ENGLISH DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY

LINGVISTICÆINVESTIGATIONS: SUPPLEMENTA
Studies in French & General Linguistics /
Etudes en Linguistique Française et Générale

This series has been established as a companion

series to the periodical " L I N G V I S T I C Æ I N V E S T I G A T I O N E S " ,
which started publication in 1977. It is published
jointly by the Linguistic Department of the University
of Paris VIII and the Laboratoire d'Automatique
Documentaire et Linguistique du C . N . R . S . (Paris 7).

Series-Editors:

Jean-Claude Chevalier (Univ. Paris VIII)

Maurice Gross (Univ. Paris 7)
Christian Leclère ( L . A . D . L . )

*****

Volume 6

Theodore M . Lightner

Introduction to English Derivational Morphology

 INTRODUCTION TO
ENGLISH DERIVATIONAL
MORPHOLOGY
by

Theodore M . Lightner

J O H N BENJAMINS PUBLISHING C O M P A N Y
Amsterdam/Philadelphia
1983
 ©Copyright 1983-John Benjamins B . V .
ISSN 0165 7569/ISBN 90 272 3116 8

N o part of this book m a y be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint,

microfilm or any other means without written permission from the publisher.
 IN MEMORY OF ROMAN JAKOBSON,
ONE OF THE GREAT LINGUISTS OF OUR TIME
"Vous savez le latin, sans doute?"
"Oui, mais faites c o m m e si je ne le savais pas."
Molière, Le bourgeois gentilhomme.
 CONTENTS

Foreword vii
Notes 1-10 xxii
Corrigenda et Addenda xxxii
Abbreviations and Symbols 1
INTRODUCTION 5
1. Overview 5
2. A Few Examples 7
2.1 Two 8
2.2 Cooperative 9
2.3 Goose 10
3. Review and a Few More Examples 12
4. What is the Scope of Phonological Rules? 21
5. Conclusion 25
Notes 14-35 28
PREFIXES 44
1. Latin 45
2. Greek 51
3. Germanic 55
4. Alternate Forms of Prefixes 57
Notes 36-40 61
I. ABLAUT IN STRONG VERBS 63
1. Introduction 63
2. On Stratificational Linguistics 64
2.1 A Stratificational Principle 64
2.2 Stratificational Analyses of Monachi,
Latin, and English Phonology 65
2.3 Counterexamples from Slavic 70
3. Past and Past Participles 75
3.1 Vowel-Shortening before Consonant Clusters 75
3.2 The Participial Endings 81
3.2.1 -ed 81
3.2.2 -n 86
3.2.3 -t 88
3.2.4 -d 90
3.2.5 -Φ 92
3.2.6 Once Again on #ed 92
 iv

3.3
Attachment of PAST- and PRT-Endings
to Verb-Stems 103
3.4 Some Critical Remarks 106
4. Ablaut in Strong Verbs 107
5. Ablaut in Word-Formation 119
6. On Syllablcs 121
Notes 41-109 123

II. AN ENGLISH OBSTRUENT SHIFT 147

1. Examples of the Shift 147
1.1 ρ ~ ƒ. 151
1.2 t ~ θ. 153
1.3 k ~ h 155
1.4 b ~ p. 157
1.5 d ~ t. 158
1.6 g ~ . 159
1.7 Discussion 161
1.8 px > f or b. 162
1.9 tx > θ or f/b or d. 164
1.10 kx > or k or g. 166
1.11 kw > ρ (t before e) or kw or wh. 166
1.12 gW > b (d before e) or g/v or kw 168
1.13 kxw > ph (th before e) or f/v or gw/w. 168
2. Grammatical Relationship of Examples in §1 169
2.1 Historical Relationship 169
2.2 Possibility of Similarity by Chance 175
2.3 Consistency in Obstruent Alternations 176
2.4 Verner's Law 177
2.5 Realizations and Distribution of n
Overlapping 180
3. Toward Formalization 184
3.1 The Underlying Segments of English 184
3.2 Sonorants 186
3.3 The English (Germanic) Stop Shift 187
3.4 Grimm's Law 189
3.5 The Non-Germanic Obstruents 190
4. The Obstruent Shifts 191
 ν

5. Five Examples 192

5.1 Initial - Analogy 192
5.2 On "ot-Verbs" 199
5.3 Hotel: Vowel Deletion 201
5.4 Norway 202
5.5 Long ~ length, slow ~ sloth &c 203
Notes 110-218 207

III. AN ENGLISH VOWEL SHIFT 234

1. Introduction 234
2. Length Alternations 235
3. Vowel Alternations 240
3.1 ~ æ. 240
3.2 Ε ~ . 246
3.3 I ~ i. 251
3.4 ~ > . 256
3.5 U ~ u. 258
3.6 AW. 260
4. Analysis of the Shift 261
4.1 Reflexes from the Great Vowel Shift 261
4.2 Examples of U: an Ordering Paradox 267
4.3 The Rule(s) for Great Vowel Shift 277
4.4 On the Format for the Umlaut Rule 283
5. Five Closing Examples 284
5.1 Nostril[OE nospyrl 'nose-hole1] 284
5.2 Ballistics &c 287
5.3 Haplology: pacifism and formic(ide) 291
5.4 Y in anoint, join, destroy, toils, royal 295
5.5 Star, anecdote, and the Path to the Future 300
Notes 219-263 305

APPENDIX 320
1. Consonants 322
1.1 s ~ r. 322
1.2 s-~h-.325
1.3 ~ ν. 328
1.4 ρ ~ v. 329
1.5 h ~ 0. 330
1.6 f ~ v. 331
 vi

1.7 s ~ ζ. 332
1.8 θ ~ . 337
1.9 d ~ s (z). 338
1.10 t ~ s. 341
1.11 fe ~ s. 345
1.12 g ~ g. 347
1.13 H,, vi, pi ~ g/z. 348
1.14 fe ~ 5. 349
1.15 fe ~ s. 351
1.16 t ~ s (z) 351
1.17 t ~ č. 355
1.18 d ~ z/g. 356
1.19 sk ~ s. 357
1.20 s ~ s. 358
1.21 s/z ~ z. 361
2. Vowels 362
2.1 A: 364
2.2 E: 368
2.3 I: 371
2.4 0: 374
2.5 U: 376
2.6 AW: 377
2.7 : 377
3. Conclusion 378
Notes 264-281 380

BIBLIOGRAPHY 384

ENGLISH WORD INDEX 391

 FOREWORD

1· Despite its fundamental importance to general, theo­

retical linguistics, derivational morphology (DM) has at­
tracted little (if any) attention recently. DM has remain­
ed unstudied, scarcely looked at (even fleetingly). In
this book I try to rectify that deficiency in an introduc­
tory manner by noting some of the formations in English
(primarily from a phonological perspective) and by suggest­
ing the path to follow in future studies. I will also try
to show the essential priority that must--at least for the
time being--be granted DM as a constituent of linguistics.
One could say the book is pragmatic, because examples are
given to support the modest claims it makes.
Morphology [Gk morph- 'form, shape'] is viewed here
as mutually interdependent with phonology [Gk phon- 'sound,
voice']. I think one can approach phonology (P) rewarding-
ly only within a framework of morphology (by "morphology" I
mean--here and throughout--'DM', not 'paradigmatic morphol­
ogy'). At the same time, however, it seems to me nearly
impossible to work coherently on morphology (M) except with­
in a P framework. Work on one without the other keeps get­
ting side-tracked by irrelevant issues. Thus, for example,
my remark in 1976: 81 that in causative forms of nek- 'die',
"the semantic result is not *'cause to die', which may pre­
sumably be pronounced kill,..."; I assumed then (just as
now) there are no Ρ rules in English which derive what one
might call "outer" [kil] from inner /nek- + caus./, any more
than, say, [bic] from /dog- + fem./ or [wel] from /good- +
ADV/, &c (for Ρ symbols, see pages 2-3).
The following brief comments may clarify both the last

vii
 viii

paragraph and the book in general.2 SPE attempts to moti­

vate need for a "Great Vowel Shift rule", with a couple of
examples like sAne/sœnity and divine/divinity. But if it
is not shown beforehand that [sAn] in sane and [sæn] in
sanity are morphemically identical (contain the same phones
and semes), there can be no motivation for that vowel-shift
rule within MIT's framework: a more highly valued analysis
there derives sane and sanity from two distinct, unrelated,
underlying representations /sAn/ and /saænәtE/, divine and
divinity from /davIn/ and /dәvinә tE/.3 If one follows this
approach consistently, one is led to conclude there are two
distinct, unrelated, underlying representations for dog and
dogs, namely, /dog/ and /dogz/. Here, MIT's metaphysical
approach to linguistics, based primarily on speculative,
abstract reasoning, leads to inanity.

Foley's most recent work (1979), on paradigmatic mor­

phology and phonology of French, at least avoids that pit­
fall: here, sg. chien and pl. chiens are best derived from
one single (rather than two distinct) underlying, lexical
representations--something like /sye/. But Foley's ap­
proach is scarcely a departure from the MIT position: re­
stricted to superficial (paradigmatic) M, it is unrewarding
because it fails to take first into account DM--one wants,
for example, chienne(s) also derived from the same single,
underlying, lexical representation, so that anything like
/sye-/ is manifestly inappropriate for spelling the lexic­
al entry.

Phonetically, bon(ne) differ about as much from bien

as good does from well. Structurally, however the two
pairs are completely different: the French ADV and ADJ are
derivationally related (= both derived from the same lexi­
cal root), whereas well is suppletive to good. In German
and Russian, the situation is again different, with ADJ
and ADV derivationally related (as in French), but (at
least in some cases) homophonous as well.

2. The work in this book is very elementary, and, in a

sense, it is almost too incomplete for publication. The
 ix

data lists are not exhaustive (or even close), my know­

ledge of Latin, French, Greek, Germanic--of Indo-European
in general--is too superficial for a serious, scholarly
work on English, and my knowledge of linguistics is not
deep (Sapir might have said "inner") enough. On the other
hand, DM has been too long neglected, and that neglect (it
seems to me) has vitiated some of what might otherwise have
been fruitful work in general linguistics. In short, I
think the entire field of general linguistics has been suf­
fering from lack of work in the meaningful area of DM.
Work along the lines suggested here has to be done first--
prior to more sophisticated work such as syntax [Gk sun-taks-
'putting together (of words)'].
For an example, one wants to know what is the syntac­
tic relationship (if any) between strings like (1) and (2).

(1) Luke is sorry that she didn't come

(2) Luke's sorrow that she didn't come ...

Initially, one might be tempted to guess at syntactic der­

ivation of (2) from (1) by means of a nominalization trans­
formation (or some more current analogue).
Such supposition seems to be premature if one does
not already know the DM relationship (if any) between sor­
row and sorry: whether sorrow is derived from sorry, or
sorry from sorrow, or the two derived independently from
one another. In the latter case, it would be of direct re­
levance to the question about (1) and (2) to know whether
or not sorrow and sorry are related in the sense that the
two are (or are not) derived from the same root. If it
should turn out the two are lexically unrelated (i.e., not
derived from the same root), one should pause before pos­
tulating any syntactic relationship between (1) and (2).
Indeed, one finds (3) and (4), (5) and (6), and so

(3) Luke is certain that she didn't come.

(4) Luke's certainty that she didn't come.o·.
(5) Luke believes that she didn't come.
(6) Luke's belief that she didn't come....

on, pairs presumably parallel to (1) and (2). One who

claims (2) is syntactically derived from (1), knowing sor-
 χ

row and sorry are lexically unrelated, will have to explain

why he does not also claim (4) is derived from (1), or (6)
from (3), or (2) from (5), or any number of other unlikely
relationships involving putative desentential nominaliza-
tions.
Actually, the old standby for syntactic ambiguity
owes its explanation(s) not to syntax, but to DM· On one
reading, flying is the result of a deverbal nominalization
(flying planes, like playing games, eating ice cream &c),
on the other, of a deverbal adjectivization (like confus­
ing problems, barking dogs &c). Also, selectional restric­
tions must permit the noun to be both subject and object
of the verb (Flanes fly dangerously. and They fly planes
dangerously. ). And the main verb (can) cannot be inflect­
ed for number (contrast unambiguous Flying planes is dan­
gerous. vs Flying planes are dangerous.). In order not to
profane syntax, it is more realistic to assign these fac­
tors to DM: rules of word-formation and the particular
choice of words (contrast unambiguous Sleeping tigers can
be dangerous. vs Cherishing mastodons can be dangerous.).
Other examples (some available in the published lit­
erature) may likewise be used to show syntax (at least
certain aspects of it) subsidiary to DM at our present
level of understanding linguistics [a hybrid, with Gk -ist
added to L lingua 'tongue, language' < OL dingua, cog­
nate to OE tunge]. Even the basic examples above are in
need of further investigation, from more than one point of
view. We will not pursue such investigation in this book;
we hope only the elementary introduction here will encour­
age others to finish this prefatory work so that we may
proceed to deeper, more "inner" areas of linguistics·
To the above I might add, however, that it is by now
well known that the surface interpretation of words is of­
ten dependent on context, as in Jakobson's frequently cited
example, VOSEL STARSIJ VRAC, ZENSCINA LET SOROKA (1957):
masc. VRAC 'doctor' implies a man, but the context here (in
apposition to ZENSÍINA 'woman') overrides that implication
(see also Chvany 1980: 22, n. 5, and references there)· In
FOMA VYSE VAS. 'Tom is taller than you·', VYSE is compara­
tive, opposed to superlative VYSE in FOMA VYSE VSEX. 'Tom
 xi

is taller than everyone (= tallest of all).' Again, in

French Le gateau est mange par les enfants (en ce moment).
'The cake is being eaten by the children (at this moment).',
mange is a predicate adjective, but in Les enfants ont man­
ge te gateau *(en moment). 'The children have eaten the
cake *(at this moment).', mange is an active participle,
i.e. a verb (Couquaux 1979: 260ff.). Even with (roughly)
constant syntactic context, significant semantic difference
may at times be observed merely with slight change of word-
order; in French, for example, there are familiar instances
like un faux bittet 'un morceau de papier qui n'est pas un
billet' vs un bittet faux 'un billet qui n'a pas êtê emis
par la Banque de France'. As Chvany puts it (with reference
to verbs in Old Russian, but the statement may be--and may
well have been intended to be--general), "each form derives
some of its meaning from its context" (1980: 8 ) . Some of
her specific examples are "The dominant interpretation, by
virtue of opposition with the preterite, is 'simultaneous
with the moment of speech,' though the present form does
not exclude future or past meanings in context [13]....
The dramatic present forms can only be discussed along with
their contexts [15].... The perfect and passive, together
with the distanced demonstratives, remind us that this is
still a flashback, however dramatically rendered in the pre­
sent tense [20]...." Chvany's interpretation of the use of
tense and aspect in The Tate of Igor's Campaign leads to her
final--surely correct--conclusion. Because "subtle distinc­
tions which may be blurred in ordinary usage become sharp
and clear in poetic language" (7-8), she finds, in her analy­
sis, that "the aorist emerges as the carrier of the main
thread of the story. It is therefore interesting to note
that the final canto (XXX) contains no aorists. The main
story line stops short of Igor's happy return. The story
ends on a note of gloom (XXVIII, 199-202) and threat (XXIX,
205-207)···· The last verses glorify the princes and their
retinue, but the tale is at base without a happy ending."
(20-21).
 xii

3. Part of what is done in the book relies on Seman­

tics) : how else, after all, could we profitably show that
hour--our [AWr] e.g. are not related in any very signific­
ant way, whereas pug [p^g] 'boxer1 and pugilistic [pUg-]
are related in this immanent, inner way one might have ex­
pected at first for hour--our?5 S, it seems to me, is one
of the inner areas of linguistics we can--and should--al­
ready begin working at. We may then soon find it a most
inner area.

