Chapter -5

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF
YOUNG’S MODULUS By DOUBLE EXPOSURE
Holographic interferometry
5.1 INTRODUCTION

A ' body is composed of large number of

particles. If the distance between the particles of body

do not alter under the action of any force# then the body

is said to be. a rigid body. Nhen distance between the

particles of body undergo a change# a deformation is said

to be produced in a body. There is no known body which

cannot be deformed if the deforming force is sufficiently

A
large. If the body remains '
in^deformed state after
A
removal of the deforming forces, then the body isoplastic

body. If the body regains its original state after removal

of deforming forces, then that body is called elastic body.

The elasticity of body manifests itself into

two distinct wayj, one is the opposition to deformation

f-
and Anther# when the deforming force is removed# the body
1

tends to recover to its original condition. Deformation

of body can be brought about in many different ways. The

deformation of body may be due to change in length of

body# change in volume of body and change in body due to

i
shear. The deformation produced per unit original quality
1 2
is defined as strain • m the body. The strains have
three types asper the nature of deformation of the body.
If the body is deformed lengthwise then the ratio of

change in length to original length of body is called#

its longitudinal strain or tensil strain, thus,

 137
Change in length
Longitudinal strain (5.1)
Original length

Similarly,' change in volume per unit original volume is

called volume strain in the body.

„ . . Change in volume ,-
Volume strain = ----- 2------------- ....(5.2)
Original volume

The external force which produces the deforma­

tion of body, is called the deforming force. Due to

application of this deforming force, the internal elastic

force developed per unit area of cross-section of body

is called stress in the body. If wire is stretched by

applying load then there is stress acting along length

of wire (as shown in Fig.5.1) which is called as

longitudinal stress or tensil stress.

____ Internal elastic force

Longitudinal stress
Area of cross-section of wire

= M.g/ r2 (5.3)

Where, M Attached load

9 Acceleration due to gravity

r the radius of wire

Similarly, when ft gas is enclosed in air-tight '

cylinder of cross-sectional area A.ft»<^.. • the initial

pressure of gas inside the cylinder is P and jfiT the pistoji^j

is pushed down with a force F "V , ■. the volume changejj.n

the gas is dV (Fig.5.2). This force increases the pressure

 198

F
1

F
Fig. Jf.l Longitudinal stress.

* l

i
 190

Pig. 5..% Volume stress

’ t “
 200
on gas by amount dP which is,

dP = F/A ___ (5.4)

This will be equivalent to volume stress of

the gas.

Volume stress = change in pressure = dP ....(5.5)

5.1.1 DEPENDENCE OF STRESS ON STRAIN ;

The fundamental law of elasticity was proposed

3 4h
by Robert Hooke ' f_
1679. This states that# provided the
strain is small# the stress is proportional to strain!

so that in each case the ratio stress/strain is constant

which is termed as modulus of elasticity or the

coefficient of elasticity introduced by Thomas Young. When

stress is continuously increased in case of a solid# then

the strain also increases more rapidly. The stress at

which the linear relationship between stress and strain

holds good is refered to as the elastic limit^material.
If the body is a- ’..stvcfaWi ■ 1 co-iYe.' it will recover its
original length after removal of stress ...h : Xoi’Mm
tf
elastic limit. But^the limit of stress is exceeded then
the wir.e will fail to recover its original length and the

, stage is called permanent set.

The relation between stress and strain can be

shown diagramatically as shown in Fig.(5.3).

During straight part OA Hooke's law is obeyed#

 201

Fig. fT' 3 Stress-strain diagram.

i i
therefore, upto A after removal of stress, body regains

its original shape and internal strain is zero. Beyond

A the elastic limit of body is crossed and during A to'

B the extension of wire is partly elastic and partly

plastic. Here during unloaded state at end point B, it

doesnot come back to its original condition along OA.

The dotted path BC shows that there remains a residual

strain OC which aquires permanent set of the wire.

Beyond point B, nearly no increase in stress,

there is large increase in strain upto certain value D.

The point B where, the large increase in strain is called

the yield point. Beyond point D if Sie further load is

applied, the portion DF is obtained. The ratio of maximum

load appplied to the wire to the original cross-sectional

area is called ultimate strength or tensile strength.

Beyond point F without addition to the load,

there is faster rate of decrease of its cross-sectional

area and there is local constriction, called a 'neck1

devleoped at some section of im length even if the load

is not increased. As the cross-sectional area is smaller,

the load per unit area or stress is considerably greater.

«

Therefore, the load is decreased, i.e. stress is reduced,

finally the wire snaps or breaks at E which is called

breaking point.

4
The elastic limit of materi-al can also be
 203
defined as the force producing maximum reversible or

recoverable deformation in it. It is found that/ within

elastic limit/ few solids come back to their original

state quickly after removal of deforming force. Some of

them take some time to aquire original state which is

called as 'creep*. This deiay in recovering back the

original condition (when the deforming force is removed)

is called the elastic after-effect. With rapid changes

in stress/ strain lags behind while unloading. This lag

between stress and strain is called elastic hysteresis.

