FOOD PRESERVATION BY FERMENTATION

Microorganisms no doubt outnumber other living entities on this planet and can be
found existing actively or passively wherever living organisms occur. While the
energy for on this planet is captured by green plants in the photosynthetic process,
microorganisms are generally responsible for the final decomposition of the
photosynthetic products. Animals play a minor role in the cycle.

In as much as bacteria, yeasts and molds are to be found throughout the

environment of man, it is to be anticipated that these microorganisms are in direct
competition with other living entities for the energy for life. Whenever the
conditions of nutrients and environment are favorable for microbial activity, it will
be found.

Man must compete with all other living entities on earth. In order to retain food
supplies for himself, he must interfere with natural processes. Through his study,
and as a fruit of his curiosity, man has evolved a number of control systems. One is
the preservation of food by controlling, yet encouraging, the growth of
microorganisms. Under such a condition, man may employ microorganisms to
create unfavorable conditions for other microbes, yet retain in the foodstuffs the
nutrients desired.

While microorganisms were not identified as the important agents in food spoilage
until a century ago, wine making, bread baking, cheese making and salting of
foods have been practiced for more than four thousand years. For all those years
mankind practiced food preservation using unknown, invisible, active, living
organisms.

While food preservation system in general inhibits the growth of microorganisms,

all such organisms are not detrimental. In fact some are commonly utilized in food
preservation. The production of substantial amounts of acid by certain organisms
creates unfavorable conditions for others.

To review terms for a moment, respiration is that process whereby carbohydrates

are converted aerobically into carbon dioxide and water with the release of large
amounts of energy. Fermentation is a process of anaerobic, or partially anaerobic,
oxidation of carbohydrates. Putrefaction is the anaerobic degradation of
proteinaceous materials.
Sodium chloride is useful in a fermentation process of foods by limiting the growth
of putrefactive organisms and by inhibiting the growth of large numbers of other
organisms. Yet some bacteria tolerate and grow in substantial amounts of salt in
solution.
Fermentation of Carbohydrates
The word fermentation has undergone evolution itself. The term was employed to
describe the bubbling or boiling condition seen in the production of wine. Prior to
the time that yeasts were discovered. However, after Pasteur's discovery, the word
became used with microbial activity, and later with enzyme activity. Currently the
term is used even to describe the evolution of carbon dioxide gas during the action
of living cells. Neither gas evolution nor the presence of living cells is essential to
fermentations where no gas is liberated, and in fermentations accomplished solely
with enzymes.

There is a clear difference between fermentation and putrefaction. Fermentation is

a decomposition action on carbohydrate materials; putrefaction relates to the
general action of microorganisms on proteinaceous materials. Fermentation
processes usually do not evolve putrid odors and carbon dioxide is usually
produced. In putrefaction the evolved materials may contain carbon dioxide, but
the characteristic odors are hydrogen sulfide and sulfur-containing protein
decomposition products. A putrid fermentation is usually a
contaminated fermentation. Putrid kraut or pickles result from microbial growths
decomposing protein, rather than the normal fermentation of carbohydrates to
produce acid.

Industrially Important Organisms in Food Preservation

There are three important characteristics microorganisms should have if they are to
be useful in fermentation and pickling.
(1) The microorganisms must be able to grow rapidly in a suitable substrate and
environment and be easily cultivated in large quantity.
(2) The organism must have the ability to maintain physiological constancy under
the above conditions, and yield the essential enzymes easily and abundantly in
order that the desired chemical changes can occur.
(3) The environmental conditions required for maximum growth and reproduction
should be comparatively simple.

The application of microorganisms to food preservation practices must be such that

a positive protection is available to control contamination. The microorganisms
used in fermentations are notable in that they produce large amounts of enzymes.
Bacteria, yeasts and molds, being single cells, contain the functional capacities for
growth reproduction, digestion. Assimilation and repairs in a cell, those higher
forms of life have distributed to tissues.
Therefore, it is to be anticipated that single cell complete living entities (such as
yeasts) have a higher enzyme productivity and fermentative capacity than found
with other living creatures.

Enzymes are the active substances which control chemical reactions in

fermentation. The microorganisms of each genus and species are actually a
warehouse of enzymes, with its own special capacity to produce and secrete
enzymes. Man has yet to learn to synthesize them.

A dry gram of an organism endowed with high activity lactose fermenting

enzymes is capable of breaking down 10,000 g of lactose per hour. This great
chemical activity is associated with the single life-process requirements of the
organisms, the ease with which they obtain energy for life, their great growth
capacity and reproduction rate, and their great capacity for maintenance of the
living entity. One generation may occur in a matter of minutes. But there is a
balance in effect. In living, the organisms consume energy. The product of their
actions is a substrate of lower energy than that native material upon which they
were planted. However, the product of the activity in the instance of wine is one
which man generally enjoys more than the native juice from which the wine was
produced.

