting & transport)

Ice making by Nocturnal Cooling


Natural Refrigeration
Evaporative Cooling

Cooling by Salt Solutions


Refrigeration

Vapour Compression Refrigeration


Systems

Vapour Absorption Refrigeration


Systems

Solar energy based refrigeration


systems

Artificial Refrigeration Gas Cycle Refrigeration

Steam Jet Refrigeration System

Thermoelectric Refrigeration
Systems

Vortex tube systems

Figure 1. Classification of refrigeration

2.1 Natural Refrigeration


The different types natural refrigeration are discussed below in brief:
2.1.1 Natural ice: Refrigeration using natural ice is the oldest method of refrigeration. The
natural ice used for refrigeration was either transported from colder regions, or harvested in
winter and stored in ice houses for summer use. With the advent of artificial refrigeration the
ice trade gradually declined.

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2.1.2 Ice making by Nocturnal cooling: Ice can be made during night by cooling of water
by radiation to stratosphere (which is at around -55°C). This method was perfected in India
and was very popular. Figure 2 shows an illustration of Bengali ice-making, as described by
Sir Robert Barker in 1775. In this method ice was made by keeping a thin layer of water in a
shallow earthen tray, and then exposing the tray to the night sky. The tray is insulated at the
bottom using some kind of insulation like hay. This method is suitable only on nights with
clear sky and with mild or no breeze.

Figure 2. Bengali ice-making, as described by Sir Robert Barker, 1775 (Ref. The History of
Climate Science - William Charles Wells, https://skepticalscience.com/print.php?n=1350)

2.1.3 Evaporative Cooling: It is the process of reducing the temperature of a system by


evaporation of water/ some other liquid. It is the working principle of desert-coolers shown in
Figure 3. This also finds applications in air-conditioning, cooling towers etc. Human beings
dissipate their metabolic heat by evaporative cooling of sweat, if the ambient temperature is
more than skin temperature. Animals such as the hippopotamus and buffalo coat themselves
with mud for evaporative cooling as shown in Figure 4. Evaporative cooling has been used in
India for centuries to obtain cold water in summer by storing the water in earthen pots.

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Figure 3. Schematic of a desert cooler

Figure 4. Animals taking mud bath to keep themselves cool

2.1.4 Cooling by Salt solutions: Certain substances when added to water dissolve in water
and absorb its heat of solution from water (endothermic process). This reduces the
temperature of the solution. Sodium Chloride salt (NaCl) can yield temperatures up to -20°C
and Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) up to -50°C in properly insulated containers. This process has
limited application, as the dissolved salt has to be recovered from its solution by heating.
2.1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of natural refrigeration: Some of the advantages and
disadvantages of natural refrigeration are listed below:
• Advantages
– Inexpensive
– In general are environment friendly
• Disadvantages
– Uncertain
– Dependent on local conditions
– Discontinuous

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2.2 ARTIFICIAL REFRIGERATION

The basis of modern refrigeration is the ability of liquids to absorb enormous quantities of
heat as they boil and evaporate. The history of artificial refrigeration began in the year 1755,
when the Scottish professor William Cullen made the first refrigerating machine, which could
produce a small quantity of ice in the laboratory. Professor William Cullen of the University
of Edinburgh in 1755 placed some water in thermal contact with ether under a receiver of a
vacuum pump. The evaporation rate of ether increased due to the vacuum pump and water
could be frozen. This process involves two thermodynamic concepts, the vapour pressure and
the latent heat.

2.2.1 History of artificial refrigeration

Figure 5. Some important events in the history of artificial refrigeration

Figure 5 shows some of the important events in the history of artificial refrigeration. The
history of artificial refrigeration starts with Prof. W Cullen demonstrating the production of
ice in his laboratory. Before the refrigerator people used ice boxes and ice houses. These ice
boxes were made out of wood with suitable insulation as shown in Figure 6. Ice used to be
kept at the top of the box, and low temperatures were produced in the box due to heat transfer
from ice by natural convection. A drip pan used to collect the water formed due to the
melting of ice. The box had to be replenished with fresh ice once all the ice melted. Freezers
were developed which held their temperature at −23 to −18 °C which is safe for food storage.
The first “affordable” refrigerator was introduced in 1927. It was called the "monitor
top“(Figure 7).

Figure 6. An ice box Figure 7. The “Monitor top”

2.2.2 History of domestic refrigerator: Figure 8 provides the timeline of the history of
domestic refrigerator. The domestic refrigerator using natural ice (domestic ice box) was
invented in 1803. Used for almost 150 years without much alteration. The domestic ice box

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used to be made of wood with suitable insulation. Ice used to be kept at the top of the box,
and Low temperatures produced in the box due to heat transfer from ice by natural
convection. A drip pan is used to collect the water formed due to the melting of ice.