The curve is called the elastic hysteresis loop. The

energy dissipated as heat duuving a cycle of loading and

unloading is given by area enclosed by loop. This curve

is as shown in Fig.(5.4).

5.1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING m ELASTICITY ;

Careful microscopic examination of materials

shows that the elastic properties of matter are related

with fine mass of its structure. Generally/ the metals

are fine alignment of large number of fine crystals

arranged in e random and their cleavage planes being .

distributed in all possible directions. This is affected

by following consequences.

a) Effect of hammering/ rolling and annealing

The operation like rolling and hammering helps

to break up the crystal grains into smaller units. This

results to increase in elastic properties. During the

,204

I
 r
£
operation of annealing the uniform pattern of orientation
f
of crystal is developed and it causes the formation of
larger crystal grains. This affects the decrease in their

elastic properties i.e. increase in softness or plasticity

of material.

b) Effect of impurities

If the impurity is added to metal# it helps

to bind their crystal grains better# without affecting

-their orientations. Such impurities affect the elastic

properties of metal to which they, are added. The metal

becomes more elastic or plastic for example the impurity

of carbon in iron without disturbing the orientation of

crystal hardens the iron.

c) Effect of change of temperature

I'
, i

I-f the temperature of metal; is increased then

the elasticity decreases and vice versa; for example lead

become quite plastic wh£n't .heated.

5-1.3 TYPES OF ELASTICITY

There are three types of elasticity,

i) linear elasticity or elasticity of length called

Young's modulus# corresponding to lineat strain;

ii) elasticity of volume or bulk modulus corresponding

to volume strain;
iii) elasticity of shape# shear modulus or modulus of
902
60
5Q

4C

S t r e s s 3 (j

20

10

100 200 300 400 500 600 ?00

,c>
T em p eratu re C

F i g . 5 .5 : E ffe c t of T em p eratu re on E la s tic c o n s ta n ts

 rigidity corresponding to shear strain. 207

3-4
Young's modulus ;J_ When the deforming force

is applied to the body in any perticular direction then

the change per unit length of that body is produced. This

is called as longitudinal or elongation strain. The force

applied per unit area is called longitudinal or linear

stress. Hence# Young's modulus is defined as within the

/

elastic limit : <3s the ratio of longitudinal stress to

linear strain.

If the cross-sectional area of body is a and F

is force applied normally to it. Then the change in length

% will produce in original length L. The strain is given

by 1/L and stress is given by F/a.

Young's modulus Y or E = ■ \. ....(5.6)

If L=1 / a=l and i=l, then Y=F. This indicates

when the applied stress is 1 so that the unit length of

body is doubled when the cross-sectional area is unity

then the applied stress is equal to the value of Young's

modulus of material of that body. If we imagine cube of

unit edge acted upon by unit tension along one edge# the

extension produced is/ stress=l and linear strain = then/

Y Ia ..(5.7)
 208
5.2 CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF DETERMINATION OF Y ;

According to definition there are various

methods of determination of Y of different materials.

Certain methods are described below :

i

5.2.i SEARLE'S METHOD ;

It consists of two wires A and B made from same

material/ length and area of cross-section. These are

loaded with a rigid support and the metal frames C and

D are hanged to it as shown in Fig.(5.£). One of them

carries constant weight W to keep wire stretched and other-

hanger H/ the slotted weights are attached. The spirit

level L is kept at point P in the frame C and on the tip

of spherometer S in frame D. The spirit level is niade by

working screws up and down. The slotted weights are

slipped into hanger Hr so that the frame D moves down a

little due to extension of wire B, and air bubble shifts

t

towards P. The spirit level is made again by restoring

back air bubble with the help of spherometer screw. The

distance covered by the screw tip to restore the air

bubble in central position is measured on the vertical

scale which is graduated in half-millimeters. This

distance is nothing but the increase in, length of wire

B. The same procedure is repeated for various observations

with equal steps. From the various readings# mean increase

in length of wire B# then#

 (5 fiV ^
elongation strain = l /L

If weight attached is in kgm and force measured

is in dyne# if the area a sq.cm, be area of cross-section
2
( tt r ) of wire^we have Young's modulus of material of wire/

F_ ^ _l_ = F.Jj (5.9)

a • L a

In this method as the wires A and B are of same

material. The effect of variation of temperature on both

the wires is same and thus there is no effect on

experimental data. In this method wire A works as

reference wire. The plot of load suspension and extension
produced is as shown in Fig. (5.4*) where the Hooke's law
is obyed.

Elimination of errors in the measurement of

Y is done by considering following conditions.

1) Errors due to Kinks in wire : If there are Kinks in

the wire (See Fig.5.9). They would straighten out when

the wire is loaded. This causes the change in length

of wire while loaded. The change in length of wire
will too large as compared to the actual elongation.