4. We assume here that entries of the lexicon [Gk λεξiκον

(βιβλΐον) 'word (booklet)' < λέγειν 'speak'] are bipartite
representations of roots: one part is P, the other S.
Rules of DM assign affixes (which may contain P, syntactic,
S, and distributional information) to roots or to stems; a
stem is the result of the application of a rule of DM. End­
ings are grammatical (usually "inflectional") elements add­
ed (by rules of paradigmatic morphology) to stems to form
words (-s in see-s, -a in gangli-a, -i in loc-i, -m in
who-m, perhaps -ly in slow-ly^ -er in slow-er &c) · A mor­
pheme is the representation of a root, affix, or ending.
Putative lexical representations (i.e. "roots") are en­
closed in curved braces: {wr- 'work'} , {dw- 'two'} &c.6
I am aware the proposal of the last paragraph is de­
ficient. For example, it must be specified somewhere in
the grammar [γράμμα(τος) 'letter, what is written'] that
long underlies an abstract in -th (i.e. length), whereas
its antonym short does not (*shortth),that length forms an
adjective in -y, but strength does not (*strengthy), that
able requires a Germanic NEG-prefix (unable), whereas its
derived nominal, ability, requires the Latin form (inabili­
ty). With vivac- (as in vivacious, mus. vivace), a theme-
vowel i is used before addition of the abstract noun-suffix
(*vivacty), but to liber- (as in liberal, liberate), the
same suffix is added directly (*liberity). Again, there
are idiosyncratic distributional restrictions on word-com­
binations that must somewhere be made explicit (presumably
in the lexicon): rely eogo forms grammatical sentences only
when construed with (up)on (*Wnat did Odile rely? *It was
love that she relied,). There are more complicated ex-
 xiii

amples, like benefit which must be construed with from (How

does the nation benefit from these endeavors?), except in
the impersonal use (It benefits the nation to fight reces­
sion. &c, parallel to L decet)» To choose a more transpar­
ent example, the immanent lexical representation of Russian
VINO 'wine' cannot be simply {vin- 'wine'}: somewhere there
has to be a specification that VIN- is inflected VINO, VINA,
VINU,..., not *VINU, *VINËS', *VINËT,·.. (i.e. not like
STAN- 'become;), or not *VINA, *VINY, *VINE,... (i.e. not
like fem. ZIMA, ZIMY, ZIME,... 'winter'); somewhere there
has to be a specification that VIN- has ending-stress in
sg. stem-stress in pl. (i.e. not like LETO, LETA, LÉTU,...,
LETA, LETÁM, LETÁX,.... 'summer', with correct endings, but
wrong stress-pattern), and so on. Presumably such specifi­
cations (for both English and Russian) are lexical (i.e.
merged somehow within the relevant roots), a possibility
that is technically not permitted by the above proposal.
But at the introductory level on which we are going to con­
sider DM here, such a deficiency should not prove too great
an impediment for achieving our relatively narrow and ele­
mentary goals. It should perhaps be emphasized, however,
that data of the type mentioned above are of some magnitude:
Gross, for example, with a corpus of only 8,000 French verbs,
feels confident enough to claim "It is safe to say that no
two verbs have the same set of syntactic properties" (MSa:
8).

5. Syntax is a highly abstract, intermediary device which

positions representations of words in sentences; it contrib­
utes nothing to lexical representations and very little to
external ("surface") representations. The role of syntax in
sentence-formation, however, is crucial. As Benveniste put
it, "La phrase se réalise en mots, mais les mots n'en sont
pas simplement les segments. Une phrase constitue un tout,
qui ne se réduit pas à la somme de ses parties; le sens in­
hérent à ce tout est réparti sur l'ensemble des constituants"
(1966: 123):. Because of this we can say: sentences have Ge­
stalt. As an example, consider the ambiguous opening of
Homer's Iliad:
 XiV

(7)

The second word is 2 sg. pres. act. imper., 'sing',

so that on one reading the translation could be

(8) Sing [to me/us], goddess, about the destruc­

tive wrath of the son of Peleus, Achilles,...

But on another reading (the one more appropriate here),

the author is not commanding the goddess (the muse of song)
to sing (about the wrath...), but is rather requesting the
goddess to endow him with the goddess' ability to sing.
Under this reading, the translation would be more like

(9) About the deadly wrath of the son of Peleus, Achilles,

let me sing, 0 goddess, as only thou art able,...

The question (which we cannot consider here) natural­

ly arises as to how the grammar assigns to imperative
in a context like that of (7) a meaning like that in (9).
Of course the general problem--how to assign meaning
to a sentence, given the meanings of the words composing
the sentence--has been discussed extensively in the litera­
ture. See, for instance, Verluyten (cf., e.g., his rule
(D), p. 368), or--to pick a more frequently discussed topic
--Kuroda 1979.
I should point out further that preliminary studies
seem to indicate that S may function in syntax. Gross, for
example, finds that "Meaning appears to play a role in the
rule that relates the two French complementizers. For ex­
ample, the bulk of the exceptions to the reduction of que S
to the infinitive is made up of verbs that trigger an
intuition of "reasoning"; this intuition bears on verbs
that appear principally in the two structures:
Que S V de ce que S = : Que Max soit parti vient de que
Bob Va insulte " (MSa: 11).

Again, Barnes attempts to argue that "in fact the no­

tion of 'dative' does have a describable semantic content
 XV

which is language-universal in nature" (246). Other ex­

amples come readily to mind·

6. If Lehmann's suggestion regarding correspondences be­

tween syntactic word-order and phonological rules (progres­
sive assimilation in languages with object-vevb order, re­
gressive assimilation in languages with verb-object order
is correct,7 I do not see how formally to capture such cor­
respondences in language-particular descriptions (cf. Intro.
1).

7. Words in foreign languages are given in the orthography

of their language unless (like Arabic e.g.) they use a non-
Latin alphabet, in which case citations are transliterated
according to some generally accepted system. Russian words
are uniquely transliterated into majuscules (see n. 46 for
some explanatory comments). Ancient Greek words, however,
are usually left in their own alphabet, which I give here
for the benefit of those not familiar with it:
α a θ th π Ρ
ß b i Ρ r
Ύ g κ , σ s
6 d λ 1 τ t
ε e μ m υ (u)
f w ν n Φ ph
ζ z ξ χ Χ ch
η e 0 Ψ ps
ω o

There is one minor point I suppose I ought to mention

about the words labeled OCS. It seems to me all my examples
occur at least once in at least one of the Old Church Slavon­
ic texts. But I may be mistaken. If it makes any differ­
ence to anyone, these words can easily be verified if one
 xvi

has access to Sadnik-Aitzetmüller's Handwörterbuch zu dem

altkirchens lavischen Texten; if a word is not found there,
it should have been labeled "Common Slavic" rather than "OCS".
Material from languages other than English, which some
readers may find irrelevant to synchronic analysis of Modern
English, is usually enclosed in square brackets: book [cf.
OE boc G Buch, and also OE bece 'beech', G Buche, fāgus,
φηγδς 'oak1] &c.
Etymologies referred to are generally agreed upon and
can be found in some of the standard etymological dictio­
naries. But I want to call attention to the fact that in
this book I am not concerned with etymology unless it has
some direct relevance to synchronic analysis of English (cf.
III.5.5).
With three exceptions, foreign words are ordinarily
prefixed with an abbreviation for the language of the word.
The three exceptions are (1) Russian words (in majuscules),
(2) Ancient Greek words (in the Greek alphabet), and (3)
Latin words. Usually, words of these three languages are
unlabeled; thus, 12-13 lines above, for example, fagus is
Latin, φηγός Greek.

8. Although the book is oriented toward P, phonetics is

not narrow: I generally tend to disregard phonetic detail,
what is sometimes called "sound" in the literature. Con­
sider e.g. the dental stops in English: it would add nothing
to (nor would it detract from) our presentation to belabor
the already well-known facts that these are (1) usually al­
veolar, (2) considerably retracted before r (tree [t rE] vs
tea [tE]), (3) advanced (actually dental) before θ (eighth
[At Θ]), and so on. But not always: there may be a reason
(beyond physiological attraction), for example, that voice­
less stops (not just the dental) are aspirated except after
s (and in some other clusters);8 such a minor detail is com­
mented on even though the role it plays in morphology may
be minuscule.
Despite the attention to Ρ derivations, this book is
not about P, but about DM. Concern with Ρ is primarily to
assure the reader certain proposed relationships are not
unrealistic. Few (if any) of the rules are stated formally:
 xvii

and the scattered derivations offered are for the most part
cursory hints at what formal derivations would look like.
Because of the almost cavalier attitude adopted toward Ρ in
this book, I had better make clear the obvious concerning
analytical disagreements:—
Some readers may feel differently about one or two
(perhaps more) of the DM proposals in this book than I do.
For example, it may be that not everyone agrees with the
sketchy analysis of snarl 'growl, speak angrily', sneer,
snore (snort) in III.4.3 sof., and so on. That is fine.
To argue coherently against any of the suggestions, how­
ever, it will not suffice merely to express one's feelings.
Argument against any of the analyses here minimally re­
quires provision of alternative, more highly valued analy­
ses; the alternative analyses will have to be worked out in
at least as great detail as the (admittedly, often hasty)
analyses of this book, which they are intended to supplant.

9. The Bibliography is not as full as it should be. For

various, uninteresting reasons, I had to restrict it, in
this introductory study, almost exclusively to easily avail­
able, elementary works in English or Frencho Suggestions
for detailed investigations of a more specific nature can,
however, be found in the references listed.
Although I made an effort to look at original sources,
this was (for the same, uninteresting reasons) not always
possible: dates in the Bibliography are therefore not nec­
essarily indicative of the time of first publication (Tru-
betzkoy's well-known treatise on phonology e.g.). Some
books listed are available in English translation, not al­
ways cited (esp. relatively standard works such as Meinhof's
diligent studies on Bantu dialects, and so on).
I hope this does not happen, but it is possible (for
the uninteresting reasons above) that some of the few ref­
erences given are slightly in error: exact page numbers may
occasionally be lacking or if given may be "off" by one or
two pages, and so on. I regret all such inconveniences and
cannot fully relate the grief this causes me.
 xviii

10. The numerous notes, some long, some short, will be a

source of irritation. At times I thought of incorporating
them in the text. But they remain. And most of them are
intended to be read at that point where they occur in the
text (i.e., not as a block at the end of each chapter, where
they are located). All I can say, amid apologies to the
reader, is I did the best I could with them. The number in
square brackets at the end of each note is the number of the
page on which reference is made to that note.

11. It should not be necessary to emphasize that this work

is highly selective and (as the reader will fast discover)
makes,no attempt to treat exhaustively all phenomena in En­
glish:
Although a major goal of the book is to give an indi­
cation--however approximate--of the extent of DM in English,
of how much immanent, internal structure must be presumed
for words (even apparently simplex words like bow, long,
rust, south &c), the question arose how to achieve this
goal. We decided one way was to show that three (morpho)-
phonological processes which tend to hide surface sound-
meaning relationships must be taken into account when con­
structing a synchronic grammar of Modern English: (1) ab­
laut [G, 'an away from/off sound1]» (2) an obstruent shift,
and (3) a vowel shift. In order to do this, it is often
necessary to discuss peripheral phenomena: before analyzing
ablaut in strong verbs, for example, one needs to know what
role participle- and past-endings play in vowel-alternations;
again, in order to understand the true operation of the
vowel-shift rule, one needs to know something about the Ρ
behavior of the obstruent g; and so on. Although peripheral
discussions are sometimes lengthy, the reader will hopefully
not lose sight of the three "sub-goals".
Because I occasionally discuss how certain rules might
be written, I ought to make clear that these are merely tem­
porary suggestions (probably wrong); I think it is still too
early to try to reach serious conclusions regarding this im­
portant question.9 In a later work, a beginning attempt at
such issues will be made.
 xix

12. In this introduction, attention is devoted to dis­

tribution, and analytical technique relies to a large ex­
tent on segmentation and classification of parts of words.
For example, if beside p1. noun dogs we. find other p1.
nouns in -s, such as ribs, legs, sofas, fads, pills, rims
&c, we will want to segment dog-s. Correctness of this seg­
mentation can be supported in several ways: existence of
sg. dog (where the sg./pl. relation seems to hold between
dog/dogs), existence of verb dog (where the noun/verb rela­
tion seems to hold between (some) dogs and to dog), exis­
tence of sg. rib, leg, sofa &c beside p1. ribs, legs, sofas
(parallel to postulated sg./pl. dog/'dogs) , and so on. Giv­
en such distribution, we can reasonably suggest that -s in
dogs (and in ribs, legs, sofas &c) represents a PL-morpheme,
that 0 in dog (and in rib & ) represents a SG-morpheme, that
dog- (and rib- &c) represent NOUN-STEMs to which SG- and
PL-endings may be added, and so on. The same technique is
used in less obvious examples. Given warm/warmth, we will
want to segment warm-th and classify -th as a noun-suffix.
We will see the same -th in true/truth. And in deep/depth,
despite change in vowel-quantity. And in long/length, de­
spite change in vowel-quality.
Persuasiveness of the technique often depends on the
number of parallel, supporting examples that can be cited.
If dog/dogs were a unique sg./pl. pair, with sg. in all
other nouns formed by prefixing b-, p1. in all other nouns
formed by infixing -ƒ-, the unique pair dog/dogs would not
be a probative example and we would not want to rely on its
existence for support elsewhere in our analysis (when con­
sidering 3 sg. -s in sees, robs, quells, for example).
Again, if the technique results in two dental noun-
suffixes -th and -t (as in plight, sight, portrait, sleight
(of hand), pursuit, liberty &c; for suffixal -y in liberty,
cf. -y in words like (phil)-anthrop-y, (mon)-arch-y, (de­
mo)-crac-y, (syn)-ohron-y, dynast-y, (en)-erg-y, galax-y,
(poly)-gam-y, (pro)-gen-y, (photo)-graph-y, (miso)-gyn-y,
idolatr-y, (philo)-log-y, (geo)-metr-y, (syn)-onom-y and
i-gnomin-y, (sym)-path-y; (eu)-phon-y, (tele)-soop-y, (phi­
lo)-soph-y, (ec)-stas-y, therap-y, (ana)-tom-y, (a)-troph-y,
(fall) -ac-y, (vac)-anc-y, (in-firm)-ar-y, (de-prec)-at-or-y,
(urg)-eno-y, (val-id)-it-y, (de-pos)-it-or-y, (gallant)-r-y,
 XX

and SQ on), and if we find a distributional constraint on

occurrence of -th and -t (such that -th is permitted only
in one env., -t only in some different env.), then we will
presume that -th and -t are phonological variants of the
same basic suffix. We could find support for this postulate
if -th and -t (in addition to the distributional constraint
on occurrence) always formed the same type of noun: if -t
formed proper-names and -th abstract nouns of action, the
analysis would be less convincing, and the putative dis­
tributional constraint would become suspect.
When particular analyses are suggested, we have there­
fore taken some trouble to find convincing, parallel, sup­
portive examples; we have also tried to list examples which
argue against our proposed analyses. We are well aware,
however, that (except possibly by chance) examples offered
to support (or refute) various analyses are not exhaustive.
In our view, failure to supply (near-)exhaustive lists of
corroborative examples is a defect in need of rectification.
Without support from numerous corroborating examples, pos­
tulates are more wild guesses than scientific hypotheses.
Even though our proposals are for the most part straight­
forward, we personally view the overall analysis with re­
servation; it requires more verification before acceptance
is possible.
As an example, consider nouns which phonetically con­
tain two or more syllables and which end in a short vowel
followed by a single consonant (doll-ar, baggage [-әg] car­
rot, lemon, stirrup &c). Most of these nouns have the final
syllable unstressed and its vowel reduced to . But some
have stress (primary or secondary) on the final syllable
{Iran, cravat, chagrin, Iraq, nomàd, robbt &c), and the fi­
nal vowels of these nouns are not reduced. The question
arises: how are the two sets of nouns (those with vs those
without final stress) distinguished? Phonologically? Mor­
phologically? Idiosyncratically?
In n. 220 is given a randomly collected list of about
200 such nouns with final stress. One could make observa­
tions from this list: most of the nouns end in a sonorant--
60 in -n (Amazon, baton, Japan &c), but few in -m(siam);
of those in an obstruent, most (more than 40) end in -t
(bayonet, boycott, Hottentot, Tibet, shallot &c), three in
 xxi

-z (Cortes, topaz, Suez), none in - , and so on. But be-

cause the list was collected randomly, it is pointless to
make such observations: the next forty examples collected
might all end in -b.
Again, we might notice that some of these words are
foreign loans. Carafe [- f] 'decanter', for example, is
from F < Sp garrafa < A gharraf 'drinking jug', from a root
ghrf- 'draw water'. And there are several words from F in
orthographic -VCCe (brunette, cassette, cigarette, gavotte,
gazelle &c). Two comments. First, the spelling does not
seem relevant: cf. omelette [amlәt], bayonet, giraffe [- f]
< F girafe &c. Second, if there were a general rule in Ε
that nouns in phonetic -VC had an unstressed final vowel,
we would expect the loans to conform, as in the case of om­
elette (also spelled omelet).10 But without lists of the
pertinent words, we cannot produce reliable hypotheses.
In fact, without an exhaustive list of all nouns in
-VC, even the statement above (that most have the final syl­
lable unstressed) is unverifiable. Without such a list,
any claim for analysis (even a claim which ultimately turns
out to be correct) is a wild guess. In current theory and
without such a list, the following futile dialog can occur:
A claims all polysyllabic nouns in -VC have an unstressed
final vowel; objects that claim is false, reading off a
list of some 200 "counterexamples"; A then retorts that the
claim is still nevertheless correct, the objection being
invalid because all the putative counterexamples are merely
exceptions to the general rule. It seems clear scientific
investigation cannot be pursued in such an atmostphere.
If the reader finds the boatstrap work done here in­
adequate, I must concede I am in accord with him. My hope
is he will find it suffices (if only minimally) for ground­
work (however shaky) on which to build more than an intro­
duction to English derivational morphology.