1803 1887 First 1924 1926 1930s 1931 1939 Present day
• Domestic • Attempts to Domestic • First • GE introduced • Refrigerants • The domestic • The first dual • Mechanical
Refrigerator develop Refrigerator mechanical the first sulphur refrigerator temperature Refrigerators
using natural domestic refrigerator in refrigerator dioxide and based on (freezer- with hermetic
ice (Domestic refrigerators • 1911: General Japan with a methyl absorption refrigerator) air cooled
ice box) using Electric hermetic chloride were was first domestic compressor
mechanical Company compressor replaced by made by refrigerator • Refrigerant:
systems • 1915: Freon-12 Electrolux HFC-134a
Frigidaire Company in (hydro-fluoro-
• 1918: Sweden. carbon) or iso-
Kelvinator in butane
USA

Figure 8. History of domestic refrigerator


Efforts, starting from 1887 have been made to develop domestic refrigerators using
mechanical systems. The initial domestic mechanical refrigerators were costly, not
completely automatic and were not very reliable. The development of mechanical household
refrigerators on a large scale was made possible by the development of small compressors,
automatic refrigerant controls, better shaft seals, developments in electrical power systems
and induction motors. General Electric Company introduced the first domestic refrigerator in
1911, followed by Frigidaire in 1915. Kelvinator launched the domestic mechanical
refrigerator in 1918 in USA. In Japan the first mechanical domestic refrigerator was made in
1924. In 1925, USA had about 25 million domestic refrigerators of which only 75000 were
mechanical. General Electric Company introduced the first refrigerator with a hermetic
compressor in 1926. Soon the open type compressors (mainly belt driven) were completely
replaced by the hermetic compressors (Figure 9). The initial domestic refrigerators used
mainly sulphur dioxide as refrigerant. Some units used methyl chloride and methylene
chloride. These refrigerants were replaced by Freon-12 in 1930s. The domestic refrigerator
based on absorption principle as proposed by Platen and Munters, was first made by
Electrolux Company in 1931 in Sweden. The first dual temperature (freezer-refrigerator)
domestic refrigerator was introduced in 1939. Today, a domestic refrigerator has become an
essential kitchen appliance all over the world. Except very few almost all the present day
domestic refrigerators are mechanical refrigerators that use a hermetic compressor and an air
cooled condenser. The modern refrigerators use either HFC-134a (hydro-fluoro-carbon) or
iso-butane as refrigerant.

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(a) (b)
Figure 9. Types of compressors: (a) Open type (b) Hermetic

2.2.3 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (VCRS)

The basic system as shown in Figure 10 consists of an evaporator, compressor, condenser and
an expansion valve. The refrigeration effect is obtained in the cold region as heat is extracted
by the vaporization of refrigerant in the evaporator.

2.2.4 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems (VARS)

The basic system as shown in Figure 11 consists of:


– an evaporator,
– generator, pump, heat exchanger and absorber (which replace the compressor used in
VCRS)
– condenser and
– an expansion valve.

Table 1 shows some absorbent and refrigerant combinations. The pump power is negligible
hence; the system runs virtually on low- grade energy used for heating the strong solution to
separate the water from ammonia. In 1922, Balzar von Platen and Carl Munters, two students
at Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm invented a three fluid system that did not require
a pump.

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Figure 10. Schematic illustration of Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (VCRS)

Figure 11. Schematic illustration of Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems (VARS)

Table 1. Common absorbent and refrigerant combinations

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Absorbent Refrigerant

Sulphuric acid Water

Water Ammonia

LiBr Water

2.2.5 Gas cycle refrigeration: If air at high pressure expands and does work its temperature
will decrease. Dalton and Gay Lusaac studied this in 1807. Sadi Carnot mentioned this as a
well-known phenomenon in 1824. However, Dr. John Gorrie a physician in Florida
developed one such machine in 1844 to produce ice for the relief of his patients suffering
from fever. Alexander Carnegie Kirk in 1862 made an air cycle cooling machine. The basic
system as shown in Figure 12 consists of:
– a compressor,
– an expander and
– a heat exchanger
These days air cycle refrigeration is used only in aircrafts whose turbo compressor can handle
large volume flow rates.

Figure 12. Schematic of a basic, open type air cycle refrigeration system

2.2.6 Steam jet refrigeration system: If water is sprayed into a chamber where a low
pressure is maintained, a part of the water will evaporate. The enthalpy of evaporation will
cool the remaining water to its saturation temperature at the pressure in the chamber. The low
pressures (8–22 mbar) required to evaporate water as a refrigerant at 4–7°C for air-
conditioning duty can be obtained with a steam ejector. Figure 13 shows the schematic of a
steam jet refrigeration system. High-pressure steam at 10 bar is commonly used. The COP of

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this cycle is somewhat less than with the absorption system, so its use is restricted to
applications where large volumes of steam are available when required (large, steam-driven
ships) or where water is to be removed along with cooling, as in freeze-drying and fruit juice
concentration.