Therefore/ to avoid the errors during the observation/

the kinks in wire should be removed. This will be

removed by applying some load which will be considered

as zero load on wire

 210

Fig.5.6 :V'by Searle's Method

Fig. £*jL Kinks in the wire when the
7 load is too small
 212
2) Errors due to bending of support above : If the load

on the wire is increased# then the support to the wire

may be bent to a certain extent. The vernier attached

to lower end of wire would therefore# travel downward

due to extension as well as due to bending of the

support. Then the observed extension will be larger

than true. Searle's apparatus may affect due to such.

difficulty which is as shown in Fig.5.$ (a) and (b).
)
3) Error due to change in temperature during experiment :

The small change in temperature during experiment

causes change in length of the wire. This produces

the error in actual extension of wire and measured

extension of wire. In the experiments like Searle's

method the errors are eliminated by using auxiliary

wire A# which is of the same length and material as

the experimental wire. Any change in temperature

produces the equal change in length of both the wires

in upward and downward direction.

4) Error due to crossing of the elastic limit or due to

slipping of the wire from the chucks : These errors

can be detected by micrometer screw S while loading

and unloading. If the two sets (loading and unloading)

are in quite mutual agreement# then the errors are

mostly removed and calculation of Y is quite

resemblence with true value.

 213

Fig.5.8 : Beit'ding of the support

 214
5.2.2 EWING'S EXTENSOMETER METHOD

This method is generally used for determination

of Y of material in the form of thick bar. This is the

method in which small extension of bar under test is

magnified. It consists of two clamps and parallel

to each other. These are fixed on test bar B by screws

S^ and S2. The distance between and S., is accurately

measured. This measures the initial length L of the bar.

The micrometer screw M.S. is attached to clamp near

one end. It has conical hollow end. The ball point B.P.

is at the top of clamp V (See Fig.5.3). Ball point is used

above which the clamp can turn.

At other end of there is tapering end P. This

end is exactly at distance d from the axis of test bar.

The ball-point is pivoted with a vertical rod R which

passes through a slot in clamp C2» The inside portion of
C2 the glass plate having horizontal notch in it is

attached to the rod. This notch is the line or mark m.

The light is incident on this by small reflecting mirror.

Thus the movement of m can be measured with the help of

microscope M arranged inside co-axially with clamp C2.

The microscope is focussed on mark m on rod

R. The mark m is coinsided with convinient division on

micrometer scale of the eyepiece. With the help of

verticle testing machine the test bar is stretched and

 r
tr 15

Fig.5.9 : Ewing's Extensometen

 216
extends downwards. The clamp turns about its fulcrum

B.P. resulting downward movement of R. This movement

causes the displacement of mark m. Thus the displacement

is measured with the help of eye-piece which gives the

extension 1 of the bar. The actual reading is 2% because

axis of rod R lies twice as far away from the fulcrum as

axis of the bar. Hence actual displacement £ is calculated.

Measuring distance between and as L, area of cross-

section and load applied, the value of Young's modulus can

be determined.

5.2.3 DYNAMICAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING Y

Fig.(5.l56) represents the cantilever • at the end

A and loaded at B with weight W. Due to this the end B

is deflected or depressed into position AB*

1. Here the
t

bending of beam due to Its weight ,is assumed to be

neglegible.

If the point P of beam at distance x from fixed

end .Aj. then the bending moment is given by,

W X PB* ■ W(L - x) ____(5.10)

Since in equilibrium state of beam this bending

moment is equal to,

Y I /R = Yak2/R ____(5.11)
9
W(L - x) - Yak2/R (5.12) ...
. Hence,
 0

/namicai method for determination of V

Fig.5.10
-,en the bar is fixed at one end-and other
rid is free
 If we proceed towards point A the moment of

load increases. Similarly the radius of curvature

decreases towards end A.

The two points P and Q on cantilever are shown.

Point Q is at small distance dx from P. The point P is

nearly as it is but point Q displaces downward while

1oading.

Thus / PQ = R.de

or dx = R.d6

de
Thus / R ...*(5.13)
“ dx

Substituting this value of R in Eg. (5.12) we will get/

Y.ak2d6
W(L-x)
dx

W(L - x)
----- 5--- (5.14)
Yak

If we draw the tangent to the neutral axis at P

and Q/ meeting a vertical line through BB' at C and D.

From this we can calculate depression of beam along Y

direction as#

W(L - x)2 dx
dy = (5.15)
Y.ak2

The resultant depression y = BB'/ can be determined by

integrating Eg.(5.15) within limit x=0 to x=L/

 219
j-L W(L - x) 2
y ~ ° • dx
YJak2

3
WLJ
= ___ (5.16)
3YI
9

WL3
or Y = ___ (5.17)
3yl*

3,yl
w = ___ (5.18)
L3

Here, W is the value of load required to

maintain te cantilever in equilibrium so that its free

end is displaced through y •

(3
If a = —\ is acceleration of mass M suspended
dt
from the free end of the cantilever# then the force of

internal reaction on it is equal to M.a. This is exactly

opposite to the load at equilibrium# we have#

3YyI
M.a “75 £“

3YyI
Hence, a -------
ML3

= - v.y (5.19)

3
Where# 3YI /ML = n is a constant for given cantilever.
9
From Eq.(5.19) we have#

a a y

This shows acceleration of ma£s is directly'--

 220
proportional to the displacement. This is the case of

S.H.M. having time-period equal to#

Measuring this time-period and knowing other terms, the

dynamical determination of Y of material of rod can be

done.