13. The book was written for and owes great debts to all
my colleagues in linguistics. For their help in ways too
numerous to detail I would like particularly to thank Roman
Jakobson, Winfred P. Lehmann, Maurice Gross, and Catherine
V. Chvany.
 xxii

NOTES

By stating this mutual interdependence so baldly,

I am not trying to underrate the inherent difficulty of
either Ρ or M. Hoenigswald e.g. cites an instance (at­
tributed to Eric Hamp) of what he calls "the last remnant
of extreme sound change": in Scottish Gaelic, the pi. of
'wife1 is mra-an^ where b ~ m and η ~ r~ (both created
by conditioned sound change) are restricted to this noun
(1960: 49). In 1.2.3 and again in App.2, I discuss a per­
haps similar example of Russian SEL 'was going (on foot)' ~
XODIT 'goes (on foot)'. [vii]
2
The purpose of this book is not criticism; that
is the province of reviews. Occasionally, however, it is
helpful to show why others have failed; the object is to
learn what errors can teach us about language, not to de­
precate the work of others. In fact, this should be a con­
spicuous goal of linguistics in general: to find out what
languages can teach us about language. [viii]

This is no idle speculation: with MIT's maunder­

ing philosophy of language, there are no available means
to demonstrate either difference or identity of [sAn] in
sane with [sAn] in saint, of [s n] in sanity with [saen]
in sanitize; the most that can be done there is remark
identity of sound (phonetic representation). Cf. n. 64
s.f. [viii]
4
A few lists, however, can be completed by refer­
ence to a dictionary. Near exhaustive lists of the type we
consider important can be obtained fairly easily if one has
access to high-speed, electronic, computing equipment. The
problem is not only acquiring use of such devices, but also
knowing how to use them to advantage. It should not be nec­
essary to add I think this is where much basic linguistic
research of the future will be profitably pursued: computers
are to linguistics what particle-accelerators are to physics
 xxiii nn. 4-5

(see e,g, Wilson 1980). [ix]

Another way (occasionally suggested in the liter­

ature) might be to determine and compare the total distri­
butional environments of the words in question; comparison
of the different envs. in which words can(not) occur would
then lead (hopefully) to determination of their meanings.
Let us presume so--and also that from meanings one could
determine grammatically necessary distributional require­
ments of words.
With these hypotheses, it is in theory not easy to as­
sess the relative merits of the semantic approach vs the
distributional approach. In practice, however, we can ob­
serve that outside a few frozen phrases (the nouns in tit
for tat &c), one has succeeded in determining the total dis­
tributional envs. of very few words (presumably because of
the gargantuan nature of such a task): a superficial deter­
mination--say, in the env. N P ( - N ) - - i s not satisfactory
or else one would pair (incorrectly, in our example) ADJ
our with ADJ pugilistic, or (outside tb example) homopho-
nous ADJs like odd 'strange' with odd 'not even', fast
'rapid' with fast 'flouting conventional mores (esp. with
respect to sexual matters)' with fast 'firmly attached,
secure', rare 'unusual' with rare 'undercooked' &c.
Minimally, one would have to find--without using S--
groups of env. classes shared by S related items such that
unrelated items are excluded. This is not a simple task.
Sentences like "Pug" means 'X'. (where 'X' is a linguistic­
ally adequate verbal definition of "pug"), for example,
are not helpful because of parallel, well-formed (but false)
sentences like "Pug" does not mean 'X'. If one allows for
lies, mistakes, science-fiction media &c, it is not clear
the task is a possible one.
Also, there are some words with rather precise meanings
one might not uncover merely by examining distributional
envs. For example, poach (eggs) means roughly smth. like
'cook (eggs) in boiling water without their shells on'.
Presumably it would not be too difficult to distinguish
this poach1from poach2'trespass in order to steal game
or fish', but it might be difficult to distinguish poach1
nn. 5-6 xxiv

from boil (eggs): all poached eggs are boiled, but not all
boiled eggs are poached. Curiously, however, if one orders
boiled eggs at a restaurant and receives poached eggs, one
has grounds for complaint. Apparently boil eggs means 'with
their shells on, unless previously specified as "poached"';
outside of cooking--in a chemistry laboratory e.g.--boil
eggs has a different (somewhat bizarre) meaning, parallel to
boil water. One hesitates even to mention coddle 'cook in
water just below the boiling point'; here we are not quite
sure to begin with how this coddle1 should be related to
coddle2 'pamper1.
Hoenigswald, incidentally, (with a reference to Bloom-
field, Language, 436) writes concerning ear 'organ of hear­
ing' and ear (of corn), that "whether their present distri­
bution pattern would justify distinguishing two meanings is
certainly doubtful" (56); if not, this would--under the
distributional approach--lead to the unlikely claim that
what most of us call two words is in reality a single (no
doubt monomorphemic) word. Additional incentive for aban­
doning the distributional approach can be found in the de­
tailed work of scholars like Gross (see the citation from
his MSa: 8 given in the text, two paragraphs below, s.f.).
It seems to me pursuit of the S approach is more pro­
mising than the distributional approach, but I am not
thereby suggesting S is easy (see e.g. nn. 6, 35). [xii]
6
No doubt semes (like phones) are best represented
by "features", but we do not yet understand S well enough
to make specific proposals. The representations of semes
used in this book are all of the inadequate type shown a-
bove. In some words the central meaning may be weakened or
otherwise altered: consider terrific 'magnificent, excel­
lent, splendid' alongside terror, terrify, terrible--or a-
longside terrific 'frightful, causing terror'; another ex­
ample is ingenuity 'cleverness' beside ingenuous 'unsophis­
ticated, naive'.
Just as Ρ representations may be modified in the course
of derivations, so too may S representations, primarily
through extension and restriction:--
An example of S extension is provided by the agentive
of kiss 'touch affectionately with the lips or mouth' (for
 XXV η. 6

'mouth', cf, synonymous osculate [L osculari 'kiss' < os,

oris 'mouth']). Agentive kisser means 'one who/that which
kisses'. In the latter interpretation, kisser ought to
mean 'lips' or perhaps 'mouth', but through S extension,
kisser is used today to mean 'the entire face'.
Hose, originally 'covering' (cf. related house, hut,
husk), presents an example of S restriction, now meaning
'stockings' or 'socks' (for a slightly different restric­
tion on meaning, cf. G Hos-e 'trousers').
Again, veil—generally speaking—means roughly 'cov­
er (ing) ' (cf. related velum); specifically, it means
'(wear) a thin piece of cloth over the head/face'. With
extension, '(use) anything that covers/conceals' (She
veiled her thoughts with undue caution., a veil of mys­
tery); with restriction, 'life/vows of a nun' (take the
veil).
There is a good example among prefixed L words meaning
'not to know'. We have A ignorant 'not knowing, without
knowledge' (later it will be shown this i- is from NEG in-
and that ign- here corresponds to agn- in Gk words like
agnostic), N ignorance 'lack of knowledge', pej. ignoramus
'one who does not know', and perhaps one or two others with
prefix -. The root is spelled gn-, a source of many words,
including cognition, diagnostic, incognito, recognize &c.
The usual meaning of ignore, however, is not *'not to know',
but 'disregard'. Nevertheless, it is hard to believe that
because of this S difference one ought to claim ignore gram­
matically unrelated to any of the other words in ignor- (or
to the other words with -gn- 'know'). As we will see, the
Ρ correlation between ignore and the words above (plus oth­
ers, not cited) is perfect. The S correlation is admitted­
ly not perfect, but it is close. It seems to me a more de­
scriptively adequate analysis here would derive *(i-gn-or
'not to know') and then (by application of S rules) gener­
ate the correct meaning(s), 'not to pay attention to, dis­
regard', or whatever [cf. F ignorer, L ignorare 'not to
know']. A reasonable linguistic meaning might be something
like 'want not to know about' or perhaps 'not want to know
about'.
" Scientific terminology is of course responsible for a
good deal of S restriction: gravity e.g. is used roughly to
η. 6 xxvi

mean 'force of attraction between two bodies1·, but a phys-

icist uses the word less freely, restricting its use to a
precise dependency on the mass of and the distance between
the two bodies; in its extended use {Jack and Jill gravi­
tated toward each other across the ballroom floor. &c), the
force of attraction may have little (if anything) to do with
the mass of or the distance between Jack and Jill. Again,
from N coin [L cuneus 'wedge1, cf. cuneiform] is derived
the homophonous V coin 'make coins'; but in linguistics, we
use the V to mean 'make a word or phrase'. As another ex­
ample, it is perhaps no surprise that the Gmc N chaff 'grain
husks' has been extended in meaning to 'anything trivial or
worthless'; but the scientific restriction used in aerial
warfare could not have been predicted, although the connec­
tion is easy to see: 'strips of metal foil released in the
atmosphere to inhibit radar detection'.
Numbers in English (as in many languages) pose various
interesting problems. I mention two here, both of which
seem to involve S change:
Originally, semester (from something like sex-mens-tr-is)
meant '(period) of six months', with -mens- appearing also in
words like menses [L mensis 'month'], menstruate, menopause
[μήν, μηνδς 'month'], meniscus 'crescent' [μήνη 'moon'], month
[OE o ], moon [OE mona] &c. Similarly, trimester 'of
three months'. Although these diachronic facts are well-
known to all linguists, synchronic analysis is nevertheless
not yet clear. The next example is more straightforward.
After a sequence of eight seemingly random names, the
months of the year are systematized with September, October*
November* December. The historical reason is that the Ro­
man year began with March. One might suppose no synchronic
relationship between the names of these months and words
like septempartite* octopus* novena, decemvir (ate) &c. But
the names do occur in the correct numerical order, each
showing an increase of "two" over the historical meaning.
If one does not posit underlying synchronic identity of
Septem-* octo- &c in all these words, the lexicon will con­
tain peculiar repetitions, with entries like /septem- 'nine'
before -ber/, /septem- 'seven' everywhere else/, /octo-
'ten' before -ber/ &c. Of course the synchronic analysis
 xxv ii η. 6

need not specifically mention the Roman calendar. By way

Qf contrast, we notice there is not much chance these forms
could be revealingly derived from the roots underlying
words like sept-ic, n-oct-urnal, nov-el, decen-t &c,
For another example, consider the stem vic-t- 'conquer1,
as in victor(y). Without -t-, this form undergoes a special
N-insertion (cf. η. 64), as in (in)vincible, vanquish (cf.
OF vainquir), convince 'overcome, refute, persuade'. Vict­
is used with prefixes in legal senses whose specialization
of meaning is akin to the scientific restriction discussed
above. For example, to convict ' find/prove guilty of a
crime' (also the derived N convict 'person found/proved
guilty of a crime', and--with further restriction--'person
serving a prison sentence') and evict(ion) 'expel (expul­
sion of) a tenant by legal means'. This brief discussion
does not exhaust the S field of Vic-t-, for we have--in ad­
dition to its legal sense--conviction 'fixed/firm belief'.
The L cognate is vincere, vici victus 'conquer'. Dia-
chronically, the proper name Vincent is from the participle,
vincenS, vincentis 'conquering'.
One might feel tempted to argue that certain scientif­
ic pursuits have sometimes misued their privilege. Given
the underlying, immanent components of anorexia (nervosa),
for example, it is not possible to derive the meaning mod­
ern medicine endows it with; other examples are easy to
find. Rather than talk of "errors" here, it seems to me
preferable to conclude rather that Language has the agility
to incorporate such figures. This agility of Language is
not restricted to S. In English P, for example, g some­
times shifts to palatal g (thus, flog ~ flagellate, legal ~
legislate; other examples in App.1.12); it can be shown
the shift is from velar to palatal (not the reverse). The
shift seems to occur before a only when a < i by Great Vowel
Shift {giant [gay-], gibe, gyre, gyrate, gyves &c). Yet
we find the velar in med. gynecology (beside misogyny
[-ga]). An interesting endeavor would be to discover what
imprint (if any) these supposed errors leave on English,
but we may not be here long enough for that.
Returning to more realistic goals in S, we can at least
require it be part of the task of linguistics to provide a
framework both free enough and constrained enough to ac-
n. 6 xxviii

Count properly for alternations of the above type found in

natural languages (cf. also η. 35).
The line of inquiry pursued in this book will occa­
sionally permit insight into this question. For example,
the two antonymous meanings of egregious, 'very good' and
'very bad', would seem to impede analysis. But we can
take both meanings as derived from more central -greg-
'herd' [cf. L grex, gregis], analyzing egregious from ex-
-greg-ious '[standing] ex- out from the herd'; this analy­
sis further permits us to make explicit the conjoined
sound-meaning relationships between egregious and words
like greg-arious, ag-greg-ate, con-greg-ation, se-greg-ate
&c. We feel that an incorrect analysis of this type,
where a variety of phenomena--phonological, morphological,
semantic, syntactic---fall into mutually supportive posi­
tions within an overall, general framework, would be dif­
ficult to attain. Moreover, we feel (to cite a different
example) there is something inherently correct in deriving
a word like corsair 'pirate' from a root meaning 'run': at
rock bottom, corsairs (like couriers) are 'runners' [cf.
L currere, cursus].
As indicated above, however, we will usually leave
even the grosser aspects of S theory for a future study.
But it is worth repeating that without reference to mean­
ing, there is no more reason to propose deep-seated rela­
tionship between sane and sanity than between main (or
mane) and manatee, train and trinity, or any other obvi­
ously unrelated pair whose members show merely a certain
degree of phonetic similarity. Solving problems of S the­
ory is essential to construction of a descriptively ade­
quate linguistic theory and must not in general be excepted
from discussion. As elsewhere in linguistics, so too on
the level of S: failure to reach descriptive adequacy auto­
matically excludes the possibility of ever reaching explan­
atory adequacy. At present, however, we must be concerned
with the more mundane task of trying to reach some intro­
ductory measure of observational adequacy.
With the primitive S framework used here, there can be
no evaluation criterion. Thus technically, one of the pri­
mary goals of DM--minimization of fortuitous lexical redun-
 xxxx nn. 6-7

dancy--cannot be attained. This is an inadequacy of the

present work the reader will have to deal with as best he
can. Notice, incidentally, that I have not here been dis-
cussing grammatical functions, for many of which one would
be hard pressed to find suitable S definitions: it is not
clear, for example, that subject can be defined as 'that
noun phrase which performs the action of the main verb'
because of well-known sentences like John underwent sur­
gery., and so on. [xii]

See e.g. his 1978 and references there for sub­

stantial support. An interesting example is terrace-level­
ing in African tone languages, if this can be viewed as as­
similation: the basic tone to which the others "assimilate"
is usually on the leftmost vowel (see Wang 1967 and refer­
ences there). Assignment of pitch-contours to English sen­
tence-types is presumably not governed by such an assimila­
tion rule, although this area is still open for analysis.
With tonal terrace-leveling, one can compare vowel-harmony
in Ural-Altaic (see my 1972 for brief discussion of Turkish).
There are, of course, individual examples one is uncertain
how to deal with: from something like *hem-n- (cf. Gth hi-
mins), there is dissimilation of m in Ε heaven, of n in OHG
himil; instances of progressive l-r dissimilation in Ε occur
both sporadically (E marble < ME marbre [E marmoreal 'pert,
to marble', L marmor; contrast murmur < ME murmuren < L
murmur], Ε turtle(dove) [L turtur; contrast Ε tartar], per­
haps gurgle < L gurgulio if the L is from redup. gwrgwr-,
cf. GORLO 'throat') and with some regularity (thus Ε has
[borrowed from L] -al > -ar after consul-, insul-* line-*
lun-* pol-* popul-s regul-, simil-* sol-* stell- &c)--to
these examples contrast the regressive r-l dissimilation in
a word like march < MF < OF marcher 'walk, tread, trample'
< VL marcare 'hammer' < L marculus < mal-cl-os 'hammer';
with radical l intact we have malleable* mallet* anat. mal­
leus , maul 'heavy hammer'; again, it is fairly well known
that glamour is a variant of grammar &c; Bartholomae's law
in IE seems to raise a question of interpretation (cf. Meil-
let 1950: 25-6); Grassmann's law in Gk is usually regressive
(nom. sg. θρίξ ~ gen. sg. τριχός &c), but in a few forms
nn. 7-9 XXX

progressive (aor· pass. imper. σφθητι« ? not *·σώτ.ηθ.ι., al­

though the ending elsewhere is ^θι)4 &c. When working
within confines of a formal model of Ρ (which we will not be
doing here), one might hope to generalize the suggestion be­
yond assimilation-rules: perhaps all Ρ rules in VO languages
are right-to-left iterative, or something of this nature.
It will be worth following up these suggestions for descrip­
tively adequate grammars of large numbers of languages: then
(perhaps) we could gain some insight into the nature of the
apparently exceptional rules. As Lehmann cogently observes,
"Typology is simply a principled use of language parallels.
Rather than selective use of particular languages, which may
be haphazard, typology furnishes an objective guide to pat­
terns determined through investigation of languages by all
linguists. Typological generalizations will change, as our
information on languages increases. But surely it is far
more secure to take account of the generalizations achieved
from examination of all known languages than to cite parallels
in random languages one happens to know" (MS). Cf. also
n. 53. [xv]
8
After all, given only superficial knowledge of En­
glish and given the status quo of all other segments, one
might guess it could have been the other way round (aspirated
after s, unaspirated elsewhere), but one would scarcely guess
at such reversal for point of articulation of dental stops
(advanced before r, retracted before θ) . [xvi]
9
Love suggests (perhaps too ardently) that "What is
at issue here, since 'being a generalization is not tanta­
mount to being a linguistically significant generalization1
(Botha 1973, p. 280), is just how one tells whether a gen­
eralization is or is not linguistically significant.... The
question how to determine whether a generalization is lin­
guistically significant must be more than just a reformula­
tion of the question: are A and to be collapsed as C?...
What is required... is an account of the notion 'linguistic­
ally significant generalization1 which is independent of the
notion 'descriptively adequate grammar'" (206). [xviii]
 XXXi η. 10

