UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

1.0 Applicability and Range of Application

2.0 Description of Arrangement

3.0 Construction

3.1 The loading Unit

3.2 The control panel

4.0 Electrical Equipment

5.0 Installation

5.1 Sequence of Erection

6.0 Getting ready for service

Method of Testing

7.1 Initial adjustment

7.2 Tension test

7.3 Compression test

7.4 Bending test

7.0 Attendance and maintenance

7.1 Lubrication
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 7.2 Cleaning

7.3 Checking the accuracy of the machine

7.4 Long time closing down

UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

1.0 APPLICABILITY AND RANGE OF APPLICATION :

Universal testing machine serves for conducting tests in tension,

compression, bending metals and othermaterials.

The testing machine is operated hydraulically. Driving is performed by

the help of an electrical.

The machine is equipped with pendulum dynamometer, a recording

device for registering load deformation. Diagram.

Load Verification of the testing machine meets the requirements of IS

: 1828-1975.

2.0 Description of Arrangement :

Technical Data :

Measuring Range AMT – 10 AMT -20 AMT -40 AMT – 60 AMT -100

Capacity 100 KN 200 KN 400KN 600 KN 1000KN

Min. Graduation 0.20 KN 0.40 KN 0.80 KN 1.00 KN 2.00 KN

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Capacity 50 KN 100 KN 200 KN 300 KN 500 KN

Min. Graduation 0.10 KN 0.20 KN 0.40 KN 0.50 KN 1.00 KN

Capacity 0-25 KN 0-50 KN 0-100 KN 0-120 KN 0-250 KN

Min. Graduation 0.5 KN 0.10 KN 0.20 KN 0.20 KN 0.50 KN

Capacity 0-10 KN 0-20 KN 0-40 KN 0-60 KN 0-100 KN

Min. Graduation 0.02 KN 0.04 KN 0.08 KN 0.10 KN 0.20 KN

Margin Error 1% over 1/5 of the adjusted measuring range.

3.0 CONSTRUCTION :

The machine consists of two units viz. the loading unit A and the
control panel B.

3.1 THE LOADING UNIT :

Consists of robust base (1-pl). The main hydraulic cylinder is fitted in

the centre of the base and the piston slides in the cylinder. Special material
used for the cylinder and the piston and their careful precise machine
including individual lapping have increase the accuracy of the machine to a
great extent.

A motor is fitted to the left-hand side of the base. The chain and
sprocket drive by the motor rotates two screwed columns (8-pl) mounted in
the base with bearings. These screws pass through the two main nuts (16-P4
& P5) fitted in the lower cross head. Lock nuts (17-P4& P5) avoid the
loosening of the main nuts. The additional back-lash removing nuts (18-P5)
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are provided to remove the back-lash screws (8-P1) and the main nuts while
lowering of the lower cross-head, and avoids sudden jerk when the specimen
reaks. In the long run, it can also compensate for the wear of the screws and
the nuts. The screws (19-P4 & P5) provided on the back lash removing nut
assembly are used to adjust the back-lash.

The lower table (6-P1) is connected to the main piston through a ball
and ball seat joint. This joint ensures axial loading. This lower table (6-P1) is
rigidly connected to the upper cross head (20-P1) by two straight columns (9-
PP1 .

The lower table and upper cross head assembly moves up and down
with the main piston. The up and down movement of this assembly is guided
by eight bearings which slide over the screw columns. Four bearings are fitted
in one bearing holder (24-P4) and two such holders are fixed on the upper
cross head with the two screwed columns (8-Pl) at their respective centers.
The jaws insets for tensile test specimen along-with the rack jaws slide in the
lower and upper cross-heads. The sliding motion of the rack jaws is achieved
by rotating the helical toothed pinion by the operating hand wheel (22-P4 &
P5) provided. Jaw looking handle (2-P1 & P4) is provided to lock the jaws of
the lower cross- head after the specimen is clamped. This arrangement
ensures firm clamping of the specimen and easy take out of the broken
specimen. Spearate jaw piece are provided for different ranges of specimen
diameters. Users should confirm that the correct jaw pieces are inserted in
the rack jaws before testing the specimen. For changing the jaw pieces first
take out the rack jaws. Or taking out the rack jaws, remove the top plate (21-
P1 & P4) from the top of the upper cross head. Now rotate the pinion and
take out the rack jaws by hand from the top. For taking out the jaws from
lower cross-head, lock the handle and take out the lower plate (12-Pl) from
the bottom. The jaws will come out from bottom if you release the handle
slowly by un-locking. Take care that the jaws do not fall down on the rack

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jaws, which are screwed to it. Now insert the correct jaw pieces and fix the
clamping strips in their position. The jaw pieces must be inserted in the
direction of the arrow marked on it.