5.2.4 MEASUREMENT OF DEPRESSION SUPPORTED AT THE ENDS

a) When the beam is loaded at the centre : If the beam

is supported on two knife-edges at two ends A and

B and loaded in the middle at point C as shown in

Fig.(5.10).

If the load is W, then the reaction at both

knife-edge will be W/2 in upward direction. At this

position the beam may be equivalent to two inverted
cantilevers, fixed at C and bending produced is due to
load W/2 acting in upward direction at A and B.

If L is length of beam AB then each cantilever

will have length L/2. Then depression of C below A and

B is given by,

W/2 (fi/2)3
Y 3 YaK2
 221
WL'
hence, y
48 Yak

3
WL'
(5.21)
48 Y.I

If the beam Is of circular cross-section we

2 4 »
have ak- = it r /4 where, r is radius of its cross-section,

so that,
WL3
Y 12 YTrr4

If the beam is of rectangular cross-section of

2 3
bredth b and depth d then ak = bd /12. Therefore, for

such beam,
3
WL
y = ------ ---- ....(5.23).
4 bd Y
y

b) When the beam is loaded uniformally : The case is

similar as discussed in above article. The system

is as shown in Fig.(5.11). It behaves as the system

of two cantilevers fixed at point C. If w be the loacj

per unit length then wL = W. The reaction at each

knife-edge %wL acting upwards. If the small section

PQ of the beam at distance x from c.g. point C is

taken into account. Taking £ = ^L. Then the weight

of portion at distance (&-x) is w(£-x) acting

downwards at distance (Jl-x)/2 from section PQ. Thus

bending moment about the section,

 222

Fig.5.11 : Y by bending when bar is

centrally loaded

Ji------------------------- ----------------------- 4

Fig. 5.12L When the beam is loaded at the centre.

 223
■jWL (i, - x) - -JW (A- x)2 .. (5-24)

To attain equillibrium state# the above term

in Eq. (5.-24) roust be equal to moment of the resistance

to the bending which is YI /R# where R is the radius of

g
curvature of neutral axis at PQ#

Hence# ■=■ wL (%- x) - ^ w (l - x)2 = YI /R

z z g

da)
= YI
g dx

wL(A-x)dx - w(A-x)2 dx
From this, d©
YI

But dy = ( JL - x) d6

wL (&-x)2 dx - j w (£-x)^ dx

YI

But# H L, Hence, after integration,

3
wL . 5L~
Y =
YI-
384

But# wL = W

5WL'
Hence# y = ..(5.25)
3 84YI

5.2.5 SEARLE'S METHOD OF DETERMINATION OF Y

The experimental arrangement is as shown in

Fig.5. (afcsBfiL-jf'fr). It consists of two metal bars AB

and CD of circular or rectangular cross-section. These

g.5.l3>(#0 : Determination of Y by Searle’
metnod
 225

are displaced
e
 226
bars are suspended at middle point to the rigid support

with the help of thread so that the bars must be suspended

parallel to each other as shown in Fig.5.1§ {.a-}*

The wire of metal whose Y to be determined is

attached between two centres of the bar. The precaution

is taken that this wire should be straight. If we pull

slightly the ends A and C together, so that the ends are

symmetrically displaced, the wire is bent into a circular

are as shown in Fig.5.l4- fb?If these bars are released

then they begin to vibrate in a horizontal plane from a

similar circular arc from one side to other. This is dbe

to torque exerted on them by the wire'; The midpoints are

remaining almost at the rest.

If 0 is angle of deflection of each bar and R

is radius of arc. If & is length of wire and angle

subtended by the wire at the centre of curvature is 20.

Hence & = R.2 0

R
20

The bending moment of wire is couple exerted by it on two

bars which is,

YI Y TT r4
____ 2_ = _______ •
R 4R
Y w r40
= ---------------- ....(5.26)
21
 4
as I = nr /4 for wire and R = 1/28
9

This couple produces an angular acceleration dw/dt in each

bar, therefore#

dw Yw r48
I . -------- ----------------------
dt 21
Where, I is M.I. of each bar about the axis

passing through its mid-point and perpendicular to its

length. Hence,

dw - Ynr4
— = ------------- . 6
dt &. I
dw
i. e. — a 0
dt

Hence, the motion is S.H.M. where time period of each bar

will be,

*
2n
If 2&I
YTfr
4

sni
where, Y = -—----- • .(5.27)
r t^ *

Hence, knowing all necessary values, the value of Young's

modulus of material of wire can be determined.