Omelette, incidentally, has an interesting ety­

mology: lit· 'little plate' (because of its flat shape),
earlier spelled omelette, from alvmette by metathesis <
alvmelle by change of suffix < OF lemelle < L lamella
'small, thin plate', a dim. of lamina 'thin plate, leaf,
layer', ooo. Thus, at least diachronically, -mel- in Ε
omelet and iam- in Ε lamina have the same source. The in­
teresting etymology of dish--related to the above in mean­
ing, but not in sound--is mentioned in App.1.19.
 Corrigenda et Addenda

Numbers on the left margin indicate page/line. Neg­

ative line-numbers mean 'counting from the bottom up'; thus
13/-9 means 'ninth line from the bottom of page 13'.

xi/13: See e.g. Lehmann's perceptive note on the special po­

etic effect of such syntactic arrangement in Mallar­
mé' s Sainte (p. 520 of his "Surface and underlying
structure in typological study," Linguistic Studies
Offered to Joseph Greenberg). Robert Rothstein's
"Gender and reference in Polish and Russian," 90-2,
gives an interesting proposal for NPs like une vieille
coquette vs une coquette vieille 'an old flirt' (in
Morphosyntax in Slavic, ed. Chvany & Brecht, 1980,
Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Publishers).
13/-9: See e.g. Bolinger's preliminary study of 1971.
47/-8: Notice the difference in a pair like disembosom vs
disembowel, and the near synonymy of disenfranchise
with disfranchise.
70/15: Henry Kucera's "Markedness in motion" gives a good
discussion of the topic, with examples mostly (but
not exclusively) from Czech (in Morphosyntax in
Slavic).
82/-12: drag ~ droshky [R dim. pl. DROZKI; cf. D0R0GA
'road', with polnoglasie].
83/3-5: Change these lines to read: impinge55 ~ impact
[impingere < pangere 'drive in, make firm, fix
firmly'] and infringe55 ~ infraction [infrin­
gere < frangere 'break'].
83/22: (in)tegument (from teg- 'cover') ~ de-/pro-tect-
(-ive/-ion)
97/-7: inebriate [L inebriatus= PRT of inebriare 'make
drunk'] belongs here.
133/4: Fem, of widower is of course widow [VDOVA], not
*widress. The stem, wivh- 'separate' is the same
as in divide [dividere, with dis- 'apart'], indi-
 xxxiii

vidual [individuus coined by Cicero to translate

ατομοσ], individuate &c.
154/-16: Change OSTEGNUT' to ZASTËGIVAT'(SJA)/ZASTEGNUT'-
(SJA) 'button (oneself) up', ZASTËZKA 'fastening,
buckle'; v. Fasmer, s.w.OSTÉG, STEGAT'.
175/-15: Another example might be OSIP ~ IOSIF, but proper
names are often not reliable in linguistic analy­
sis.
183/-18: But note (at least in my idiolect) acrostic [-k]
vs distich [-c], distichous [-c^-].
223/-3: Also negligé(e), negligent, negligible &c. Inci­
dentally, note how F PRT -é is retained in negligee ,
but lost in words like costive , N defile, desha­
bille, A signal, (treasure-)trove (F trouvé) &c.
235/10: ultima > rightmost stressed vowel.
247/9: eager ~ egg 'urge on, incite', edge [OE ecg 'edge,
sword']
250/20: synerEsis ~ -eretic.
251/-14: decline ~ declension, of course, does not belong
here, but cf. declination.
253/8: pIle 'hair' ~ caterpillar [L catta pilosa 'hairy
cat'].
253/9: pirate [pZrãta < πεiρατησ < πείρα 'trial, attempt,
experiment'] ~ empirical [εμπείρικοσ 'experienced'].
255/15: (dia)tribe ~ tribulation.
257/19: Oleaginous ~ olive [oil is from the same root].
258/1: depot [F depot].
260/-8: drown ~ drunk(ard) .
261/4: flower [OF flour < flds, floris] ~ flourish [OF
florir <flörëre<fids].
278/20: One exception is com-/ex-/pro-pound (with excresc­
ent -d) from L com-/ex-/prō-ponere (cf. E com-/ex-/
pro-ponent from L PRT com-/ex-/prō-pōnëns ).
306/n. 220: This note hardly gives a complete list; other
examples include Ns like banyàn, bazaar, bivouac,
Boswell, boyar (R), castanêt(s) F, cortege F, coulòmb F,
curette F, cyclotron (with unstressed -on, cf., e.g.,
Aaron, can(n)on, canyon, carbon, cinnamon, crimson,
(dande)lion, demon, dragon, dungeon, felon, garrison,
jargon, mason, scion, skeleton, Solomon, treason &c),
 XXXIV

daffodil, dentelle F, diadem, Dukhobor (R), duréss F,

dyad, epaulet F, epsilòn (Gk), girasol, Loépz, Schehe­
razade [-ád], tamaràck [Algonq], Tartàr, and so on.
308/13: The rule(s) producing the 2-1 pattern seem (at
least to some extent) productive. A friend of
mine who cooks at a coffee-shop was explaining to
me how the body becomes accustomed to high tem­
peratures. She said "When you work the grill long
enough, you get asbèstos-fingers: you can put your
hand right on the grill without burning it."
Clearly, *asb estos-fingers.
322/-3: drowsy, drizzly ~ dreary.
323/9: floscule ~ flora(l).
323/-2: cf. also -le in ankle [G Enke 'ankle1].
347/11: (trans)figure, figurative ~ effigy.
347/17: fungus ~ fungicide.
347/19: gambol, viola da gamba 'viola for the leg' [Late L
gamba 'leg1] ~ jamb, enjambment 'skipping over' [F
jambe 'leg'].
347/20: gargle ~ jargon.
348/22: divulgate ~ divulge.
351/13: capillary 'hairlike' ~ dishevel(ed).
373/5: For -rn(al) in nocturn(al) , cf. adjourn, diurnal,
hesternal, hodiernal, journal [a doublet of diurn-
al], modern, sojourn &c).
 ABBREVIATIONS 11

A Arabic12 naut. nautical

A Adjective NE New (Modern) English
Abl Ablaut 0 obstruent
AED American Heritage 0 (syntactic) object
Dictionary13 0 Old English
anat. anatomy OL Old Latin
Ar Aramaic ON Old Norse
arch. archaic ooo of obscure origin
astron. astronomy Ρ phonology, phono-
bot. botany logical(ly)
consonant PG Proto-Germanic
palatal consonant pl. plural
C' palatalized consonant PR phonetic representation
chem. chemistry PRT participle
COMP comparative R Russian
Ε English redup. reduplicate(d)
env(s). environment(s) ref(s). reference(s)
F French S sonorant; semantic(s),
fem. feminine semantically
freq. frequentative sg. singular
G German Skt Sanskrit
Gk Greek smb. somebody
Gmc Germanic smth. something
Gth Gothic SUP superlative
H Hebrew Trk Turkish, Turkic
IE Indo-European Uml umlaut
velar UPR underlying phonological
L Latin representation
lit. literal(ly) V verb
Lth Lithuanian V vowel
M morphology, morpho- V long vowel
logical(ly) V short vowel
masc. masculine V front vowel
med. medicine, medical VL Vulgar Latin
mus. musical VN vowel nasalization
N noun
n(n). note(s)
 2

SYMBOLS

= equal(s), correspond(s) ' ' enclose glosses,

to (drive = G treib-
en)
* ungrammatical, incor-
rect, reconstructed
> to
< from
~ alternate(s) with
" syllable-boundary
inorpheme-boundary
# word-boundary (roughly)
Ø the empty string
' palatalized
/ in the environment; or
(plen-ary/-ty = plen-
-ary or plen-ty); in
contrast with (know/
OE cnawan)
often indicates main
(primary) stress:
wigwam
often indicates reduced
(secondary or terti-
ary) stress: pollywog
&c and so on
which sometimes
give a meaning
appropriate to
context, not nec-
essarily the cen-
tral meaning
( ) sometimes indicate
optional disjunc­
tion (esaalatCor)
= escalate or es-
calator; vigil(an-
t(e)) = vigil or
vigilant or vigi-
lante) , sometimes
conjunction (vig-
il(anee) = vigil
and vigilance) , and
sometimes show part
of a word--regard-
less of where mor-
pheme-boundaries
fall--is not being
considered (the η
in (nevras)thenia
= the second n)
[ ] enclose PRs or dia-
chronic material
or page-reference
at end of a note

PHONOLOGICAL SYMBOLS

For easy reference, we give here the table in (22) of

1.3.1 (in slightly altered shape). Except where noted,
vowel-letters symbolize intermediary or final representa-
 3 nn. 11-12

tiQns.of -English; AW and QY are digraphs, each representing

a single long vowel, F symbols not shown here are gener-
ally prevalent in linguistics. For R, see n. 46.

shovt long
rabid A rabies (= rAbies)
efed (open e) Ε feed
ifilth (open i) I defile
gone (open o) 0 go
{does [ ] {do [duw]
u U
foot [υ] few [fyuw]
a conic AW tower, cow, sound
ә {girl, turn, heard, OY boy, choice
sofa, again

ö, ü - front, round vowels (G stören, âünn, F Jussieu)

y - palatal glide in yes, yacht, fly [flay]
g - affricate in gym, join, siege [sEg] or [siyg]
- chin, batchy chose [cOz] or [Eowz]
s - show, ashy shine [sin] or [SaynJ
- measure, occasion, azure [aez'ar]
χ - voiceless velar continuant (G achy XOD)
γ - voiced velar continuant

NOTES
11
periods are not used after majuscules, sigla for
languages, and some other abbreviations. For phonological
symbols, see pp. 2-3. [1]
12
The name "Arabic11 generally refers to a number of
different speech-forms which--despite their differences--
Semitists consider to be dialectal variants of a single lan­
guage. These colloquial, vernacular dialects "form a con­
tinuous spectrum of variation, of which the extremities,
Moroccan and Iraqi, differ to the point of mutual unintel-
lig ity, but within which one variety shades off almost
nn. 12-13 4

imperceptibly into the adjoining one" (Beeston, 11). One

finds even that speakers of a particular geographical dia­
lect differ (sometimes substantially) among themselves due
to differences in age, culture, or educational background.
Contrasting with these colloquial dialects is one variety
used (roughly) throughout the entire Α-speaking world,
forming a standard for most written communication; this is
the so-called "classical" or "written" or "literary" or
"standard" A, and it is to this variety that "A" in the
text refers. See e.g. Beeston, Thatcher, Qafisheh, and
the refs. in those works. [1]
13
For various uninteresting reasons I was obliged
to use the paperback edition, and it is to this "AHD" re­
fers throughout the text: ed. Peter Davies; July, 1979;
Dell Publishing Co., Inc., 1 Dag Hammarskjold Plaza, New
York. [1]
 ...l'observationmontre que les générations suc­
cessives apportent au langage des changements
plus ou moins importants (v. en dernier lieu
l'article de M. Gauchat sur l'Unité phonétique,
dans les Mélanges Morƒ) . Abstraction faite de
toutes les différences dues à des circonstances
spéciales ou à l'âge des sujets, il y a donc
dans chaque localité un type linguistique idéal
dont toutes les réalisations de fait ne sont
que des approximations. Or, comme les faits
particuliers n' ont pas d'intérêt, ce type idé­
al--variable suivant les générations--doit être
l'objet principal de l'étude des linguistes.
Les déviations n'ont d'importance qu'autant
qu'elles peuvent servir à rendre compte du dé­
veloppement durant la période précédente et à
faire prévoir et à expliquer les changements
ultérieurs.
Meillet, Les dialectes i.-e.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

1. Overview.

A high-reaching aim in linguistics is to discover the

framework in which human languages are learned. Within
this universal structure, knowledge of which is apparently
innate only in man (see e.g. Benveniste's reflective paper
of 1952), particular languages--English, Turkish, Hottentot
&c--are learned by fitting the language-specific data some-
5
Intro.1 6

how into, the language-independent framework. The ultimate

goal of the study is to further understanding of man's in­
nate, intellectual competence and of his mind's deep-seated
functioning.
One way to begin this undertaking is to write descrip­
tively adequate grammars of many different, individual lan­
guages. The resulting grammars can then be compared, and
similarities extracted from these language-particular gram­
mars postulated as universal--belonging to the language-free
framework. An example of this was given in the Foreword
(at n. 7) with reference to one of Lehmann's proposals.
I still hold to the essential synchronic correctness
of Chomsky's 1965 view in Aspects: "Linguistic theory is
concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a
completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its lan­
guage perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically ir­
relevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions,
and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his know­
ledge of the language in actual performance" (3).14For ex­
ample, a speaker may utter *[ bstәmoEәs] as a word mean­
ing 'moderate in food and drink'. But there is no such word;
this is a mistake for [ bstÉmEәs]. Although in a few cases
it may not be difficult to construct hypotheses to explain
a starred form (in the above, doubtless the pronunciation of
this infrequently used word has been affected by commoner
words in -(m)Onious like harmonious,parsimonious,feloni­
ous &c), we will usually say nothing about them, mentioning
them only when they result in a change of grammar. Some­
times, however, actual modification of grammar may be so
hidden as to escape notice. For ,example, the L word re-
fratarius 'obstinate, stubborn' (from refractus = PRT of
refringere) should (and did) lead to E refractary 'unman­
ageable'. Today the word is spelled refractory (as if from
-ôrius). But because the vowel in question is unstressed
and the word pronounced [rәfráktarE], it is difficult to
decide if this is just another mistake in orthography or if
there has been a true change in the structure of the word.
Were it not for the spelling, the question would probably
not have arisen to begin with.
Foley's recent proposal that grammar is unrelated to
 7 Intro.2

the working of man's mind (1979) is philosophically wrong

and uninteresting. Linguists must view their work as re­
flection of man's linguistic consciousness, or else lin­
guistics becomes a "game" (Hockett 1948) and--tragically--
the ultimate goal of the study vanishes· One might as
well solve cross-word puzzles as analyze language divorced
from man.
In addition to this question of what we have called
"inner" or "immanent" representations and what they repre­
sent (whether abstract, insular designs or concrete reflec­
tions of man's latent consciousness), a similar question
arises concerning "outer" or "surface" representations.
Again, I cannot agree with Foley's suggestion that PRs are
unrelated to physically realized speech utterances (1979).
I already argued against this stance in my 1978 review of
his first book. A more direct argument, perhaps, is that
with such a position one may propose for the PR of, say,
dog,a form like [fax]--or [cvrgd]--or [btg]--or whatever
one happens to feel disposed to at the moment. In Wolfe's
1972 diachronic study e.g. she relies heavily on 16th and
17th century orthoepistic data (pp. 31-3), but one finds
her discussion of GVS has more prima facie plausibility
than those of her predecessors, who for varying reasons
chose not to interpret the orthoepistic evidence as liter­
ally as she. Since it is easiest (and most natural) for
me, I give here, for my own idiolect of E, 1 5 PRs in rough
form and in square brackets. Love, MS--following Schane
1968--uses vertical strokes (| |) to enclose UPRs and
obliques (/ /) for PRs, but this--whatever its merits--
is not likely to supplant traditional notation, which has
become so firmly entrenched.
Whereever possible I tried to give everyday words as
examples, choosing infrequently used words or words from
specialized vocabularies as a last resort. It should be
almost unnecessary to add that words of non-IE origin have
for the most part been excluded.