Insert the lower rack jaws from the bottom of the lower cross head.
Care should be taken that both jaws are inserted at a time and their top faces
come in the same plane when those are taken up to touch each other. Rotate
the handle, take up the jaws in the chuck and confirm the piston of the rack
jaws. Lock the operation handle in its uppermost piston.

The fix up the lower plate (12-Pl), similarly insert the upper jaws from
the top of the upper cross head and fix up the top plate (21P1).

Note : The jaws should always be released slowly.

The upper and lower jaws are non-interchangeable.

Two compression plates viz, upper (11-Pl) and lower are conducting
compression test. The lower compression plate (7-Pl) is the lower table (6-Pl)
in the location hole provided and the upper plate (11-Pl) ios to be clamped to
the bottom of the lower cross head, this plate, take the jaws in the lower
cross head to their bottom most, head of removal – keep the top plate (3-Pl)
on the top lower cross head such a position that its preiected portion fits
correctly in the chuck both in the correct position of the control hole. Now
insert the clamp stud from through the hole of the top plate. The clamp stud
will come out from the hole of the lower plate (12-Pl). Now screw the upper
compression plate (11-Pl) to the clamp stud and tighten it against the lower
plate (12-P1) by the nut (15-P1 & P5) from above.

The space between the lower table and the lower cross head is used
from compression, bend and shear tests, and the space between the lower
and upper cross heads is used for tension test. In any test, the up and down
motion of the lower table and upper cross –haad assemble performs the

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loading action. The mechanical up and downmotion of the lower cross-head
(10-Pl) is provided for rapid initial space adjustment depending on the length
or height of the tension and compression test specimen respectively.

Bending table (25-P5), Bending Rollers (28-P5) and Bending pan (29-
P2) are provided as an attachment for carrying out bend test.

An elongation scale (30-P5) is kept sliding on the scale rod (31-P50

which is fixed between the lower table and the upper cross-head. Elongation
indicating pointer (32-P5) is fixed to the lower cross-head. The scale can slide
on the rod when the loading on the specimen. Limit switch x 4 provided
below the lower table for limiting the maximum stroke of the piston.

3.2 The control panel :

The main units in the control panel are :

The oil tank (33-P3) which contains the hydraulic oil level sight class
(34-P3) for checking the oil level is fitted to the oil tank. The fitted to the oil
tank cover (35-P3) filtrs the incoming oil, to the tank. Drain cock (36-P3) is
provided to take out the oil while cleaning the tank.

The pump is a positive displacement type pump. This assures

continuous high non-pulsating oil current for the smooth application of the
load on the specimen. The pump is fitted to the tank cover (32-P3) from
bottom which makes it easily assessable. The electric motor is fitted on the
plate on the plate hinged at the bottom (38-P3). Belt tightening or loosening
can be achieved very easily as shown in the fig and the motor can be locked
at the desired position by the check nuts.

Two valves on the control panel, one at the right side and the other
at the left side are used to control the oil flow in the hydraulic systems. The

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right side valve (39-P3 & P2) is a pressure compensated flow control valve.
The overload relief valve is adjusted and is locked.

The left side valve (4- P2& P3) is a return valve. This valve allows the
oil from the cylinder to go back to the tank, there by reducing the pressure in
the cylinder and ten the working piston comes down. The rate of oil delivered
by the pump passes thought he flow control valve (39-P2 & P3) (if in open
position) to the cylinder and the piston goes up. If it comes across any
resistance (i.e. resistance of any test piece), pressure starts developing until
either the specimen break of the load reaches the maxim value for the range
adjusted. Pressure compensation of the flow control is an unique design
which keeps a need not adjust the control knob again and again if it is once
adjusted for a particular rate of straining. High Pressure oil connection is
given from the valve (39-P2 & P3) to the cylinder at its centre. This high
pressure oil supplied at the friction, thereby increasing the accuracy. It also
helps in getting the pressure compensation effect.