4-5
5.2.6 DETERMINATION OF Y BY OPTICAL LEVER METHOD'

The small increase in length can be measured

by optical lever arrangement as shown in Fig.(5.1^i). The

t

experimental wire carries a small brass frame on which

V
Fig.^T. 1<J : Determination of Y by optical lever method
 229
rests the movable end of the’optical lever. The two fixed

ends rests on rigid support. The scale and telescope are

kept at distance D (about 1 to 2 meter) from the mirror.

If p be theperpendicular distance between the movable

point and mirror of the optical lever (i.e. arms of lever)

and <P be the rotation of mirror due to the inrease in

length 1,

6 = —
P

20 = —
P
px
a = --
2D

M L.2D
Y = —2^__ (5.28)
it a px

The method suffers from defect that the errors

due to yielding of support and variation of temperature

donot get eliminated in this experiment as is the case

in Searle's apparatus.

5.2.7 DETERMINATION OF Y BY GRAVESANDE1S -METHOD

The experimental wire of length 2I0 (about 100 cm)

is stretched between two fixed supports A and B and let

T be initial tension. When a load M is suspended from
o g
the middle point it is depressed by a distance x. Let T

be the tension in wire in the depressed position.

Draw OD OC and complete parallelo gram ABCD.

 230
Then ACD represents the triangle of forces (See Fig.5.16)

T M
_2
AC CD

T M
_2
£ 2x

M £
T 9
2x

£ ='
K2-2 X2 It

(1 + yr-r
X2

£ - £ == ....(5.29)
o 2JI
o

To determine the Y we should know the change

in streching forces F-Fq where Fq is initial tension in

the wire which is unknown. Here F is to be eliminated

o
by finding the depression x^ and corresponding to two
known weights M^g abd r^g/

M1g£1
T1 =
2x^

M2gi2
t2 =
2x2
x
M

£1- £
1
I

1 o
to
O

X2
V*o -
2£
o
 231

Fig.5.1^ : Determination of Y by Gravesande's method

 232
But according to definition of Y

Stress
Y =
Strain

T1 ' T2 l - l
1 2

2
Here ira is area of cross-section of wire used.

i jMjg*! M2^2
it a2 2x. 2x_
Y =
1 TC-i 2 X,2

Si 2H 2%
o o

3 t^1 ^2 i
1—------ -)

w
if a 2,(x12 - x2)
T7

<6
3
l-1 - -?)
... (5 .30)
2, 2 2 '
ira - x2)

If
2 = &nO

Neglecting higher powers of x^ and x2» we can

determine the value of Y from above equation.
Graphical method to eliminate ;

T - T Si - Si
Y =
ira

1 M Si
---- 2 (—2— "2 T„)
ira2 x °
 o Q rj
eCOO
M YnaI2 _ 2T
-2 * —*- x *—- ___ (5.31)
x IT X,
o
£
Here ---- = 1 approximately*
&
o

The graph of ^ against x2 is straight line from

which intercept Tq is . calculated and hence Y can be

determined.

5.2.8 DETERMINATION OF Y BY FLAT SPIRAL SPRANG

I
Flat spiral spring is as shown in Fig.(5.17).,

A common spiral spring consists of a uniform wire of

radius 'a* shaped permenantly to have when unstrained the

form of regular helix of radius R. A spring whose pitch

is small as compared to its radius is called as flat

spiral spring.

Here the horizontal couple C is applied to free

end of the vertical helical spring. It produces bending

of wire of as a result of which the radius of spring
changes from R to R-dR and free end coils up by angle 0.

C d
dR

-YI C )

Now/ 27TN — = 6

dR = e
or, R 2TTN
 234

by f la t , s p r la l s p r in g
 r
A 35
c YI
e
2t|RN

Where, 4 = 2wRN

Y u a4 0
(5*32)
C = 4 X

From this expression Y can be calculated.

5.2.9 KONIG'S METHOD OF DETERMINATION OF Y BY BENDING

In this method the incination of ends of the

beam are determined by mounting symmetrically two plane
mirrors M^ and M2 on beam at either end and noting the

readings of scale in the telescope after the rays have

been reflected successively at and In this method

the measurement of the depression of central point is not

necessary.

Let M be bending moment at a section P at

distance x from the knife edge A (See Fig.5.18) then for

equilibrium of P.

—!g— x + M + W ( -4j- - x ) =0
1

__ „ A a. «
or, M = -W -j- + —g- x

d2y SL W
or, YI -----5 - -W----- : + ----- x
9 dx 2 2

f ’*
Integrating
YI P = WJtx . Wx
g dx — + — + c2

biit, = o at x = £/2 i.e. at point C

c
c 1, -
“ +
+ T - - (-)
4 '■2-J

3W&Z
16

or,
or# YI &
ng dx = - 2 + ^L.
4 + 3W^
16

But, ^ at x = £, is the slope of the beam at the knife

edge B.

(P)
'•dx'x_ £ = tan (tt— 0)

1 , WJ^ . WJl2 3W&2

YI l“ 2 ~4~ * 16~J

W£“
16YI

or, - tan 0 =
WV
16YI

tan 0 = +
Wl'
16^^-
k12

3WA
4bd3Y

8 (for small depression) ...(5.33)

This angle is calculated as below,

Let and M2 are original positions of mirrors.