2. A Few Examples.

It would be good to give a short sketch of my view

Intro.2.1 8

of M here. But M is so complex and little-understood, and

the treatment given in this book necessarily so introduc­
tory and disorganized, it is hard to compose such a sketch.
Perhaps best is just to examine briefly a few words. This
examination will raise various problems, some of which we
can discuss later.

2.1 Two.
Consider twice 'two times' At first glance it seems
monomorphemic. But we notice the phonetically (and perhaps
also S) identical -ice in thrice 'three times'. Division
tw-ice would lead to the postulate of an inner root-morpheme
{to- 'two'}.
Two [tU] can be derived from tU or—since "im Engli­
schen alle auslautenden betonten Vokale lang sind" (Tru-
betzkoy 1958: 58)—from tu.16 This analysis requires (in
addition to rules of stress-assignment) a rule that final,
stressed vowels are long and a derivation tu > tú > tu.
Interestingly, the immanent root postulated above for
twice (viz., {to- 'two'}) could also underlie two if the
grammar contained a rule to syllabify auslaut W. Then de­
rivation of two would beto> tu > tú > tÛ.
Additional support for such a root {to- 'two'} comes
from [tw] in words like the following, where the S relation­
ships are reasonably clear (even though we do not know yet
how best to state them formally): twelve, twenty, twain,
between, betwixt, twin, twilight &c.
The tentative analysis above leaves unanswered ques­
tions of how to derive the second members in tw-ice, tw-ain9
tw-in, tw-een (be- is presumably some kind of prefix; cf.
PFX.3), tw-ixt, tw-ilight, tw-elve, tw-enty. But (not much
—yet a step in the right direction) there is likely to be
an inner relationship among the -ty 's of twenty, thirty,
forty &c [cf. G -zig], and one cannot help noticing the
similarity between -lv- in twelve and -lev- in eleven.17
We have to return to all these problems when we can con­
sider them more seriously.
An interesting, supplementary problem arises when we
ask if du- [dU] in dual is grammatically related to two.
 9 Intro.2.2

The S relationship is obvious (although it might not be if

one were restricted to the distributional approach of n, 5).
If the UPR of dual were tw#al and if the grammar contained
a rule t > d applying here, we could derive du- very simi­
larly to two: tw- > dw- > du- > dû- > dU-. In this way
we might make the conjoined, surface sound-meaning rela­
tionship between two and dual explicit. Furthermore, we
could derive [dU] in words like duo, duet, duplicate, du­
plicity, duel, deuce [dUs] in like manner, although we
might face a problem with the vowels in double('t), dozen
[dA-], diphthong, and dialog [dl-].18 The primary diffi­
culties here, however, would seem to be (1) motivation
for a special boundary in du#al (or is this the result of
having formulated w-syllab. incorrectly? To be honest, we
have still not found a solution to this problem, raised in
1972: 110-2) and (2) motivation for a rule t > d (why is
two not pronounced [dU]? The problem is apparently sym­
metrical if we start from UPR dw- with a rule d > t; then
we could ask: why is dual not pronounced [tU-]?). We re­
turn to these problems in II. In any event, we can see
from this brief glance at two that analysis of more words
than two is at issue when one considers synchronic analysis
of two in NE.

2.2 Cooperative.
Consider next cooperative [kOapәrәtiv]. Presumably
this is an A in -ive 'tending to' from the V cooperate
[-At], like regulative from regulate and in allevi-at(ive) ,
appreci-, approxim-, associ-, circuí-, (ex)communie-, (re)-
duplic-, ejacul-, emascul-, indic-, inocul-, interrog-, in-
vestig-, loc-, neg-, rel-, replie-, sed-, specul- &c.19
Because of *cooperative, *cooperәte, a problem may arise in
reducing A to in -ative, but we see the vowel is often
reduced here (as in all the preceding words in -әtive);
perhaps this is an M-determined reduction, On the other
hand, note the following: accomodAtive, aggregAtive, amal-
gamAtive, (re)creAtive, educAtive, elucidAtive, estimative,
irrigAtive, legislAtive, mitigAtive, propagAtive, (ir)ra-
diAtive, segregAtive, suffocAtive, ventilAtive, violAtive
&c.20
Intro.2.3 10

Cooperate appears to be from operate 'work' with pre­

fix - ' together (with)' (as in coalesce* coeducation* co­
gnate, cohabit* copula(te)* coincide* coordinate &c). But
alongside prefix -* we find also sometimes coN-' 'together
(with)' (as in comestible* commiserate* companion* concaten­
ate* confederate &c), and even though m of inner com- some­
times undergoes complete assimilation to a following conso­
nant {col-laborate* con-nect* cor-relative &c), one wonders
where it disappeared to (or if it was even there to begin
with) in co-operate.
The V operate (and its derived N operation' act, pro­
cess of operating') are presumably representative of the
large group of V/N in -ate/-ation.21 Remaining oper- [ r-]
is similar to (hypercorrect?) N opus/opera 'work(s)', but
for neither V nor N is analysis transparent. We might pro­
pose oper- < op-erg- (where -erg- appears also in erg 'unit
of work'), but that would require a highly specific, sus­
picious rule of g-deletion to prevent derivation of *oper-
gat(ion)* and would leave op- unaccounted for.

2.3 Goose.
Finally, consider the N goose [G Gans* Lth zgsïs].
It has an unusual plural, geese* but there are other pairs
like this (tooth ~ teeth e.g.): it seems likely the sg./pl.
pairs are from the same lexical roots despite the U ~ E al­
ternation. A more difficult problem here is to decide
whether gander 'male goose' is related to goose: S and in­
itial ¿7- suggest that as a possibility. None of the other
phones, however, is similar: -oose/-eese vs -ander. But if
we can answer Ρ for U ~ Ε (virtually an obligation), we
may well be able to deal also with U ~ Ε ~ . A greater
difficulty is with the next pair of phones, s vs n.
Actually, s is closer to d than to n* and there are a
few clearcut alternations here (comprehend~comprehensible*
persuade ~ persuasive* respond ~ response* explode ~ explo­
sive &c in App.1.9). If we hypothesize the root is spelled
gand- and can account for d ~ s* we might also find a clue
to analyzing the V: nasalization seems a reasonable way to
derive gVs < gâns- < gand-. In gosling 'young goose', deri­
vation is similar, but the V is shortened before a C-clus-
 11 Intro.2.3

ter: gand-ling > gans-ling > gans-ling > gas-ling > gasling
>
Surprisingly, there is another, corresponding pair:
beside tooth/teeth (like goose/geese) is dental (like gan­
der) . Perhaps we could use the same VN rule above to de­
rive < tenθ-, with vowels nasalizing before continuants
(hence in gans-, tenθ-, but not in gand-, dent-). To this
proposal one can easily cite refractory words like dance,
fence, menses, month, since, tonsure23 &c, but such an as­
sumption might--if properly formulated--permit us to ex­
plain doublets like (com)mensurable [mènsûrabilis]~meas­
urable [OF mesurable]; no doubt the root in this pair is
the same as in semester [F semestre < (cursus) seme(η)stris]
~ moon, month &c, cited in n. 6. Again, if the root in
manual 'done by hand', manuscript 'written by hand', man­
age 'handle1 &c is the same as the first root in mastur­
bate, the proposed rule of VN offers an easy explanation
for the absence of -n- in the latter. Although grammatic­
al relationship between relent(less) and lithe may seem
rather unlikely, if there were such a connection, the pro­
posed rule would at least offer a hope of explaining the
peculiar en ~ I (this alternation, however, is plainly dif­
ferent from en ~ Ε in dental ~ teeth, a difference which
would require some account--or are we relying too much on
"sound"?). Clearly it would be advantageous to check the
NC-sequences occurring in Ε to see what kind of constraints
(if any) are found to apply to
The real difficulty in pairing tooth/teeth with den­
tal 'pert, to teeth' is the unlikely O-alternation t--θ ~
d--t. Earlier we noted another t ~ d in two ~ dual. Un­
fortunately, however, a pair like tooth ~ dental does not
really support t ~ d in two ~ dual because it raises side
problems: not only is there a problem with VN (because of
answer, dunce, infra-, panther, tonsils &c)- but also there
is a problem with the final Os, -θ ~ -t. To accept a pair
like tooth ~ dent- in support of the (somewhat shaky to be­
gin with) proposition that the synchronic grammar of NE con­
tains a t > d (or perhaps d > t) rule whose env. does not
trigger voice-assimilation (as in, say, S DAMOJ [zdá-],
GORODA [adgo-], colloquial F il se dépêche E
Intro·3 12

husband [húzb-]24 &c) would seem to raise more problems

than it solves.
Considerations like those of the last paragraph, in
fact, seem to argue against synchronic relationships be­
tween pairs like dual/two, dental/toothy rather than in
their favor. And if the relationship between tooth and
dental is gone, there may be little empirical support for
a pair like goose/gander, which (so far as we can now tell)
requires a peculiar shift of d > s and a strange-looking
VN-rule for which it is easy to find exceptions (in fact,
it looks as if the exceptions outnumber the "regularities"
here).

3. Review and a Few More Examples.

We should ask what we can learn from §§2.1-2.3.

I suppose the easiest idea to learn is that given any
two words--be they dog/dogs or sane/sanity or any pair
from long 'of relatively great length' /long 'desire' (cf.
*length 'desire')/long 'first' (as in headlong 'headfirst';
cf. *headlength)Hong 'directed to' (as in sidelong 'di­
rected to the side'; cf. *sidelength) or warm/furnace or
dog/fox--it is going to be difficult to decide if they are
synchronically related, to decide if the synchronic gram­
mar of E derives both from the same lexical representation
or not. 25 To give another example from F, Dell 1970 sug­
gests words like hiver, ¿our might end in η because of
hiverner, journée (repeated in Selkirk 1972: 340). Even
granting the M relationship, a problem remains: perhaps -n-
in hiverner is a separate V-suffix, in journée a separate
N-suffix (= not contained in the UPRs of hiver, jour). Such
analysis, in other words, might be like trying to claim
mother (OE mador, μnτηρ, miter, Skt matar-, MATER- &c) ter­
minates with -n because the A is mater-n-al, not *mater-al.
Love mentions the problem briefly with discussion of "sec­
ondary derivation" (= roi, régal < reg-, but royal < rwa-
&c; MS §4.2, pp. 123 ff.). 2 6
Another idea to learn is that isolated observations
can play but a minor role in linguistics, except insofar as
 13 Intro.3

they lead to investigation of a more general nature. It

was foolish of us to ask about relationship between tooth/
teeth and dental without giving numerous further support­
ing, corroborative data.
As an additional example to show isolated observa­
tions to not instruct us well, consider that E ordinals al­
ways end in a dental (firsts second, third, fourth &c).
This does not teach us much, either about E or about lin­
guistics; even to note that after third they all end in
-Θ 2 7 does not help. It points to an ordinal morpheme [-Θ]
but does not show any relationship between [-θ] and [~t/-d].
This problem is very difficult. To explicate the
conjoined sound-meaning relationships here, we might pro­
pose the UPR of the ordinal morpheme is -d (as in second,
third}, devoiced to -t after voiceless continuants (as in
first), and elsewhere shifted somehow to -Θ (hence fourth,
eighth &c). But that proposal fails, as we see from sixth
[-ksθ] and even more clearly from fifth, twelfth [-fθ],
where there is surely some relation between -v~-ƒθin
five ~ fifth, twelve ~ twelfth, but nearly the reverse of
-st ~ -rd in first~third.
We might spell the ordinal morpheme -Θ (especially
since the preponderance of forms shows PR [-Θ]), stop it to
-t in first, secont, thirt, and voice this -t after n/r in
second/third. The stopping would be unusual, however (cf.
[-Θ] in sixth, seventh, fourth, resp.), and t is not nor­
mally voiced after n/r (cf. relent, font, art, flirt).' But
even if a clearcut analysis were readily available, we
could not learn much from it unless it were integrated
(somehow) into the E system of DM.28
The V + particle~N +-particlepairs {break down ~
break down) are interesting. New pairs like rip off~rip
off 'rob(bery)f suggest the derivational process here is
productive. But the examples in (10) show a measure of
idiosyncracy (here, (in)t. = (in)transitive; only relative
stress between V/N and the following particle is shown [on
P. 14]).
In a sense, these V-N pairs are more interesting than
the ordinals because they seem to involve not only pure M
derivation, but syntactic processes as well. One difficul-
Intro.3 14

(10) The meeting broke up (int.)--the break-ùp of the

meeting; They broke ùp relations (t.)--their
break-ùp in relations.
He broke down (int.)--(He had a)/(His) break down; He
broke down the figures (t.)--his break-down of the fig­
ures .
He worked oùt yesterday (int.)--his work out; He worked
oùut the answers (t.)--*his work-out (of) the answer(s).
He ripped off the store (t.)--*his rip-off the store vs his
rip-off of the store; *The robbery/*It completely rip­
ped off (int.)--The robbery/It was a complete rip-off
(these last not from The store/It was completely ripped
off (by John), sentences which do not underlie "rip-off"
nouns).
*It read out interestingly (int.)--It was an interesting
read-out.
He ran aro"und (int. and lit.)--They gave him the rùn-around
(metaph.) vs *his run-around (in/of) the garden (lit.;
note stress difference when "around" is a prep., as in
He ran [around the garden]--his rùn [around the garden];
the V-N pair here is "run--run" [see below]).
*He brought in (int.)--*his bring-in; He brought in the
vegetables (t.)--*his bring-in (of) the vegetables.

ty in analysis is that although we have a complete list of

ordinals readily available, a complete list of these N-V
pairs would be difficult to obtain. One might suggest pos­
sible analyses for such pairs; without a near-exhaustive
list, however, such suggestions are but suppositions--as
Andrew Young put it recently, "No one can profit by second-
guessing and drugstore quarterbacking" (Boston Globe April
2, 1981, p. 3).
Homophonous V-N pairs (run--run) are similar to the
above, except that syntactic processes are less evidently
involved here than in pairs with particles. Here are some
examples (Eq. (11) on p. 15).
It would be troublesome (but not difficult in prin­
ciple) to make a complete list of these pairs: careful
search through a dictionary would provide such a list. But
 15 Intro.3

(11)
FORM MEANING OF VERB MEANING OF NOUN
run 'move on foot faster 'an act of running'
than at a walk'
eye 'look at' 'organ of vision'
have 'possess' (usually pl·) 'those
who possess material
advantages'
hit 'collide with' 'collision, impact'
mushroom 'grow like mushrooms' 'kind of fungus'
pitch Noah pitched his ark within and without with
pitch.29
question 'ask a question' 'inquiry inviting re­
ply'
vide 'journey by means of 'journey by means of
conveyance' conveyance'
snow 'fall (of snow)' 'solid precipitation of
white ice crystals'
steal 'rob' 'act of stealing, theft'
(not too frequent; more
usual is the derived
sense 'bargain', as in
It's not just a good
buy, it's a steal; and
there may be specialized
meanings, such as the
one in baseball)
view 'examine, inspect' 'examination, inspec­
tion'
winter 'spend the winter' 'cold season between
autumn and spring'

it is not evident what we would learn from the compilation.