The confine control valve ()41-P2 & P3 is specially provided and set
by the manufacturer so as to control the rate of loading very precisely by
means of the right control valve only. So the adjustment of the needle valve is
not to be disturbed by the users.

Dynamometer is a unit which measures and indicates the load on the

specimen. The overall accuracy of the machine depends mainly on the
accuracy of this unit. It is a pendulum dynamometer consisting of a cylinder
in which the piston reciprocates. The cylinder top is connected to the main
hydraulic cylinder. So the oil pressure under the work piston is transmitted to
the small measuring piston in the dynamometer. Ths displacement of the
measuring piston causes the pendulum to deflect as for as the equilibrium
point. This deflection represents the measurement of the load on the
specimen. The deflection is registered by a pointer on a dial. The pendulum
weight is subdivided into several detachable weight discs. Thus various
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measuring ranges, from full load up to 1/10 of the full load can be obtained.
The dynamometer piston is kept rotating at a slow speed. The drive is taken
from the same motor (38-P3) driving the pump with worm wheel reduction
(14-P3) in between the piston assures dynamic friction conditions and
increases the measuring accuracy. The dynamometer is also equipped with
an integral check valve. When the specimen bracks, this valve avoids the
return oil flow from the measuring cylinder and the oil has to bypass
throught he damper control valve (45-P3) getting the damping effect. In
addition to the accurate load indication on the scale a recording instrument
automatically registers the load elongation diagram. A pen (43-P1) fixed to
pen holder (44-P1) which is fixed to the main rack, moves across the
recording drum (42-P1) as the movement of lower table. The movement of
the lower table is taken through chain and sprockets without slip and friction
as the specimen under test is elongated. Thus an automatic graph of load
against elongation is plotted. A big size load indicating dial (46-P1), fitted with
a glass cover (47-P1) is mounted at side of the control panel. The range
indicating dial, located at the back side of the load indicating dial is to be
adjusted for the particular range selected. A range adjuster knob (48-P1) is
provided for this adjustment. A zero adjusting knob (13-P1) provided at the
right hand side serves for initial zero adjustment.

4.0 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT : The switch-board is arranged at the back right

hand side part of the control panel. It is a separate room closed by a door
from inside. One 3 pole mains on-off switch, is x fuses, three contractors, two
over-load protection relays, one 230V magnetic relay (depending on other
circuit component used) and two connector strips (L1 x L2) are arranged on a
stable and hard Bakelite board. The 3 ph 440 V 50 c/s supply connections,
gear motor forward and reverse push on switch connections, the on off
switch connections of the hydraulic motor, connection of limit switch x 3, the
pilot lamp P and the pump motor M2 are led to the connector strip 1.1. The

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connections are led to connector strip 1.2. At the right hand bottom side of
the control panel an earth screw (E) is provided for the earth connection.

One more small box is provided at the back of the loading unit, which
is fixed to the base. It contains one six way male/female plug socket. The
connections of the connector strip L2 are led to the male plug L3 and
through the socket L4 those are taken to the gear motor M1 and limit switch
x 4. The forward and reverse action of the gear motor is achieved by
switching in the contractors C1 and C2 is conducted through and auxiliary
closed circuit contact of C3. That means it cannot be put into operation until
the motor (M2) driving the pump is off. The drive of the high-pressure pump
is switched on through (C3) provided that the limit switches 4 (opened in case
of completely run out working piston) and x 3 (opened reaching the full load
of the set measuring range on the dynamometer are closed. The contact or
control current is conducted through 230V magnetic relay, which motor is
achieved. The 3 pole mains on-off switch (isolator) is at the back side. The
Control board is at the centre of the front side of the control panel. The
upper (51-P2) and the lower (52-P2) push on switches at left side are for the
downwards and upwards motion of the lower cross head. The On (53-P2) and
OFF (54-P2) switches at the right side are for the hydraulic motor. The pilot
lamp (P-P2) will be ON when the main supply is given. (This lamp supplied
only on special order).