Let the image of the division S is conincidence with cross-

 <6 7
wire of telescope. If the load W is suspended centrally#

each mirror becomes inclined at an angle -0 and occupy the

new orientation h’ and k’ and now in this position the

division S' is coincided with cross-wire of telescope.

Let deflection SS' be x (See Fig.5.19).

Imagine the direction of ray TABS as original

path and TACS' being the path when the mirrors get

inclined an angle 0 to original direction.

Let moves through 0 so that the ray AB moves

through 20 to strike at C. If dm be the distance

between two mirrors# then#

BC = dm X 20

But mirror also swings through ® therefore#

the ray S^C swings through an angle 4’0.

Draw DC parallel to SB# then#

, i
angle DCS =40
s’d = ds X 40

Where# ds is distance of scale from mirror M2

SD = BC = dm X 2 0.
But, SS1 = DS + S^

or# x = dm X 20 + ds X 40

= 20 (2ds + dm)

______ x_____
6 2 (2ds + dm)
 233

Fig. £ • IS Konig’s double mirror method of Y by bending

Fig. Expression for deflection path of light in

Konig's experiment.
 3W£2
239
4bd3Y

3WJl2 (2ds + dm)

or/ Y = ^ n • • •«(5#34)
2bd x

It is easier to determine Y by repeated observa­

tions and mean value of

A

5.2.10 DETERMINATION OF Y BY CORNU'S INTERFERENCE METHOD

Cornu in 1869 invented the method of determina­

tion of Y of glass by interference method. The

experimental arrangement is as shown in Fig^5.20}!> A thin

glass plate was mounted on two knief edges A and B. Equal

weights were applied to both ends of glass plate. This

produces uniform bending moment. The plane cover glass

plate P is rested on the beam. This is illuminated

normally by sodium lamp with 45° arrangement of another

glass plate. The wedge shaped air film formed between

cover plate and beam produces interference pattern.

Interference pattern consists of two conjugate systems

of hyperbola as shown in Fig.(5.21). By measuring the

fringes along and across the beam, the longitudinal and

transverse radii of curvature of beam R^ and R2 are

determined. Let e be the distance between point of support

and load Mg. The bending moment at all transverse section

of central span is Mge. The distance between corresponding

fringes can be read by travelling microscope with modified

arrangement of mirror M in 45° attafcflfBttM JXP»Ei^g4^5c^).
 240

Fig.5.20 : Mod.'&J of vtad^j

ih Ccrrnu's meJhocJ .
 The measurements along OX and OY are represented

by A and B respectively as shown . in Fig.(5.23) and

Fig.(5.24). The diameters of horizontal and vertical

fringes are then measured for at least five different

loads.

YI
The bending moment -—2 = Mge wher^, R, is radius
R-, *
i- 3
of curvature of beam along the length 1^ = e is the
distance between nearest knife edge and end. Y is Young's

modulus of the material of the beam. If the bending moment

2
is uniform and hence = & /2h determined from geometry of
figure.

Let P and P*9 represent the positions of ncth pair

of fringes along x'ox and Rj the radius of curvature of

neutral surface then,

2R1 X 0JC = ()2

1 1
Where, Xn = P P and 0 C is small as compared to ^R^. Let
| t II
Q and Q are the (n + p) pair of fringes,

2R1 X o'd -

? 2
2R1(0JD-0,C) = -| (Xn+p - Xn)

But 0*D - (^C = p where, X is the wavelength of sodium

light used. i

2 2
R 1 (Xn+p Xn)
1 4*P * *
 2 42

Fig. Corfu's interference method.

Similarly if the radius of curvature of the transverse

surface be R2 and Y and Y refer to fringes along Y^OY.

n+q n

■
P 1 ( Y 2 - Y2 )
R2 4Xq n+q n

YI
__ 2 = Mg© ____ (5.36)
Rl

YI I
R
Kl
= __ g ( x2'
n+p
- X2 )
n
Mge 4Ap

Mge
or, Y < Xn+p - x2
n )
4XPI

A curve between rp2—~«2— and M is straight line as shown

xn+p“xn
in Fig.(5.24). Similarly# B curve is obtained by plotting

the curve between —5— 5- and M. Thus the value of Y

*n+q- *n
can be calculated.

5.3 HOLOGRAPHIC INTERFEROMETRY TECHNIQUE USED FOR

DETERMINATION OF Y

Double exposure holographic interferometry

technique is used to record the holograms of same object
at different times^. This method has some advantages over

other techniques perticularly for studying transient

phenomenon. The analysis is# of course# not significantly

different from analysis given for single exposure technique

and the resulting interference pattern is determined by

the phase difference between the object wave in its first

position and object wave in its second position
11 244
We

have discussed the double — exposure holographic

interferometry technique in chapter 4. This technique

can be used in the study of stress-strain relation# and

12
fluid mechanics # fracture mechanics for non-destructive
i
13
t esting Hologram interferometry can also be used to
14
show changes of shape in a speciman

The qualitative determination o-f mechanical

. 15
strain on surface of arbitrary shaped object through

holographic interferometry requires the solution of

following three basic problems.

i. relation between surface strain and surface

displacement;

ii. relation between derivation of the surface

displacement and the interference fringes in the

image plane;

iii. interpolation of interference fringe pattern and

quantitative determination of interference phase.