We might be able to suggest a rule to derive all the Vs
from their corresponding Ns, or a rule to derive all the
Ns from their corresponding Vs. But more likely we would
find that some Ns are derived from Vs and some Vs from Ns;
no doubt there would be cases in which it was not clear
whether N < V or V < N. Disregarding the latter, unclear
Intro.3 16

cases, we might well find that not one, but several rules
were required for each of the two clear cases of N < V and
V < N. 30 For example, there might be a de-N rule with the
meaning 'supply with, add to' (arm, clothe, color, flour
&c) opposed to a similar rule with the meaning 'remove
from' (bone, core, shelly skin, peel, pit &c), and so on.
Let us suppose the best result from such a study--
that it was reasonably clear how many and what kind of
rules were required to derive homophonous V-N pairs. Even
under this (no doubt unlikely) supposition, what would we
have learned about word-formation? Or--to put the question
differently--what might this teach us about word-formation?
There is, of course, a possibility investigation of
the above type would show us how to handle the unclear
cases, the cases for which we could not originally tell
whether N < V or V < N. Let us suppose we achieve this re­
sult. We are supposing, in other words, that from a (near­
ly) complete list of homophonous V-N pairs we could learn
how to derive each of the homophones in question. Still,
even under this supposition--the most optimistic one we
can make--it is not too clear what we would have learned
about the general nature of word-formation. At the least
we would have to correlate this result with an analysis of
V-N pairs with (apparently) more derivation involved:
confine-ment, inform-ant, propos-al, please--pleas-ure;
in -ion pairs like V rebel--N rebellion (presumably not
from N rebel), disrupt-ion, instruct-ion, intervene--inter­
vention, reduce--reduction; with t > s unclear cases like
converge--(A convergent)--convergence,infer--(A *inferent)
--inference, silence--(A silent)--silence, V *radiant--(A
radiant)--radiance (not from radiate, which underlies ra­
diation) ; with vowel-alternation, sing ~ song, tell ~ tale,
contain ~ contents, feed ~ food (as well as N feed), bleed
~ blood, conceive~concept (also νz~ρ) , freeze ~ frost,
conspire~conspiracy, die ~ death, choose ~ choice (also
ζ ~ s) , mUve ~ motion (also v ~ 0), solve ~ solution (with
ν ~ U?), sew [sO] ~ suture, sutra (with 0 ~ U?), lose ~
loss, think ~ thought (cf. sing ~ song, but bring--N
*bring, ^brought, *brong; it may be, however, that Ns like
bit, drove, shot, thought &c are not from PASTs bit, drove,
 17 Intro.3

shot, thought).31
Except for analysis of ordinals, to which we return
(II,2.4), most problems of the last few pages--interesting
though they may be--are too advanced for an introduction
like this and will not be taken up in what follows. To
give a specific example, reconsider the data in n. 21 on
-ate/-ation:
It seems there are no Vs in -ate corresponding to Ns
in -ation (= no *relaxate, *condemnate, *conservate corre­
sponding to relaxation, condemnation, conservation) if and
only if what lies before -ation is a well-formed V (relax,
condemn, conserve opposed to cultivat(ion), separat(ion),
vs *cûltiv(e), *separ &c). Thus for Ns in -ization e.g.
there are no corresponding Vs in *-izate because of the Vs
in -ize: no *civilízate corresponding to civilization be­
cause of civil-ize. Similarly, for Ns in -fication, there
are no corresponding Vs in *-ficate because of the Vs in
-fic > -fy: no *qualificate corresponding to qualification
because of qualify < quali-fic- &c. 32
So much (and perhaps a little more) is clear. What
is not clear is how to pursue this analysis : there are too
many possibilities available. This is a good example (be­
cause it is so close to the surface) of how electronic
data-processing equipment could be used to sort data and
dispense with at least some of the logically possible ana­
lyses (n. 4).
As a possible analysis, might suggest forming Vs
in -ate for a wider class than actually occurs, then de­
riving Ns in -ation from Vs in -ate, and finally marking
ungrammatical those Vs in -ate preceded by bona fide verbs
(*eondemn-ate &c). Such a suggestion would correlate well
with the notion introduced in the Foreword that lexical
representations (roots) are bipartite, containing a "sound"-
and a "meaning"-component (but no distributional informa­
tion) . In this view, distributional restrictions would all
be governed by the rules which add affixes to form syntac­
tically specified stems (i.e. by the rules of DM).
Naturally, the notion of generating a class larger
than the one found, generating a second class from the
first, and then eliminating part of the first class is not
restricted to -ate/-ation: we mentioned other examples in
Intro.3 18

nri. 19-21 (see also n. 71). Two further instances of this

occur if abstract N-sterns in -th are derived from Α-sterns
(warm-th- < warm-, dEp-th- < dEp-, wId-th- < wId- &c; see
n. 218). In the first place, there are Ns with no extant,
corresponding A (thus stealth but *A steals health but *A
heal, berth/birth but *A bir(e) & ) , and in the second
place there are As with no derived N in -th (thus short but
*short-th, narrow but *narrow-th, cold but *cold-th, red
but *red-th &c).
The difficulty with such proposals is that they do
not solve the problems of selectional restrictions. For
the pair -ate/-ation, e.g., which roots and stems are per­
mitted to form V in -ate? All those which underlie Ns in
-ation? If so, how does one specify that class? In any
event, that answer is wrong because one finds some As in
-ative (presumably derived from underlying Vs in -ate; n.
19) for which there are extant neither Vs in -ate nor Ns
in -ation (superlative from V super-l-at-, but *superlate,
*superlation; calmative from V calm-at-, but *calmate,
*calmation &c). And of course one also finds some Ns in
-ation (presumably derived from underlying Vs in -ate) for
which there are extant neither Vs in -ate nor As in -ative
(infestation from V in-fest-at-, but *infestate, *infest-
ative; pronunciation from V pro-nounc-i-at-, but *pronun­
cíate, *pronunciative &c). As another example, we could
refer to forms from -vok-: after ad-/equi-, we find -vo-
cate; after con-/e-/in-/pro-/re-, is -voke; with no pre­
fix or with a(b)-, is neither -voke nor -vooate; but all
the forms have a nominal in -vocation.
We have talked of deriving As from Vs, Ns from As
(i.e. A cooperative from V cooperate, N warmthîrom A warm
&c). Later we will find it more advantageous to talk of
deriving Α-stems from V-stems, N-stems from Α-stems (i.e.
co-oper-at-iv- from co-oper-at-, warm-th- from warm- &c).
But discussion of the question in this more sophisticated
manner will not alter any of the negative results just ar­
rived at concerning selectional restrictions.
Picking up the thread from the last sentence in the
paragraph immediately after n. 31, I give another specific
example of a problem in DM that is not examined in this
 19 Intro.3

book.
In dealing with homophonous N-V pairs like those in
Eq. (11), one might be tempted to suggest that Vs derived
from Ns carry the meaning 'do the obvious thing to/with/
for... the noun'. Thus V pitch means 'apply pitch (for
waterproofing, roofing &c)', V peel 'remove the peel from',
V flour? 'cover with flour' &c.
For many examples, however, the correct result is not
obtained: why does V arm mean 'supply/equip with arms'
rather than *'deprive of arms', V heat 'add heat to' rather
than *'take heat from', V fish '(try to) catch fish' rather
than *'eat fish' or *'cook fish', V five 'light a fire'
rather than *'extinguish a fire', V can 'seal in a can'
rather than *'remove from a can', V bread 'coat with bread
(crumbs)' rather than simply *'eat bread', and so on? At
our present level of ignorance, the best we can reply is
that these Vs must be subject to some different rule over­
riding the one suggested, which is of such general S import.
To that reply, we can also observe that the rule does seem
applicable (more or less properly) to quite a number of
denominal verbs.
With orange-peels, it is possible to paint them pink,
examine them in a spectrophotometer, and then force-feed
the remains to three year old boa constrictors. But one
cannot claim these are natural actions to perform on or­
ange-peels. In contrast, consider actions of the follow­
ing verbs: air 'expose to air', anchor 'keep (a ship e.g.)
in place with an anchor', answer 'give an answer', ante
'pay as an ante' (in poker), asphalt 'cover with asphalt
(for paving, roofing &c)', assay 'subject to an assay', as­
sent 'express assent', auction 'sell by auction', author
'be the author of', autograph 'supply with an autograph',
average 'calculate the average of', baby 'treat as a baby',
balance 'weigh in a balance', bandage 'cover with a ban­
dage', bang 'make a bang', bank 'do business at a bank',
bar 'obstruct with bars', bark 'make a bark(ing noise)',
bark 'remove bark from' (cf. n. 84), barricade 'block (off)
with a barricade', bat '(try to) hit with a bat', batten
'secure with battens', battle 'engage in battle', bay 'make
bays/a baying noise', bayonet 'stab with a bayonet', beam
Intro.3 20

'emit a beam', bet fmake a bet1, bike 'go by bike1, black­

jack 'hit with a blackjack', bleat 'make <a> bleat<s>',
blockade 'close (off) with a blockade', bludgeon 'hit with
a bludgeon', bobsled 'go by bobsled', bomb 'attack with
bombs', boo 'make a boo(ing noise)', booze 'drink booze
(usually to excess)', bray 'make a bray(ing noise)', bridle
'put a bridle on', brush 'use a brush (on)', bubble 'form
bubbles', buckle 'fasten with a buckle', bugle 'play (on) a
bugle', chain 'bind/make fast with <a> chain<s>', foot 'go
on foot', gas 'supply with gas', paddle 'row with <a> pad-
dle<s>' (the meaning 'spank [not necessarily with a pad­
dle]' is clearly secondary, derived by application of a
rather specific rule; notice V oar 'row with <an> oar<s>'
does not also mean 'spank [with or without an oar]), pair
'form <a> pair<s>', pencil 'use a pencil in the way it was
intended to be used', i.e. 'draw/write/mark with a pencil'
—not *'deteriorate/stab/thread with a pencil', shelter
'provide with shelter', tag 'label with a tag', tattoo
'mark with a tattoo', telephone 'use a telephone for com­
munication' , and so on.
What is lacking for a convincing study in this in­
stance is not only the full list of N-V pairs, but also an
independently motivated criterion by which to judge whether
N < V or V < N in any given case. Even for some of the ex­
amples above, it is not intuitively obvious that V must be
derived from N rather than the reverse. Why is V not basic
in average the derived N meaning 'process or result of av­
eraging'? Or in balance, the derived N meaning 'device
with which one balances'? Or in boo3 the derived N meaning
'noise made by booing'?
But the short list above does present facts in search
of a generalization. Without the proposed suggestion (or
smth. like it), one would have to conclude (assuming now
the derivation V < N is correct) that there are several
separate, unrelated derivatives here, some Vs meaning 'make
[a certain kind of noise]', some 'apply [a substance]',
some 'express [in some manner, e.g. to answer]', some 'pro­
pel [with an instrument, e.g. to paddle]1, others 'travel
[by vehicle]', still others 'travel [without a vehicle, e.g.
to foot]', and so on. By accepting the suggestion, we
 21 Intro.4

could perhaps generalize it to include some overt affixes,

and also to cover the reverse case of N < V.

4. What is the Scope of Phonological Rules?

This question is in a sense equivalent to "What is ?"

It has been discussed at length in the literature (see e.g.
Jakobson, Kindersprache). We consider the question briefly
here with a couple of examples as extreme as possible: af­
ter all, it does not teach us much, at our present level of
understanding, to be told Ρ accounts for alternations like
ν ~ f in sieve ~ sift.
Ρ has to account for an alternation like e ~ a in
(for)get ~ (for)got, even if there are no more alternations
like this. The only other rational choice available is to
postulate that get and got are morphemically distinct, i.e.
derived from separate, unrelated lexical entries. That
alternative is unacceptable, however, because it fails to
make explicit the conjoined sound-meaning relationship be­
tween get and got—it claims that the relationship between
get and got is the same as that between go and went, that
got is suppletive with respect to get in the same sense
second is suppletive with respect to two. Since that claim
is false, this e ~ a alternation is a bona fide alterna­
tion, and it is therefore incumbent upon us to account for
it by means of one (or more) Ρ rules. The example get ~
got is theoretically equivalent to goose ~ geese.
Consider now a pair like föx Tvulpes' and vixen 'fe­
male fox'. Should Ρ account for the fa- ~ vi- alternation
here? That is to say, are fox/vixen derived from one—or
two—lexical roots?
I do not know of any further clearcut a ~ i alterna­
tions (perhaps are ~ is?), 3 3 but as we saw with get ~ got3
a fact like that does not help to answer our question.
Offhand, anlaut ƒ- ~ V- alternations would not appear to
be any more frequent, but let us look at some of the data
before trying to decide. In (12) we list a few words be­
ginning with f- and V- in an effort to find lexically re­
lated words with opposite voicing:
Intro. 4 22

(12) face: relation to words like vacant, vase, vast &c

appears unlikely.
fat: chances of relating words like vat or vet seem
pretty remote.
father: there might be alternants in p- (paternal, patro­
nymic &c), but none in V-.
fish: as for father, there seem to be alternants in p-
(piscatory &c), but none in v-.
five: there might be alternants in p- (pentagon &c) or in
qu- (quinquevdlent &c), but not in v-,
footj feety fetter: not only (like the last three entries)
in p- (pedal, tripod &c), but trivet ' three-footed
stand' seems related and to show V as well; it may be
better, however, to consider this an example of inter­
vocalic voicing (tri-fet > trivet, like houses > houzes
&c).
fort(ify): would scarcely seem related to words like vortex,
vertigo &c.
fowl: to relate this to vowel would require a good deal of
persuasive argumentation as well as much vivid linguis­
tic imagination.
vary: relation to fair, fare, or fairy seems preposterous.
vale, valley: relation to words like fail, fallacy hardly
seems more likely than for any of the other pairs we have
discarded.
vault: in any sense seems unrelated to fault(y).
view: can have no relation to few.
vigor: unrelated to figure.
vilei surely not from the same root as in file (in any sense).
vine(ry): cannot be related to fine(ry).
vocal(ize): unlikely to be related to focal(ize).
volley: would not be advantageously connected to folley.
voodoo: may be related to hoodoo, but not very likely to
food.
vulgar: clearly not related to A fulgurant ' flashing like
lightning'.

Despite this inauspicious beginning, however, there

are nevertheless some examples with ƒ- ~ ν- that require dis-
 23 Intro.4

cussion: fiddle [cf. VL vitula 'kind of stringed instru­

ment'',ooo] ~ viol (in); fan 'instrument for winnowing' ~
van 'winnowing fan'; fanon [G Fahne 'flag, standard'],
gonfanon 'banner suspended from a crosspiece' (and gonfalon
with N-L dissimilation like that in γαγγλίον 'ganglion'
from galgl-, τάνταλ- 'tantal(ize) ' from ta l tat-, Hitt la-
man from nam- [L nomen, OE noma] &c, a perhaps less fre­
quently employed alternative to the l-r dissimilation of
n. 7) ~ vane; field ~ veld; fade 'lose freshness/bright­
ness/brilliance' ~ vapid 'insipid, flat, stale' &c.
The interesting thing about these five pairs (no
doubt a careful search would reveal others) is that they
must be lexically related: no alternative analysis is avail­
able at our present level of understanding linguistics. To
claim, for example, that each member of these pairs repre­
sents a separate lexical entry would be to undermine the
basis of linguistics, which is to make explicit—not to
conceal-—conjoined relationships between sound and meaning.
Such examples are thought-provoking. Apparently the
(meager) generalizations to be grasped here are: when a mor­
pheme begins with a labial continuant, (1) sometimes it is
always realized as [v-] (vigor, invigorate, vigil(anee),
siœveillanee &c), (2) sometimes always as [f-] {flip, flap,
flop, fillip &c), and (3) sometimes now as [f-], now as [v-]
(fiddle(r) ~ viola, violoncellist &c). The last possibility,
(3), is the most interesting: there does not seem to be any
Ρ env. governing the voice-specification; it is almost a
matter of whim. But it will have to be rule-governed whim,
even though we do not yet know how to formulate such a
rule.34
Returning to fox vs vixen, 'we see that since the gram­
mar must already (= regardless of the existence of these two
words) contain a rule to account for anlaut f- ~ V-, it would
be a mistake not to derive these two words from the same
root. Precisely how to treat f- ~ V- is a problem whose
complexity does not seem unduly increased by this decision.
The only new problem this decision forces on us is how to
treat ~ i , and we may have to deal with that problem any­
way, if are '~ is is a bona fide alternation (as seems likely).
Thus we have managed to answer the question about fox ~
vixen. But not in a very interesting manner. The interest-
Intro.4 24

ing question (now, unfortunately, counterfactual) would

have been this: would we have made the same decision if
there had been no other related f- ~ ν- pairs? It is hard
to believe the apparently chance occurrence of a very few
alternating pairs (not even everyday words) should have
such a contributory effect on analysis. Let us look at
the matter a bit more closely:—
Suppose there had been no other lexically related
words with f- ~ ν- and suppose (perhaps governed by some
"sound" principle) we had decided the roots in fox and
vixen were separate, unrelated, lexical entries. What
would these entries look like? Would any/some/a lot of
repitition be involved?
Semantically, the entries would be identical; that is
to say, whatever was necessary to spell out the "meaning"
of fox would be required in toto for vixen (and vice versa),
the "fem."-specification being presumably due to -en (after
all, this can scarcely be the -en of oxen).35
Phonologically, the first segments would be identi­
cal, except for the one feature ± t v o i o e . The third and
fourth segments (ks) would be precisely identical. The
second segment would not differ enormously: in both "roots"
it would be a V, different in features for front-baok and
high-tow—three, or perhaps four feature-specifications,
depending on what feature-system one used. Even this is
an exaggeration because we know from many overt V ~ V al­
ternations that round usually appears phonetically (at
least in American E) as unround 2, as in cania, where we
would expect *c6nic alongside cone (similarly, tone ~ tän-
ic, Ethiopia ~ Ethiopie, provoke proväcative, holy days
'~ holidays, nose ~ nastril, joke ~ jacular, Amazonian ~
Amazon, verbose ~ verbasity, sole ~ solitary, pedagogy ~
pedagague &c). Given this independent motivation for a
rule o ~ a we could just as well say o (not a) underlies
the vowel in fox, in which case the vowel-difference be­
tween vixen and fox would be not high-low but only high-
mid.
To summarize the above: the two putative lexical en­
tries would be virtually exact repetitions; they would dif­
fer only by a very few Ρ feature-specifications. Such en­
tries are not designed to capture conjoined sound-meaning
 25 Intro.5

relationships, but just the reverse. Put differently, such

entries are explicitly designed to negate the basic goal of
linguistics. They are, in a word, anti-linguistic.
A linguistic analysis of fox ~ vixen3 the only one
now available, must derive them from the same lexical root
regardless of the existence of other pairs in ƒ- ~ ν-.
We compare another animal, equus. Here the situation
is different because we have three (not two) contrasting
labels :

(13) MALE GENERAL FEMALE

stallion horse mare
fox fox vixen

Another difference between "equus" and "vulpes"—the

one of interest here—is that s t a l l i o n , horse, and mare are
derived from three distinct roots, whereas fox and vixen
(as we saw with two different approaches) must be from a
single root. All these Ns are dissimilar from a Gk N like
ίππος, which designates both male and female, and illus­
trates the earlier IE situation (Meillet 1950: 116).