5.0 INSTALLATIONS :

Preparation of foundation : Refer the foundation drawing (24-2)

supplied. The size of the foundation, and specially the thickness of the
foundation should be varied in accordance with the local conditions of
ground. The dimensions for the distance between the testing machine and
electrical connections lines supplied are adapted to these distances. Take care
to provide holes in the foundation according to the foundation plan.

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5.1 Sequence of Erection :

The loading unit and control panel can be installed at the same time.
Before installing the control panel, it is advisable to layout the loading and
controlling units on the foundation as per the plan. Connect the hydraulic
lines nut keep the connections loose. Now lever the machine. For the loading
unit lower unit lower cross head top surface and for the control panel
dynamometer stand base are their reference surfaces for leveling. Then
tighten the pipe connections and pour concrete around the anchor bolts (not
supplied along-with the machine), After the concrete is set do the final
leveling by adjusting the leveling screws and tighten the nuts of the anchor
bolts.

6.0 GETTING READY FOR SERVICE :

For hydraulic operation, the machine was recommend for the use of
any of the following oils :

1. Veedol Atline 40 Veedol

2. Regal oil F (R & O) Caltex

3. Shell Tellus oil 69 Burmah Shell

4. Teresso 65 Esso

5. Servo System 526 Indian Oil

For filling the oil, open the front cover of the control panel and pour
specially strained oil from the oiling point (23-P3) provided on the tank cover.
Fill oil until it reaches the upper part of the oil level gauge. If foreign matters
are mixed in the oil bad influences will be exerted over the ram and other
parts.

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Note : Do not start the Hydraulic Drive unless oil has been filled up to the
mark.

Now open both the control valves (39-P1 & P3) and start the pump
motor. If done so, oil will circuits thought he control valve, measuring cylinder
and main cylinder and will come back to the tank through the return pipe.
Now desertion of the hydraulic system should be carried out by loosening the
desertion valve provided at the side of the dynamometer cylinder and thus
allow some oil to go to the tank though the plastic pipe provided till the flow
becomes steady. Then close the valve firmly.

The return flow from the circuit should be steady flow, somewhat
similar to a stick like form. However, when the flow, is in unsteady condition
in all probability it indicates that air is mixed in the intake valve chamber of
the oil pump and the valve is not functioning properly. In such a case it is
necessary to place an object between the compression plates and apply the
load to some extent. Repeat this operation several items and the function of
the pump will become normal.

7.0 METHOD OF TESTING :

7.1 Initial adjustment :

Before testing, adjust the pendulum weight according to the capacity

of the test piece (Refer-Fig1.) Adjust corresponding range on the dial with
range adjusting knob (48-P1)

The counter weight of the pendulum, is adjusted correctly. Be sure

not to move it. If the stress strain curve is to be recorded, the pen filled with
recorder ink, should be inserted in the pen holder. Wind the recording paper
around the drum. Care must be taken that the pen point does not touch the
edge of the drum when the load point completes one revolution.

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 The graph clamp strip also should touch the pen point when the
drum rotates. After these initial adjustments, proceed for the test as follows :

7.2 Tension Test :

Select the proper jaw, inserts and completes the upper and lower
chuck assemblies. Apply some graphite grease to the tapered surface of the
grip for the smooth motion. Then operate the upper cross-head grip
operation handle and grip fully the upper end of the test piece.

The left valve is kept in fully closed position and the right valve in
normal open position. Open the right side valve and close it after the lower
table is lightly lifted. Now adjust the load pointer to zero with the zero
adjusting knob. (This is necessary to remove the dead weight of the lower
table, upper cross connecting parts from the load).

Operate the lower grip operation handle and lift the lower cross head
up and grip fully the lower part of the specimen. Then look the jaws in this
position by operating the jaw looking handle (12-P1). Then turn the right
control valve slowly to open position, (i.e. anti clockwise) until you get
desired loading rate. After this you will find that the specimen is under load
and then unclamp the locking handle. Now the jaws will not slide down due
to their own wt. The go on increasing the load. When the test piece is broken,
close the right control valve, take out the broken pieces of the test piece.
Then open the left control valve to take the piston down.

The maximum load, the pointer shows is the maximum capacity of

the specimen.

7.3 Compression Test :

Fix upper and lower pressure plates on the lower cross-head and the
lower table respectively.