The development of
practical technique for
16
obtaining quantitative information from double—exposure

hologram is still one of the most interesting problems’

in holographic interferometry. The application of

holographic interferometry techniques to non-destructive

testing has received a great deal of attention in recent

years. Because of its extreme sensitivity# holographic •

interferometry allows for the detection of small defects
■I gift
and anomalies in diffuse three dimensiohal objects

Many holographic and stressing techniques must be-

especially adopted for each item to be tested# and in

some cases for nature of flaws that are sought. Various

techniques have been described which permit double

exposure holographic interferometry in industrial
19
environment . Double-exposure holographic interferometry

can be used to study

transient phenomena such as
20-21
deformations due to impact loading

22
As with classical interferometry * the informa­

tion desired must be extracted from the patterns of

fringes that form when the two waves interfere. The

fringes can be either live fringes* which means that the

wave from -the object interferes with the stored wave in

real-time* or frozen fringes* which arise when two

holograms are recprded on the same plate • : one with the

object without stress and other with stress. Cither types

23
of interferometry can also be done holographically
In addition* fringes can be formed that show contours

of constant distance from some reference point or

contours with vibration pattern.

Various holographic methods are described2^”2®

V
to measure 3-D displacements of object under loading.
These include viewing of the surface of the object through

different points of hologram through various angles and

 246
counting the number of fringes that pass through the

point under consideration. But this method is not

applicable where the phase difference introduced at the

point under consideration between the two exposures is

very small or less than one fringe. The success of

27
holographic non-destructive testing of a material#

however, depends upon the stressing technique adopted.

The stressing should deform the body under test in such

a manner that the 'good* areas are distinguished from

the 'bad' areas simply by studying the interference

generated on the holographic interferogram.

5.4 MEASPREMENT OF YOUNG'S MODULUS28

Young's modulus of material can be calculated

using deflection equation of cantilever. The deflection

equation of the cantilever is given by,
3
&Z = .■■ --- (5.37)

Where, W is the load in K , L is effective span

2
in cm, y is Young's modulus in Kgf/cm , I is theM.I. in
4
cm and 6Z is the deflection at L m cm.

The M.I. can be obtained from physical dimensions

of cantilever. Its value for a rectangular beam of width
3
'a' and thickness 'b' is ab /12.

Above Equation (5.37) can be rewritten as,

S
 47
WL'
Y (5.38)
3IAZ

Here Az is measured from holographic interfero­

metry.

Let and 8q be the angles defining the

directions of illumination and observation respectively.

These are measured from the geometry of figure as shown

in Fig. (5.23L). The path difference A between two rays

scattered from the two identical points on the object

is given by,

A = A 2.n.[cos 0.i + cos 0o ]

Where, n is refractive index, usually 1 for air. If there

are N fringes produced upto the span leingth L of the

cantilever counted from the fixed end, then,

» _
U 2 "35
NA mmm

( COS 0 . + COS 0 )
1 O

Substituting the value of Az in Eg. (5.38). Then value

of Young's modulus can be calculated from,

WL^ (cos 0. + cos 0 )

Y = ----------- i----------— --- (5.39) ■
3INA

5.5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON Y FOR METALS AND ALLOYS

Young's modulus has ‘ been determined for

-aluminium copper, iron, brass and certain steel alloys

by using double-exposure holographic interferometry.

 243

i*
1
iftasa.

Fig.5..22 : Measurement of angle of Illumination and

scattering

* * r
technique. The samples for this purpose were obtained

from Mayura Steel Industries, Kolhapur. The sample

dimensions are entered in Table 5.2. The constitution of

alloy and their composition is shown in Table 5.1.

Experimental arrangement for recording double­

exposure hologram with loaded objects is as shown in
¥Tj 5*-«
E±*be Ne-r&s-l. Double—exposure holograms of these steel

alloy samples and that of copper, ? aluminium, iron and

brass plates were recorded at two different situatibr^.

I
One at its normal state and the other at deformed statue
due to application of load. Eor the application of load

string and pulley arrangement was used which is shown

in Fig.(5.23).

The holograms are recorded on 8E75HD

holographic plates using He-Ne laser of 2 mW. The two

beam off-axis method was used to record the holograms.

The holograms were processed in usual manner. The

reconstructed holograms revealed number of fringes

located on the surface of metal plates., The exposure time

of 10 sec. were given for both the exposures. The object

dimensions have been accurately measured and presented

in Table(5.2). Similarly the number of fringes have been

accurately counted. Making the use of Eq.(5.39) Young's

modulus of material of the object has been determined.