5. Conclusion.

At present, one of the most difficult tasks in lin­

guistics is demonstration that two given forms are related
in a particular way. For (14) and (15) e.g. it is not suf­
ficient merely to claim "They are related in that both have
undergone application of 'the passive transformation": that

(14) The ball was hit by the batter.

(15) He111 be convinced by her.

(even correctness of the notion "passive transformation")

has to be argued for. The argumentation for (14) and (15)
is by now well-known, involving demonstration that natural
languages have an infinite number of sentences, reasoning
that since humans could not possibly memorize that many
sentences as individual units, there must be rules to "gen-
Intro.5 26

érate" them, and so on. It is worth pointing out the ob­

vious: the argumentation up to now has not been airtight;
it leaks.
When one turns to relationships among individual
words, however, available arguments of any quality what­
ever are essentially absent, and it is for this reason we
begin the book with discussion of inflection in strong Vs.
Here at least there is general agreement on the data to
be accounted for (even though there may be phenomenal dis­
agreement over a few particular Vs). Based on the assump­
tion that the task of a grammar of E is to make explicit
conjoined sound-meaning relationships, we have argued that
analysis of drive/driven, ride/ridden, for example, must
be by rules which (1) assign a PRT morpheme -n and (2) mod­
ify the vowel representation of the two roots in the ap­
propriate manner: to list driven, ridden in the dictionary
as entries separate from drive, ride would be to fail in
the task of making explicit the conjoined sound-meaning
relationships here. But, frankly, we do not know how best
to reply to someone who argues against our analysis in the
following manner:
With regular Vs (look(ed), roam(ed) &c) the native
speaker has the ability of prediction: faced with a new V
doob, all speakers predict the weak PRT doobed. The gram­
mar must therefore reflect this ability by means of rules
to govern inflectional forms of weak Vs. But with strong
Vs, the situation is entirely different. That ridden and
driven, for example, both end in [-n] and that they both
have the same difference in vowels when compared to ride,
drive are simply accidents, of which the native speaker is
unaware. The best analysis here, therefore, is to list
ridden and driven in the lexicon as entries separate from
ride and drive, because this is the analysis which re­
flects what the native speaker knows about these forms.
And in general it is true that for all strong Vs the cor­
rect analysis is to list inflected forms in the lexicon
as entries separate from uninflected forms. This is the
analysis which reflects the innate knowledge of the native
speaker, and this is therefore the correct analysis of
strong Vs.
 27 Intro.5

I have replied to this argument by showing that too

many Vs have PRT in -en for this to be considered an acci­
dent, that vowel-alternation in inflection (at least some
of it) is too regular to be considered a chance affair.
Analysis which lists various forms of a verb in the lexi­
con as separate, unrelated entries, however, is uninstruc-
tive: it merely tells us—in the form of lists—something
we already know (that driven is. the PRT of drive &c), with­
out giving any insight into how the grammar of E shows re­
lationship (s) between sound and meaning· Within our view,
however, there are several possible relationships which may
exist between two words· There are both straight examples
like dog/dogs (a deep relation with immanent identity of
both sound and meaning), cereal/serial (surface similarity
in sound but not meaning), happy/glad (surface similarity
in meaning but not sound), sentence/pig (surface similar­
ity in neither sound nor meaning), and also more complex
examples like sorrow/sorry with surface similarity in both
sound and meaning but nevertheless, perhaps, no deep, in­
ner grammatical relation (our analysis may show that simi­
larity both in sound and in meaning here is accidental).
If this reply is considered inadequate, it is not clear
where to turn. Thus would begin a fruitless disagreement
which could not be resolved (at least not with our present
lack of understanding).
All theories of language postulate certain data as
given, as undefined primitives. For someone who does not
accept the ungrammaticality of (16) as an undefined primi-

(16) *The house that the cat which the woman whom the
man... loved tolerated lived in collapsed.

tive, much (if not all) of the instructive discussion on

self-embedded clauses will be without import.
Perhaps we can say this about linguistics: worthwhile
theories (even though not necessarily correct) at least
promote instructive discussion. Until relevant fields even
more empirical than linguistics (neurology, for example)
become more firmly established, this may be the most we can
say with any certainty. Until then, a demand for perfect
n. 14 28

tion may constitute too extreme a demand· This is perhaps

one of the obstacles to achieving Love's requirement (n. 9).
For this book, therefore, we shall adopt as an unde­
fined primitive that paradigmatic inflection of a N or V
in E is best described by derivation from a single lexical
entry. That is to say, we assume given in advance as cor­
rect that in the most highly valued linguistic description
of E—in the description that best reflects brain-function
of native speakers—surface representations of a pair like
cat, oats are not derived from two separate lexical entries,
but from a single lexical entry. The same is true of ety-
moriy etyma. And of verb forms like vend, vends , vended.
In particular—this is roughly where the book begins—prin­
cipal parts of a strong verb (swim, swam, swum &c) are de­
rived from one (not two or three) lexical entries. This
a priori assumption, from which we hope the rest of our de­
scription necessarily follows, does not include suppletion;
in other words, we are not obliged to derive the surface re­
presentation of went from the same root (lexical entry) that
underlies go(ne). Although I tried to argue in the preced­
ing paragraphs for the inherent correctness of this assump­
tion, in order to avoid nonproductive quarrels I decided to
weaken my claim about E to a hypothesis given in advance, a
hypothesis that needs no verification. The argumentation
of the preceding paragraphs can now be taken as support for
the correctness of the hypothesis, evidence to demonstrate
its plausibility. When we understand more fully the nature
of DM, perhaps we can replace this undefined primitive by a
more risky, less plausible supposition.
Before taking up the question of strong Vs (in Chap­
ter I), we give a summary list of E prefixes.

NOTES

l4
See Swiggers 1979 and refs. there for comments a-
bout pertinent views on this issue held by some of the 18th
century contributors to VEncyclopedie. The viewpoint a-
 29 nn. 15-17

dopted by Chomsky was interestingly discussed in Meillet's

"Introduction" in 1908, despite the opening, which presents
a language-particular setting:
"On ne rencontre nulle part l'unite linguistique complète.
"Une même personne parle de manière sensiblement différ­
ente, suivant l'état physique et mental ou elle se trouve à
un moment donné, suivant les personnes auxquelles elle s'ad­
resse, suivant le lieu, le temps et les circonstances exté­
rieures" (1950: 1).
See also the language-particular comments on A in η. 12.
15
In general, throughout the book I rely on my own
idiolect. I glanced briefly (and rewardingly) at some of
the dictionaries, but have not always followed their recom­
mendations when they conflict with my own (quite limited)
experience. This may sometimes raise disagreement regard­
ing e.g. attestation of some forms, grammaticality of other
forms, and so on, but I trust it will prove no serious im­
pediment to reading this book, in which what we are now pri­
marily concerned with is showing the necessity for including
three rules in the grammar of E. [7]
16
This is not the way SPE gives the rule. Guierre
1979 compares this form to the SPE form, ultimately reject­
ing both. In general, we will not be overly concerned in
this book with the "proper" formulation of rules (esp. well-
known rules like this one); in the discussion below e.g. it
will be seen that for our elementary purposes it does not
really matter yet exactly how the rule is stated. Inciden­
tally, one notices a similar (the same?) phenomenon of only
long auslaut vowels in Gâthic Avestan (cf., e.g., Jackson,
I, 130-50), and (in momosyllabic words) Latin, Hebrew, and
later Avestan. [8]
17
I refer to the as yet unstressed alternants -lv-
Or -lev-. It is particularly difficult to "feel" relation­
ship here because stress is such an overriding sound-feature
of E it tends to slant our intuition—often (as here) in­
correctly. Rid of this false intuition, we might'perhaps
see "leave" in -lv- ~ -lev-y in which case twelve would
mean 'two leave (left over [after ten])' and eleven 'one
nn. 18-20 30

leave1 (perhaps with -n of one dropped as in the article)·

This suggestion, actually, is not so far-fetched: on the
one hand, cf. triads like gEne(alogy) pre-gn-ant ~
gen(oaide) beside lEve ~ twe-lv-e ~ e-lev-en; on the other,
cf. Lth dvy-lika 'twelve < two left', a parallel, but more
transparent, formation (-lika 'left1, in fact, is used for
all cardinals 11-19; see e.g. Dambriunas et a l . , p. 124,
and cf. (- )likti 'to leave (behind)'). We return to 11
(Gth airilif, G elf) and 12 (Gth twalifj G zwölf) later;
more on the "one"-family, v. first entry in App.2.4. [8]
18
But we already saw earlier (n. 17) a problem
with the vowel in the corresponding tw- form: twelve <
tu-7-lv-. [9]
19
The forms given (easily supplemented) seem to
suggest As in -ative are derived from Vs in -ate. There
are, however, several As in -ative for which no corre­
sponding V in -ate can be found: a b l a t i v e , affirmative,
calm·-, c o n s e r v - , d e r i v - , evoc- (evocate is arch.), exclam-,
i l l - , inform-, laud-y m u l t i p l i e - , pro-/re-nunci- (but cf.
(d)enunciative alongside (d)enunciate), provoc- (there is
provoke [with "k"]9 but no * p r o v o c a t e ) , purg- (but cf. ex­
purgate) , r e p r e s e n t - , retard-> s i g n i f i e - , superb-y talk-
(even with n. 17 in mind, my intuition tells me "talkate"
is—for some reason—scarcely conceivable as a V in Ε ) ,
voc- &c. And of course there are numerous Vs in -ate from
which one cannot find derived As in -ative (decapitate,
excav-, hydr-j oblig- &c). Hoenigswald poses a_ similar
problem for L, p. 61, fn. 5. [9]
2
°A similar problem arises for A/V in -ate:
A: accurate, adequate, (non-)collegi-, (in)consider-, (in)-
delic-, desper-, disconsol-, effemin-, intric-, inviol-,
(im)macul-, (com)passion-, priv-, proflig-, (in)temper-,
ultim- &c (all in [-at]);
V: assimilAte, com-/im-plicate, decor-, educ-, imit-, in-
terrog-, irrig-, loc-, mitig-, speeul- &c (all in [-At]);
A/V: alternate, anim-, appropri-, articul-, conjug-, desol-,
duplic-, elabor-, gemin-, intim-, legitim-, medi-, mod-
 31 n. 21

er-, separ-, subordin- &c (A in [-at]; V in [-At]).

All Vs are in -Ate* but some As do not have a reduced
final vowel (cordAte* innAte* insensAte* irAte* ornAte*
ovAte* prostrAte* sedAte* trilobAte &c), and some As have
variants (aureate* particulate* triangulate &c, with [-At ~
-at]). This example is more complex because not all words
in -ate are As or Vs: the Ns c e l i b ə t e , certificate* clim-,
consul-, deleg- frig-* pir-* pomegran-, postut-, sen-,
syndic- &c are in [-at] vs dictAte* f i l t r a t e , hydr-, mand-*
magistr-, n i t r - , magn-, potent-, prim-, phosph-* s a l i c y l - ,
vulg- &c in [-At] vs Ns with variant [-At ~ -ət] like can­
didate, distill-* noviti-* opi-* surrog-* tempi-* vertebr­
­­.
Another general problem arising with some of these words
is how to distinguish well-formed from ill-formed words
(profligate from *fligate &c). The problem apparently be­
comes more severe when one includes words in actual use (=
not restricted to dictionaries); consider in this light e.g.
Eliot's "swelling to maculate giraffe," where the A was
evidently long thought over and carefully chosen. Intui­
tion (n. 17), of course, plays its role as well. [9]
2l
We find Ns in -ion from virtually all Vs in -ate:
thus, alternate and alternation from a l t e r n - , and similarly
from approxim-* articul-* circul-* collabor-, communic-,
complic-* copul-, c u l t i v - , devi-* differenti-, educ-* e-
jacul-, gesticul-, imit-, indic-, i s o l - , medic-, mat-, pro-
lifer-* r e l - , r o t - , separ-, toler- &c. But for some Ns in
-ation there is no corresponding V in -ate: relaxation but
*relaxate* and similarly with applic-, c i v i l i z - , combin-,
(re)commend-, convers-, conserv-, deriv-* exclam-, explan-*
explor-* generaliz-, imagin-, infest-, inform-* multiplic-*
nasaliz-* observ-* (re)present-, pronuncia-* qualific-, re­
tard-* revel-* revitaliz-* salut-, signific-* solicit-*
vari- &c. Cf. n. 19.
I mention now a type of example that is not often con­
sidered in this work. There is neither *spectate nor
*spectation. But the well-formedness of spectator suggests
absence of *spectate is merely an accidental gap (cf. spec-
tare* s p e c t ā t u s , freq. of specere 'look at'); and if spec-
nn. 22-3 32

tate is only accidentally absent, lack of spectation too

ought to be considered only an accidental gap. In short,
the presence of agent-N spectator requires a V spectate,
and presence of V spectate automatically generates N spec­
tation. We do not know how many examples there are of
this type or how correctly to evaluate their status.
The following is another example similar to -ate/cation
of the first paragraph: As in -ent seem regularly to pro­
vide Ns in -ence (absent/-ence; similarly with ambival-,
belliger-, (in)compet-, complae-, confid-, consequ-, (in)-
conveni-, converg-, corpul-, c r e d - , (in) depend-, (pre)emin-,
indig-, innoc-, magnifie-, mate-/bene-vol-, pati-, re-
splend-, retic-, sil-, suecul-, trucul-, viol- &c), but for
some Ns in -ence there is no corresponding A in -ent (ex­
perience but *experient; similarly with audi-, ess- ( * e s ­
sent, but essent-ial), infer- (but V infer and N inferent),
influ-, lic-, sci- ( * s c i e n t , but scient-ific), sent- &c).
This problem is of wider scope because there are similar
A/N pairs in -ant ~ -ance (thus, clairvoy-, dist-, domin-,
eleg-, fragr-, import-, reluct-, signifie- (cf. magnific-
above) &c), in -ent ~ -eney (thus, clem-, cog-, eomplac-
(also complacence), c o n t i n g - , curr-, depend- (but *inde-
pendency), frequ- (also frequence!), pot-, strid- (also
stridence?) &c), and in -ant ~ - (thus, discrep-, ex­
pect-, milit-, relev- (also relevance), vac- &c) . [10]
22
A competitive analysis of gander is from ganr-,
with d intrusive (as in thunder, number &c) and final -r
syllabic; but here one would have to decide (1) what is the
-r in gander and (2) what is the -s in goose (possibly
these are the same, with s ~ r as in was ~ were). Under
either analysis, the proposed UPR for goose--i.e. /gand/ or
/gans/—is (1) far removed from the "sound" [gUs] and (2)
distracting in its similarity to G. Meillet suggests not
that OCS gast is a Gmc loan, but that the velar appears by
dissimilation from the following s, cf. Lth žasís (1950:
50); this suggestion, however, may pose difficulties with
the root vowel. [11]
23
Tonsure 'shaving the head' perhaps related to an-
 33 nn. 24-26