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 Place the specimen on the lower compression plate. The specimen
must be aligned exactly according to the marking on the compression plated
in order to give the complete cross action of the specimen a chance to
participate equally in the acceptance of load.

Then adjust the zero by lifting the lower table and perform the test in
the same way as the tension test.

7.4 Bending Test :

Keep the bending table (25-P5) on the lower table in such a way that
the central boss of the bending table fits in the central location hole of the
lower table. Tapings are provided on the lower table for this purpose. Adjust
the bending supports (27-P5) for the required distance and clamp those to
the bending table with the screws provided at the side. For adjusting the
distance, use the scale marked on bending table. Stoppers are provided
which are to the placed at the back of the bending supports. Holes are
provided on the bending table for locating the stoppers. The stoppers can be
set in five different positions adjusting the centre distance between the
supports at an interval of 100mm.

Fix the required bending pane at the lower side of the lower cross –
head. Then adjust the zero by lifting the lower table and perform the test in
the same way as the tension test.

8.0 ATTENDANCE AND MAINTENANCE :

8.1 Lubrication :

The hydraulically operated parts of the machine, like the pump,

piston, cylinder and dynamometer are self lubricated.

 The bearings of the column spindle are to be lubricated with

bearing grease when opened for servicing.
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  The chain of the chain drive should be detached every six
months, rinsed in petroleum and oiled with refined machine oil. The
threads of the main screw are to be cleaned every six days and to be
oiled with refined machine oil.

 Inclined surface of the lower and upper chucks should be

coated by thin layers of graphite grease.

 Lubrication by grease or spindle oil of any bearing assembling

he control panel is not recommended.

 Only the worm-worm wheel of dynamometer should be

lubricated with spindle oil and the rack screw may be lubricated by
watch oil.

 While servicing the ball bearings in the dynamometer

assembly should be lubricated with few drops of watch oil.

8.2 Cleaning :

The remainders of fragments of specimens occurring on breaking test

are to be removed from the testing machine without delay. The jaw insert for
flat and round specimens should be daily cleaned. The shining parts of the
machine including columns, Lower table top, bending table surface should be
cleaned and greased one in a week lacquered parts are to be wiped off with
an oily rag at the weekly cleaning.

The interior of the control-panel must also be supervised once in a

week. Stretch of the V-belts should be checked. If any oil leakage at the base
is found, connection should be tightened and leak oil should be removed.

Note : Before strutting cleaning of any arrangement the mains should be put
off.

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8.3 Checking the accuracy of the machine

Following to erection and prior to employing the arrangement to

testing. The indication of the load measuring equipment is to be checked over
& over again.

This checking is to be done by the calibrated and certified proving

rings. This checking is to be repeated within established intervals after the
machine in put in service (at least once in a year.)

8.4 Long time closing down :

For long time closing down the hydraulic piston with the lower table
should be lowered completely. The oil from the tank has to be drained out.
All the shining parts of the machine should be put off. It is also advisable to
remove the fuses from the machine.

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 : TENSILE TEST

1.0 Objective :

1) To compare the tensile strengths of the metallic materials.

2) To compare yield points of these materials.

3) To compare their ductility’s (% elongation and % reduction in

area).

4) To compare their necking phenomena.

5) To compare their moduli of elasticity (E)

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 6) To draw, analyze, and compare their stress-strain curves.

2.0 THEORY :

The tensile strength of mild steel is of prime importance to an

engineer. Mild steel is used in many of the Civil Engineering Structures like
bridges, railways, industrial buildings, water tanks, transmission towers etc.
Mild steel is subjected to direct tension due to bending in some of the
components used in the aforesaid structures. Determination of the shapes
and sizes of these components requires the knowledge of capacity of deform
consistent with specifications for safety and serviceability. These are obtained
from the stress-strain curve of the material.

Strength :

A material’s static strength is significant in two ways :

1) Resistance to permanent deformed. This kind of strength

tends to prevent bending twisting or denting of a material
permanently, in service. On the other hand the yield point stress
must be reached or exceeded during the manufacturing of metal
products, if they are made by forming or work in methods such as
rolling or drawing. Thus, yield point is a stress level, which (1) should
not be exceeded in service, and (2) must be exceeded in
manufacturing by forming.