Figure 13. Schematic illustration of a steam jet refrigeration system

2.2.7 Vortex tube systems: In 1931, the French engineer Georges Ranque discovered a
phenomenon called “Ranque effect” or “vortex effect”. The tangential injection of air into a
cylindrical tube induces to quote his words “a giratory expansion with simultaneous
production of an escape of hot air and an escape of cold air”. In 1945, Rudolph Hilsch, a
German physicist, studied this effect and published a widely read scientific paper on this
device. Thus, the vortex tube has also been known as the "Ranque-Hilsch Tube”. The
efficiency of this system is quite low. It is simple with no moving parts and produces instant
cooling. It requires a supply of compressed air. Applications include spot cooling of machine
parts, in electronic cooling and also in cooling jackets for miners, firemen etc.

2.2.8 Thermoelectric Refrigeration Systems: In 1821 the German physicist T.J. Seebeck
reported that when two junctions of dissimilar metals are kept at two different temperatures,
an electro motive force (emf) is developed, resulting in flow of electric current. The emf
produced is found to be proportional to temperature difference. In 1834, a Frenchmen, J.
Peltier observed the reverse effect, i.e., cooling and heating of two junctions of dissimilar
materials when direct current is passed through them, the heat transfer rate being proportional
to the current. In 1857, William Thomson proved by thermodynamic analysis that Seebeck
effect and Peltier effect are related and he discovered another effect called Thomson effect.
According to this when current flows through a conductor of a thermocouple that has an

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initial temperature gradient in it, then heat transfer rate per unit length is proportional to the
product of current and the temperature.

(a)

(b)

Figure 14. (a) Schematic illustration of a vortex tube and fluid inside it (b) A photograph of a
vortex tube

For a long time, thermoelectric cooling remained a laboratory curiosity as the temperature
difference that could be obtained using pure metals was too small to be of any practical use.
Also, insulating materials give poor thermoelectric performance because of their small
electrical conductivity while metals are not good because of their large thermal conductivity.
However, with the discovery of semiconductor materials in 1949-50, the available
temperature drop could be increased considerably, giving rise to commercialization of
thermoelectric refrigeration systems. Figure 15 illustrates a thermoelectric refrigeration
system. These systems due to their limited performance (limited by the materials) are now
used only in certain niche applications such as electronic cooling, mobile coolers etc. Efforts
have also been made to club thermoelectric systems with photovoltaic cells with a view to
develop solar thermoelectric refrigerators.

2.3 COMPARISON OF ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL REFRIGERATION

Table 2 compares artificial and natural refrigeration methods. Artificial refrigeration methods
are continuous, reliable and do not depend on local conditions. However, these methods are
less environment friendly and expensive compared with the natural refrigeration methods.

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Figure 15. Schematic illustration of a Thermoelectric Refrigeration System

Table 2. Comparison of Artificial and Natural Refrigeration

Artificial Refrigeration Natural Refrigeration

• Continuous • Discontinuous

• Reliable • Uncertain

• Can work under almost all conditions • Dependent on local conditions

• Expensive • Inexpensive

• Less environment friendly • In general are environment friendly

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Questions:
1. Choose the correct option:

(i) Which of the following modes of heat transfer is the most dominant in
successfully producing ice by nocturnal cooling?

(a) Conduction (b) Convection (c) Radiation

(ii) In the following figure showing an ice box, which is the best location
for keeping ice,

2. Fill in the blanks:

(a) The working principle of desert coolers is based on _____________


cooling.

(b) The basis of modern refrigeration is the ability of liquids to absorb


enormous quantities of ___________ as they boil and evaporate.

(c) The present day domestic refrigerators are mechanical refrigerators that
use a _____________ compressor and an ____________ condenser.

(d) The main components of a vapour compression refrigeration system are


an evaporator, _____________, condenser and _______________.

(e) Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems use __________ grade


energy.

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(f) In absorption refrigeration systems, the compressor of vapour


compression systems is replaced by an absorber, ________ and ______.

3. True or False:

(a) Dissolution of NaCl in water is an exothermic process.

(b) Natural methods of refrigeration are expensive.

(c) Ice making by nocturnal cooling requires a clear sky.

(d) Natural methods of refrigeration are dependent on the local conditions.

(e) Compared to the compression systems, vapour absorption refrigeration


systems are environment friendly.

(f) Air cycle refrigeration systems are most commonly used in domestic
refrigerators.

(g) The function of an expansion valve is to maintain high and low side
pressures.

4. Write short notes on:

(a) Steam jet refrigeration


(b) Thermoelectric refrigeration
(c) Ammonia- water vapour absorption refrigeration system
(d) Vortex tube systems
(e) VCRS vs VARS
(f) Natural methods of refrigeration

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