Order of Fermentation
Microorganisms have available carbohydrates, proteins, fats. minerals and minor
nutrients in native food materials. It appears that microorganisms first attack
carbohydrates, then proteins, then fats. There is an order of attack even with
carbohydrates; first the sugars, then alcohols, then acids. Since the first
requirement for microbial activity is energy, it appears that the most available
forms, in order of preference, are the CH2, CH, CHOH, and COOH carbon
linkages. Some linkages such as CN radicals are useless to microorganisms.
Types of Fermentations of Sugar
Microorganisms are used to ferment sugar by complete oxidation, partial
oxidation, alcoholic fermentation, lactic acid fermentation, butyric fermentation
and other minor fermentative actions.

(1) Bacteria and molds are able to break down sugar (glucose) to carbon dioxide
and water. Few types of yeast can accomplish this action.

(2) The most common fermentation is one in which a partial oxidation of sugar
occurs. In this case, sugar may be converted to an acid. The acid finally may
be oxidized to yield carbon dioxide and Water, if permitted to occur. For
example, some molds are used in the production of citric acid from sugar
solutions.

(3) Yeasts are the most efficient converters of aldehydes to alcohols. Many
species of bacteria, yeasts and molds are able to yield alcohol. The yeast,
Saccharomyces ellipsoideus is of great industrial importance in alcoholic
fermentations. The industrial yeasts yield alcohol in recoverable quantities.
While other organisms are able to produce alcohol, it occurs in such
mixtures of aldehydes, acids and esters that recovery is difficult. The
reaction from sugar to alcohol is many stepped.

(4) Lactic acid fermentation is of great importance in food preservation. The

sugar in foodstuff may be converted to lactic acid and other end products
and in such amounts that the environment is controlling over other
organisms. Lactic acid fermentation is efficient, and the fermenting
organisms rapid in growth. Natural inoculations are such that in a suitable
environment the lactic acid bacteria will dominate, as in souring of milk.

(5) Butyric fermentations are less useful in food preservation than those noted
previously. The organisms are anaerobic and impart undesirable flavors and
odors to foods. The anaerobic organisms capable of infecting man causing
disease are commonly butyric fermenters. Carbon dioxide. Hydrogen. Acetic
acid and alcohols are some of the other fermentation products.
 (6) In addition to the above there is a fermentation which involves much gas
production. It is useful in food preservation. Although gas production has
disadvantages. Energy-wise it is less efficient to produce gases (carbon
dioxide and hydrogen) which have little or no preserving power in
concentrations found in comparison with lactic acid. Also, the important
food spoilage organisms are capable of growing in such environments. In
gassy fermentations sugar molecules are altered to form acids, alcohols and
carbon dioxide. It is usually necessary to include some other controlling
influence, such as adding sodium chloride to a substrate, with this form of
fermentation.

(7) There are many fermentative actions possible in foods which are detrimental
to the acceptability of treated foods. Generally the organisms capable of
attacking higher carbohydrates such as cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin, and
starch will injure the texture, flavor and quality of treated foods.

Fermentation Controls
Foods are contaminated naturally with microorganisms and will spoil if
unattended. The type of action which will develop is dependent upon the
conditions which are imposed. The most favorable to a given type of fermentation
under one condition will be altered by slight changes in a controlling factor.
Untended meat will naturally mold and putrefy. If brine or salt added, entirely
different organisms will take over.
The pH Value of Food is a Controlling Factor-Most food in native, fresh form,
which man consumes as food is acid. Vegetables range in pH value from 6.5 to 4.8.
Fruits range from 4.5 down to 3.O. Animal flesh when killed is approximately
neutral (7.2) but within two days the pH value will be approximately 6.0. Milk has
a pH value near 6.4.

In as much as the two important fermentation in such foods are oxidative and
alcoholic, the growth of organisms will be controlled by the acidity of the medium.
In fruits and fruit juices, yeasts and molds will quickly establish themselves. In
meats yeasts are less active than bacteria. In milk, an acid fermentation is
established in the matter of a few hours.

Source of Energy – In as much as the immediate need of microorganisms is a

source of energy, the soluble, readily available carbohydrates influence the
microbial population that wiLI dominate. In milk the sugar is lactose; those
organisms which quickly mount in numbers are the lactose formenting organisms.
Because suitable energy sources are generally available to microorganisms in
man's foods, energy sources are not usually a limiting factor, with certain
exceptions (such as milk).

Availability of Oxygen - The degree of anaerobiosis is a principal factor

controlling fermentations with yeasts. When large amounts of oxygen are present,
yeast cell production is promoted. If alcohol production is desired, a very limited
oxygen supply is required. Molds are aerobes, and are controlled by the absence
of oxygen. Bacterial populations which will dominate a substrate may be
manipulated by their oxygen requirements and its availability. The end product of
fermentation can be controlled in part by the oxygen tension of the substrate, other
factors being optimum.

Temperature Requirements - Each group of microorganisms has an optimum

temperature for growth; the temperature of a substrate therefore exerts a positive
control on their growth. To obtain the maximum performance during fermentation,
the optimum temperature for the organisms must be created. The temperature at
which a food is held will determine within certain limits the nature of the
organisms capable of either yielding the desired fermentation or spoilage,
whichever the case may be. The action of Sodium Chloride in Controlling
Fermentations-Salts is one of the most important food adjuncts in food
preservation. In drying it has been shown to have beneficial. In fermentations salt
can exert a role in sorting the organisms permitted to grow.