The ultimate tensile strength of a material is the strength it escapable of

exerting against being fractured (i.e., broken) in service. When a stress, equal
to the ultimate tensile strength is, therefore, a limiting stress level, which
must not be exceeded either in manufacturing or in service.

Both yield point and ultimate tensile strength are among the most
important characteristics of a material measured by the tensile test.

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Ductility :

It is the property, which a material must possess to some degree at

least, in order to be formed into a different shape by rolling, stretching,
bending, drawing, hammering, or other non-cutting or non-melting methods.
Ductility is therefore a very useful, often necessary, property. The tensile test
provides two methods of measuring the specified degree of ductility, which a
material possesses. One of these measures ductility in terms of percentage
elongation of the specimen, and the other in terms of percentage reduction
in its area of cross-section. Percentage elongation is a measure of the
lengthwise stretching of the tensile specimen up to the time of fracture. It
expresses the increase in length of a measured portion (gauge length) of the
specimen as a percentage of its original gauge length. Percentage reduction
in cross-sectional area is a measure of the cross-section as the tensile
specimen is stretched. It expresses the decrease in cross-sectional area as a
percentage of the original cross-section.

Elasticity :

It is a property by virtue of which a material returns to its original

dimensions after the removal of stress. It is a useful characteristics in the
design of springs or any other objects shows elastic deformation must be
controlled. A material’s elasticity is commonly expressed by means of its
modulus of elasticity. This is the ratio of stress to strain within the exclusively
elastic deformation range of a material’s performance. It is determined from
the data obtained in a tensile test. The greater the modulus of elasticity of a
material, the stiffer or more rigid the material is, i.e. ,more stress is required
to deform it by affixed amount.

The stress-strain diagram :-

As part of a tensile test report, it is often necessary to draw a stress-

strain diagram shows the performance of the tested material by graphically
17
expressing the stress existing in the specimen as a function of the strain
developed by the pulling action of the testing machine from the start of
pulling to the occurrence of fracture. The shape of the stress-strain diagram
indicates the general characteristics of the tested material as well as its
specific engineering properties. To draw the complete stress-strain diagram,
suitably-sized stress and strain scales should be selected so that the entire
curve will lie within the graph paper limits.

1.0 APPARATUS :

1. Universal testing machine

2. Micrometer 0 to 25 mm

3. Vernier caliper 0 to 25 cm.

4. Extensometer and dividers.

5. Specimens

Original area of cross-section (Ac, mm :

Final area of cross-section (Af) , mm :

Original gauge length (L0), mm :

Final gauge length (Lf), mm :

Type of fracture :

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Load (kg) Extensometer Stress (kg/mm) Strain (mm/mm)
Reading (mm)

0 0 0 0

250 - - -

500 - - -

……………. - - -

1. Mark the gauge length as per specification and record it

accurately. The gauge length should be symmetrical with the length
of the bar.

2. Grip the specimen vertically and firmly in the jaw of the

Universal testing machine and adjust the machine to read zero.
Selected the required chart range by function the capacity change
wheel with the ram at the bottom of its stroke. Raise the tom a few
mm by the quick setting control and set zero. Note that the zero will
change as the ram rises due to the weight of the column of oil in the
cylinder. Note that the grips do not protrude through the grip holders
and insert the specimen not lesser than two thirds of the way into
each pair of grips.

3. Attach the extensometer firmly to the specimen and adjust it

to read zero.

4. Increase the load gradually to 250 kg, read the extensometer

and record the reading on data sheet.

5. Continue loading at increments of 250 kg each time and

record the extensometer reading at each increment of loading. This
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 loading should be continued till yield point is reached. This is
indicated by extensometer showing high values of extension. Record
the load at the yield point. This may not be at a 250 kg increment.

6. At this point remove the extensometer and continue the

loading. With the help of the vernier of the machine or by using
dividers, record the extension at different values of load at intervals
of 250 kg until fracture.

7. Note and record the maximum load attained and the

breaking load.

8. Remove the broken pieces from the machine, and note and
record the type of fracture. Fit the pieces together, measure the final
length between the gauge mark and record as Lf on data sheet.
Measure the final diameter at the nook.