The values of Y calculated by this method have been

 250

rig.5.23 : Special arrangement to apply the load

 r
(L 5 JL1

Table 5.1

The constitution of steel alloy and their compositions

Quality of K1 K2 K3
Steel alloy

C 0.184 0.40 1.17

Mn 0.93 0.90 13.15

Si 0.41 0.42 0 • 42

S 0.037 0.039 0.004

P 0.030 0.038 0.066

Cr 0.99 0.763 0.23

Ni — 3.258 0.038

Mo 30.00 0.231 ——

1 I' *
 Table 5^.2

Observed results for the determination of Y for different metal pl<ates and steel alloys

Load applied Number of Angle of Young's modulus

Type of Length of Breadth of Depth of 2
object Object L Object a Object b to the Object Fringes Y in kgf/cm
r*
1afa P in ka located

1
in cm

s4
in cm in cm

%
1
Q

0
c
Illumination Scattering

?
W>
4-> ID

St >
*4 r*H
i§
*
9^ in deg 9 in deg
s 3
k£>-

0.70X106
o

0
<N
O
i—1

o
x:
VO•

'Vf
VO

VO
o
ro

O
8
9
0.110 10

f—1
<
3.00 3.00
0

0
cl•

H
g
<N■

3
ro

10
8
0.650 , 11.

8
r4
«
0.110

u
3.00

o
voq)

2.130X106

0
o iH
VO ^°o

CM
•

in
8
l.

Fe 3.00 3.00 0.120 0.140 36

O
1
1

o
2.230X10°
3

o
Alloy , 2.40 3.00 0.380 3.00 12 ro
K1
0
1I

2.311X106
0
VO

o
o

Alloy 2.40 2.90 0.353 3.00 15

Kn 2
0

2.549X106
0
CO

o
ro

rH
t
0.310 13

H
2.50 3.00

' *
s*:
rHI CO
VO

0.970X106
0
o
iH
X
H

o
8
•
s

3
o
ro

8
10

Brass 3.00 3.00 0.110 0.015 15

FO
Ol
ro
entered in Table(5.2)/ alongwith the object
. .
dimensions
253
and angle of illumination and scattering of light from

the object surface.

5.6 RESULTS and discussion

With the help of double— exposure holoraphic

interferometry technique the calculated values of Young's•
calculated plate*
modulus far alluminium, copper and iron are given in
A*

Table(5.2). It is found that the values of Y calculated-

by using double — exposure holographic interferometry

technique are in close agreement with the standard

values.

In case of brass it is also found that the

calculated value of Y by double — exposure holographic

interferometry technique is in close agreement with the

standard value.

In the case of steel alloys K^, and these

are higher than that of the value of Y for iron. •

Generally# all types of crystals have some

imperfections 25 or interstitial ties m their space

lattice. Such interstitial spaces are -satisfied by

lodging another atom of same or different kind. Such

solution is called as solid solution. It has two types

1} Interstitial solid solution# 2) Substitutional solid

solution.
 In interstitial solid solution solute atom of

very small radii occupy the space or interstics of the

lattice structure of large solvent atom. Since the space

of lattice structure are restricted in size. If the

solute atom is large in comparison with the size of the

solvent atom then the lattice structure always shows the

expansion. This is shown in (Fig.5.2^p. In case of

substitutional solid solution the atom of solute

substitutes the atom of solvent in lattice structure

without changing the structure. This is shown in
Fig.(5.2§).

The- elastic constant of any substance mostly

depends upon the force of attraction between the atoms

when it is
of metal and greater# then# its modulus of elasticity

is higher. The lattice parameter of Al(4.05), Cu(3.615)

and Fe(2.866) show that their interatomic distances are

in decreasing order. Here, Al and Cu have FCC structure

while Fe has BCC structure. From these lattice parameters

it is clear that the force of attraction between the

atoms of Al# Cu and Fe are in increasing order. Thus it

is expected that Young's modulus of these three metals

should be in increasing order. Our experimentally
calculated values of Y supports this expectation.

The solubility of different impurities in BCC

structured Fe atom affect the interatomic distance as

well as interatomic forces of attraction. This is mostly

 r
&

Fig.5.24 : Stressed region ih crystal

i
 r
56

substitutional Interstitial

Fig.5.25 : Solid Solutions

I !
I

I *
, I I
 r* ETfi
<. O i
dependent on percentage of carbon content in that alloy,
seen
As/from the Table No. (47.1), the carbon content for k^,
and
k£ and k^ alloys is in increasing order^the interatomic

distances might be decreasing thereby increasing the

force of attraction between the atoms forming the alloy.

This ultimately results in the increase of Young's

modulus. For the alloy samples the values of Y are higher

than that of Fe. For k^ sample it is 1.04 times greater

than Pa and for k2 sample it ia 1.08 times greater than

Fe while for k^ sample it is i.19 times greater than Fe.

i
 (
c.

5 . 1 Hologram of Cu Plate
foo
Lou
Hologram of brass Plate
 (-

5 .5 Hologram of steel alloy Plate

 ( , > Ct
<.bo

5 .6 Hologram of steel alloy Plate K.

 r
C "S

I
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 266
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