9. Calculate the yield point, ultimate tensile strength, the %

elongation, % reduction in area, and modulus of elasticity. Provide
your own calculation paper and use the following relationship.

Load Extensometer load

at yield point

Stress = : Strain = ; Yield Point =

A0 L0
A0

Maximum load L f – L0

Ultimate tensile strength = % elongation = X

100

A0 L0
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 A0 –Af

% reduction in area = x 100;

A0

Change in stress between two widely

Spaced loads below yield point

Modulus of elasticity =

Corresponding change in strain

10. Draw the stress-strain diagram for mild steel, and indicate
yield point, elastic and plastic deformation, ultimate strength, and
breaking point. Use ordinary mm graph paper.

11. Repeat procedure steps 2 to 12 for grey cast iron, and brass
or copper or aluminum specimens and record the results in data
sheets.

5.0 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS :

Table : Sample – 1

Sr. No. Load (N) Stress = (Load/area of cross- Extensometer Strain =

section) (N/mm2) reading (mm) (Extension/Gauge
length )

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Specimen Identif- Length Weight gms (N) Average Area Yield Yield Max. Ultimate Percentag Percentag
No. ication Dia (mm2) Load Stress load Tensile e e
2
(mm) (N) (N/mm (N) Stress Elongation Reduction
) (N/mm+2 in area
)

Table : 3

Specimen Type of Dial size Yield stress (n/mm2) Ultimate Percentage Percentage Modulus
No. Specimen (mm) tensile Elongation Reduction of
stress in area Elasticity
kg/cm 2
(E)
(N/mm=2) N/mm+2

a) Sketch the original specimen.

b) Sketch the shape of the specimen at yield.

c) Sketch the shape of the specimen at complete failure.

d) Plot the stress-strain curve and mark the various

characteristics points on this curve.

e) Determine the yield strength and Breaking or ultimate

strength of the material from the above curve.

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 f) Determine the modulus of elasticity of the material from the
stress-strain curve.

g) Determine the percentage elongation of the material.

6.0 Results :-

a) Yield strength (n/mm2) =

b) Ultimate Strength (N/mm2) =

c) Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2) =

d) Percentage elongation =

7.0 Precautions :

1) Apply the load at a uniform rate and without any jerk.

2) Remove the extensometer when the yield point has just

reached.

3) Do not use extensometer when testing cast iron. It may be

used on the other metals, but care should be taken to remove it
before the specimen fractures.

EXPERIMENT NO. 2 : COMPRESSION TEST

1.0 OBJECTIVE :

To perform compression test and to determine the mechanical

properties.

2.0 THEORY :

There are several materials used in engineering practice that are

primarily meant to carry compressive loads. Concrete, bricks, and wood are
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normally used in compression. Therefore, the mechanical properties of these
materials are often evaluated in compression test. Generally behaviors in
tension and compression are similar but there are differences in stress-strain
diagram and mode of failure particularly in ductile material’s which need
understanding.

In a simple compression test cylindrical specimens of standard length

to diameter ratios are compressed between two platen under axial load. The
mechanical properties such as yield strength, ultimate compressive strength,
modulus of toughness and as elastic constant, modulus of elasticity, can be
determined for brittle materials in compression test. For a ductile material,
however, the ultimate compressive strength cannot be defined because a
ductile material keeps on expanding in lateral directions as compressive load
increases. This lateral expansion continues to take place whereby area
increase and ultimately the specimen might be turned into disc. This lateral
bulging of a ductile material enables it to resist almost indefinitely large
forces without fracture. The specimen platens and specimen. Sometimes the
stress for an arbitrary chosen deformation is indicated as compressive
strength of a ductile material. Often, the ability to undergo large plastic
deformation under compression is called malleability of ductile materials but
this property cannot be defined quantitatively. The modulus of elasticity and
modulus of resilience for ductile material can be evaluated in compression as
in tension but modulus of toughness cannot be defined.

At atomic level, unlike tensile stress case, no definite maximum exists

in stress vs atomic bond curve and thus there is no limit to repulsive force
that can be built up between atoms. Thus the compression will not become
the cause of failure and will always result in elastic strain. It is the shearing
stress component, which causes the slip of atomic planes and results in
bulging of the specimen, and plastic deformation. With this consideration the
stress-strain diagram within elastic limit will be the extension of that in

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tension with the deference that the elastic behavior in compression ends at
higher values of stress and strain.

Long chain polymeric material like rubber, cork or wood show

distinctly different behavior in tension and compression. In tension the coiled
molecules are first uncoiled and then strained whereby such materials show
low stiffness followed by higher stiffness in tension. On the other hand
compression may tend to cause further coiling in the initial stage followed by
elastic compression of molecules showing slight stiffening effect in
comparison with that in tension.

Materials like wood and cork contain tobular cell structures. These
cells get stretched in tension but may buckle under compression. The
buckling of tubular cells will result in immediate decrease of stiffness. As the
cells are compacted with increasing compressive load, the stiffness will
further increase.

Compression of Brittle Materials :

For most brittle materials the elastic properties elastic limit, modulus
of resilience, yield strength and modulus of elasticity are same in tension and
compression. The ultimate compressive strength of most brittle materials is
different than the ultimate tensile strength. For example, in concrete, the
ultimate compressive strength is about en times its ultimate tensile strength.

The compression test fractures due to shearing along a plane inclined

to the axis. The orientation of the plane of shear is affected by the presence
of normal compressive stresses and the final fracture does not often occur
along plane of maximum shearing stress, which is inclined at an angle of 45
with the axis. The orientation of plane of shear varies between 35 and 45
with the axis.

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 Even in brittle material some lateral bulging will tend to occur. This
lateral deformation is greatly restricted at flat specimen ends due to friction
between the platens and the specimen ends. This friction reduce for longer
specimen. If the compression specimen is too long, it may have a tendency to
buckle. To compression specimen has to be chosen very properly. For
determination of compressive strength this ratio is between two to three.
However, for determination of elastic properties the ratio of length to
diameter may be chosen between eight and ten. If this ratio is less than 1.5
the fracture plane might intersect the ends, which is undesirable .

It may be noted that the brittle material in which the atomic bonds
are not reestablished will ultimately fracture due to slip, which may occur
along one or several planes. The latter failure is fragmentation. While cracks,
pores and holes play very important role in reducing tensile strength same do
not becomes active under compressive stress. They rather close and net
compressive strength is higher than tensile strength particularly in case of
brittle materials.

Tensile and Compressive Strength of Brittle Materials

Material Tensile Strength Compressive Ratio

Strength

Gray Cast iron 165 825 5

Concrete 2.7 34 12.6

Plexiglass 72 1115 1.6

Alumina Ceramic 205 2040 9.95

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Note :

Compression test is terminated if excessive deformation occurs and

specimen does not fracture.

Hydrostatic compression in which every element is subjected to equal

compression stresses in all three directions- a state of stress obtainable when
a body is submerged in water does not cause any distortion but produces
only volume reduction. In such a test the specimen may not fall at all because
at atomic level such state of stress will tend to push atoms into each other
and no slip would occur, hence no plastic deformation.

3.0 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS FOR COMPRESSION TEST :

Most important effect that arises in compression test is the

application of load. The ability of load has to be ensured. The platen,
normally the one in contact with the moving crosshead is made self-aligning
with a spherical head on the specimen. The center of the specimen coincides
with the center of the specimen top surface through which must pass the axis
of the machine. Great care needs to be exercised for aligning the specimen
axially with machine.

Because of friction between the loading plate and top of specimen the
material immediately below the top surface is subjected to near hydrostatic
stress and avoids failure. Though the compressive stress in direction
perpendicular to load axis decreases away from loading surface it does not
vanish before distance is at least diameter of the specimen. For this reason
the specimen length of 3d is normally recommended. The top surface is also
recommended to be smooth and friction free. In some specimens close cut
circular concentric grooves are created to hold lubricant, particularly in
specimens of ductile materials. The problem of bulging is minimal in concrete
and hence l/d = n2 is often used for this material. In yet another method the
ends are made conical hollow to receive similar loading plates as shown in
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figure. The angle of cone is equal to angle of friction between the materials of
platen and specimen, and it is not readily known. It is important that
compression force must be so applied that rate of straining is constant. Most
materials required to be tested in compression are viscoelastic in nature and
do not reach equilibrium readily. Prescribed strain rates are, therefore
maintained.

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