ctomical (ana- 'up'), and those two to tmesis. Under this

analysis, these words would represent o-grade and Ø-grade
of a root like tem- 'cut' (cf. temenos, esteem). [11]
24
Cf. OE hūsbonda 'master of the hūs house', which
suggests E husband may be related to house. If the words
are from hUs-, then we would need U > aw for house [haws].
But we have already suggested—for gosling--a rule short­
ening Vs before C-clusters; that rule would apply correct­
ly in hUs-b- > hus-b-. Under this analysis, [z] in hus­
band is a result of voice-assimilation. But these comments
on hUs- are beside the point: all we really want here is an
example of voice-assimilation, and these are easy to find
(heave ~ heft(y), pharyngeal ~ pharynx, (para)plegia
(apo)plexy &c; v. (24) below for more).
25
This situation is not restricted to E. In I.2.3
below, e.g., it is not obvious that we want the synchronic
grammar of R to derive ŠËL and XODÍT' from the same root.
Again, Love writes about F that "enfer /ãfεr/ is presumably
to be related to infernal11 (MS, 72), but it is not clear
who makes this presumption, what criteria were used to ar­
rive at it, or even what "related" means. Love goes on to
the dubious suggestion that because of infernal, the UPR of
enfer should terminate in -n. To resolve this question it
is necessary to think over what enfer means and perhaps to
consider foreign words like L Znfrā and E under. The UPR
of F enfer might be smth. like n-thr- (cf. entre < inter- <
n-tr-; E words like dysentery, enter(ic), entrail(s), in­
terior, intrinsic, mesentery &c seem to present correspond­
ing problems in analysis). Cf. III.5.1. [12]
26
My knowledge of F is so fragmentary I am reluc­
tant to criticize. Nevertheless, it seems to me the exam­
ples given by Love for demonstration were not too wisely
chosen, and I agree with his evaluation "It is wildly un­
likely that the representation |ljos| underlies lion, lion­
ne and lionceau11 (131)--that strikes me as would a sugges­
tion E lion ends with -p due to leopard. Involved here
may be an UPR smth. like leon- (a non-IE root), proper use
n. 26 34

of # before "endings11 (required also for fem. of grognon

&c), and mcre sophisticated use of "secondary derivation".
In addition, not all potentially related, relevant words
were cited; words like Léandre 'lion-man', Léo(nard) (a
Gmc loan), Léonides, léonin, leopard, Leopold (from Gmc
*leud-bald-, i.e., historically not cognate with lion, but
with *leudh-\ cf. G Leute, LJUDI ( . 49) &c), Lionel, and
so on, have to be evaluated before one can hope to analyze
coherently. Again, it is unlikely nu(dité) are from a
root nyd-, cf. nūdus < *nowd- < * gw dh- (v. naked); if
"it seems that e.g. nu cannot be simply related to n u d i t é "
(132), that may be because we have not tried hard enough
yet. Love's criticism that "secondary derivation is of
course an absurdly ad hoc device for accounting for data
which simply cannot be treated solely with reference to
deletion rules, however formulated" (131) applies properly
not to "secondary derivation" but to the particular way in
which he uses it. After all, somehow or other we have to
do better than "What these data [= the behavior of final
Cs in six, huit, dix] suggest, if anything, is the impos­
sibility of a non-arbitrary, unique solution to the gen­
eral problem of final segments in French in terms of either
deletion or insertion" (152; my emphasis). Finally, I want
once more to harp on the importance of having the data a-
vailable before drawing conclusions/proposing analyses.
This becomes clear in Love's discussion of Tranel 1976:
"Now the phonological change that has occurred (i.e. [sέf-
> sέkf-]) has had no effect on the older speakers1 pro­
nunciation of cinq femmes and presumably, no effect on
their grammar" (157 fn.); this is too strong a presumption
— a t our present level of understanding we simply do not
know: how the brain deals with language is virtually a to­
tal mystery to us. Once more (the inner citation is from
Tranel): "One may or may not be able to 'explain the rela­
tions between adjacent synchronic grammars' (whatever they
may be). But it is certain that one cannot do so by incor­
porating the explanation into the grammar itself" (157)—
perhaps "unlikely", but "certain" is too strong—once a-
gain, we just do not know: the relevant data from which we
could decide are unavailable to us at present. Love writes
 35 nn. 27-29

"The notion that there can be rules that express generali­

sations in vacuo is simply incomprehensible" (158); the
notion may be wrong (incorrect, descriptively inadequate
&c) , but it is surely not "incomprehensible". These
points are reminiscent of the response, from which (it
seems to me) Love drew the wrong conclusion: when pre­
sented with hypothetical, C-final fem. As and asked for
the masc, "most informants simply protested [with good
reason I should think--TML] that they could not say what
the masculine form should be, since they did not know the
word in question" (196). A study like Greenberg & Golde's
might one day be relevant to a correct interpretation of
some of these matters. [12]
27
But (strangely) after decade -ty (mentioned in
§2.1), there is a V: 20th, 30th, 40th &c, all in [- əθ].

The example shows "sound" alone does not help

much in linguistic analysis. We saw this before (cf. my
1966, 1972, 1973, 1978a, 1979a &c, and here: nn. 3, 13,
our vs hour, eleven vs twelve vs leave/left (n. 17), two
vs twenty vs dual, goose vs gander (n. 22), tonsure vs
tmesis (n. 23), husband vs house (n. 24), F enfer vs en­
tre 'between' (n. 25), E infernal vs interior vs entrails,
lion vs leopard vs Léopold, tooth vs dental), and we will
see it again and again. There is no "pattern" to "sound"
in language. It is only sound joined to meaning that has
relevance to Language (and consequently to linguistics),
and then "sound" and "meaning" are multiply-ambiguous (un­
derlying, intermediary, or surface?). Another example
from E: consider "sound" and thermos ~ furnace ~ warm.
Or--to pick an even more extreme case--consider quick (as
in quick-sand, the quick and the dead) ~ biopsy ~ vivi­
parous [vïvō, IžVÚ] zoo; from this group, (a)live, (im)-
mortal [a-μβρOTOS, MËRTVYJ] &c have to be excluded, but
one may well ask: on what basis? [13]
29
Weekley claims "all verbs of this nature are
formed from the name of the substance applied" (1912: 157
fn.). [15]
n. 30 36

30
After this was written, I learned that the ques­
tion has been approached in the literature, at least in a
P sense. Guierre found 44 non-prefixed homographs in
-CC(e) representing both N and V: only 7 had stress-shift
{torment, ferment,... 393); 37 had no stress-shift (ca­
ress, c e m e n t , . . . , canvass, placard, herald,... 403). With
ref. to the SPE stress-rules, which distinguish N from V
in this position, he asks "caress, cement,... sont-ils des
substantifs irréguliers ou des verbes réguliers? canvass,
placard,... sont-ils des substantifs réguliers ou des
verbes irréguliers?" (403). [16]
Linguistically, surface stress does not seem to us a
particularly important or interesting aspect of E: it in­
volves "sound" too much and not structure enough. One can­
not help observing it is not even marked in orthography.
Even in the MIT-view, the main thing to hinge on stress is
"reduction" of certain vowels to , We feel, however, that
stress may play a more expedient role in both DM and P of
E. For one possible example, see the sketchy derivations
of finger in II.2.4, of scythe in III.4.2. I have little
to say about surface stress of E in this Introduction.
But I must confess that sometimes, intricate problems do
seem to arise in this area. I mention one here (see n. 220
for another):
Consider the verb -fer 'carry', which in E occurs only
with the prefixes con-, de-, dif-, (from dis- < {dw-
'two'})., in-, of- (from oh-, hence offer 'carry to(ward)
[someone--this indirect object must be overtly stated or
easily inferred]'), pre-, pro-, re-, suf- (f sub-, hence
suffer, along the lines 'carry from under' > 'bear up';
suffrage 'right to vote' (q.v.) is not related), and
trans-. Why is the V thus restricted? Why e.g. is there
no V *effer (cf. L effere 'carry ex- out/away')? Of the
Vs that do occur, only offer and transfer underlie homo-
phonous nouns. Why? We cannot answer these questions, but
at least the data provide a means to determine whether N <
V or V < N: for -fer, we would prefer to posit V as basic
and N derived in only two cases--this is more straightfor­
ward than deriving Ns for all prefixes, then V < N, and
finally marking eight of the ten Ns ungrammatical.
 37 n. 31

There is also a problem (apparently unrelated to N-

formation) with stress: with dif-, of-, pro-, and suf-,
stress is prefixai (súffer &c) ; with con-, de-, i n - , p r e - ,
and r e - , radical (confer &c). Why is the stress not always
prefixai (or always radical)? Again, given that the stress
will vary (depending, apparently, on the particular prefix
used), why is the distribution as mentioned and not differ­
ent (say prefixai stress with con-, de-, dif-, radical
stress with the rest)? We might here be observing linguis­
tic change. That is to say, earlier the stress may always
have been prefixai, and it began shifting to the root with
certain prefixes (perhaps those most frequently used); or
the historical stress-shift may have been in just the re­
verse direction. The shift may have occurred prefix by
prefix until it reached the present distribution; it may
still be ongoing. Interestingly, the prefix trans- permits
both stresses (both transfer and transfer). If this (or
smth. like it) is indeed the historical status, we ought
to consider a synchronic analysis which mirrors the change:
assign stress always to the prefix (or root) and then shift
it by a rule which mentions the particular prefixes (and
optionally, trans-).
When I said (two paragraphs above) that orthography
does not mark stress, it was not entirely accurate. When
-fer is inflected with -ed, for example, the root-final
(the r) is doubled when the root is stressed, not doubled
when the prefix is stressed (conferred but offered &c).
With variant stress (= with brans-), the r is doubled (=
transferred) . Does the spelling give us a clue to the
historical situation? A perhaps more important question
also arises: is current spelling going to interfere with
completion of a natural linguistic change? [16]
31
Although I have made no proposal of syntactic in-
termediacy in any of the pairs above, that path seems like­
ly; we remember some of the closing remarks in Benveniste's
thoughtful paper on the Latin genitive: "Ces deux classes
de noms... étant sous la dépendance du verbe, et non l'in­
verse, les syntagmes qu'ils constituent avec le génitif
doivent être interprétés comme dérivés par transposition
de la rection du verbe personnel: tolerans frigoris et
n. 32 38

tolerantia frigoris ne sont possibles qu'à partir de t o l e r -

are frigus. Nous avons donc à reconnaître ici le génitif
en une fonction spécifique résultant de la conversion de
la forme verbale personnelle en forme nominale de participe
ou de substantif abstrait. Mais, dès lors qu'on englobe
dans cet emploi les substantifs verbaux, il n'y a aucune
raison de se borner à ceux qui sont tirés de verbes trans­
itifs " (1962/1966: 147). [17]
32
The P here is not restricted to verbs in -fy; cf.
ap-/im-/multi-plic-ation ~ -ply (n. 190). Moreover, the
nominal from cruci-fy is in -fixion, not -fication. There
are, furthermore, some exceptions to the schema outlined
above': publication beside *publicate and V * p u b l i c (but cf.
publish < publ-isk-); similarly, trepidation beside *trep-
idate and V *trepid(e) , vocation but *vocate, *voe(e), ova­
tion 'applause' but *ov(ate) (distinct from homophonous ov-
'egg' in ovum, ovulate, ovary, oval, ovi-, ovo-, A ovate
&c); we do not know how many exceptions there are like
these. Also, one seems to find both pacify and pacifícate,
both certify and certificAte (probably de-N); the list of
L verbs like (ponti)ficate is easily obtained from an a
tergo dictionary. Historically, it is known that a few Vs
in -ate are back formations from Ns in -ation (thus, do­
nate, manipulate, orate from donation [F < dōnātiōnem <
PRT dōrātus], manipulation, oration, e.g.), but the syn­
chronic significance of this fact would seem to be margin­
al.
Returning to the P - f i c > -fy, - p l i c > -ply, we ob­
serve that it does not seem confined to k. For example,
with g we have ally, lit. 'bind ad- to', from lig- 'bind'
(cf. ligature 'smth. used for binding (cord, wire &c)',
obligatory 'binding, compulsory', oblige 'bind ob- to'
&c). Again, with d we have obey, lit. 'listen ob- to',
(roughly) from awd- 'hear' (cf. not only d in obedient,
but also words like audible 'capable of being heard', au­
dience, audit (a course, e.g.), auditor(y) &c [audire]),
heir, inherit, herit-able/-age (from F < (hērēditāre <)
hērēs, herēdis 'heir', cf. d in hered-itary/-ity) &c.
Forms without the consonant (-fy, -ply, ally, obey, heir
 39 nn. 33-35

&c) are F reflexes from the roots, borrowed by E. That is

to say, we have ally < OF alier < alligäre &c (also here
are liaison, liable, the last from F lier 'bind' < ligare
'bind').
33
This may not be too bold a proposal. We already
(n. 22) suggested s ~ r in was ~ were; perhaps is ~ are is
the same. Cf. n. 58. [21]
34
However the rule is best formulated, it seems re­
stricted to labials; in my idiolect, there are no mor­
phemes realized in anlaut [G-] ~ [ -], [s-] ~ [z-], or [s-]
~ [z-]. There are, however, constraints. No morphemes at
all occur in [z-], except loans (F Jean(ne), Giles, R Zhu-
kov &c). For the non-strident dental, weak "grammatical11
forms are in [ -] (than, that, the, their(s), them, then,
those, though); all the rest (the "real" words) are in
[0-]: thaw, Thebes, thermo-, Thessalonica, thick, thin,
think, thong, throw, thug &c); there is (or at least there
was) even a minimal pair: thy vs thigh (thy is used e.g.
in the Lord's Prayer). [23]
35
Note fox 'sly/crafty person', vixen argumenta­
tive, shrewish woman'; also interesting is dia- and syn-
chronically unrelated vulpine, both 'resembling or pert, to
a fox' and 'clever, devious, cunning'. These meanings
raise the fundamentally important question of how to treat
metaphorical extension. As another example, we have maul
'heavy hammer' [L malleus 'hammer', cf. n. 7] > 'use a
heavy hammer' > 'handle roughly' > 'bruise, lacerate'.
Again, from hurl 'throw' [ME hurlen] > 'throw with force'
> 'utter fervently' (as in hurl insults).
Such examples are relatively easy to collect. A com­
mon development e.g. is 'bent' > 'misshapen' > 'dishonest'
> 'swindling' > 'thievish'. In E we find to crook 'bend,
curve', crooked 'having bends/curves', crook 'something
bent/curved, a bent/curved tool', crooked 'misshapen',
crooked 'dishonest', and crook 'swindler, thief'; histori­
cally, words like creek, crutch [OE crycc--the "t,r is sole­
ly orthographic], crotch(et), (la)crosse, crochet [a Gmc
n. 35 40

loan in F, with F k > š], crosier, encroach are from the

same source. One sees roughly the same S development in L
prāvus 'crooked' > 'perverted' > 'wicked' (cf. deprave(d),
depravity). From the nearly synonymous base, sin- 'bend,
curve, fold', however, we do not find this metaphorical ex­
tension; the examples are generally quite literal: sinuous,
sinus, and math. ( )sine--at best we can point to insinu­
ate 'wind one's way in', where there seems to be a meta­
phorical correlation between winding/curving/"worming"
one's way to achieve a desired goal and the presumed in-
sidiousness of such action. For {kr- 'curve, bend'}, v.
III.5.2 The antonym of 'curved, bent' has antonymous ex­
tensions: one of the definitions for straight in AHD (there
labeled slang) is 'conventional and law-abiding; not being
a criminal, drug user, homosexual etc.' This corresponds
well to the way I have heard the word used, except it of­
ten carries a (more or less, depending on particular cir­
cumstances) pejorative overtone. I suspect the A rectus
'right, straight' in L (from PRT of regere 'lead/keep
straight, straighten') had similar extensions. The Gk pre­
fix ortho- means 'straight, rectangular' and also 'cor­
rect, righteous', as in orthodontia, orthogonal 'right-
angled', orthodox 'adhering to accepted beliefs'.
This question of metaphorical extension leads in turn
to the difficult problem of restricting usage of words.
As an example, consider tickle, which requires an animate
object (*She tickled the log.), and ivory, which permits
pl. only in the sense of 'different kinds of ivory'; never­
theless, we have tickle the ivories 'play the piano', with
clear metaphorical extensions and clear "well-formed" vi­
olations of grammatical (S?) restrictions. As another in­
stance of permissiveness in the use of words through meta­
phorical extension, consider Sherwood Cummings' apt remarks
in his introduction to Crane's novel: "The Red Badge is a
'color-ful' book; there is hardly a page on which a color
is not named. Many times these colors are symbolic. Red
almost always signifies danger, fear, or violence. Gray is
associated with death, and yellow often with decay. A few
times Crane uses colors fancifully to produce a synesthetic
effect--that is, he applies color values to senses other
than sight, as in 'crimson roar' and 'red cheers'." (vii).
 41 n. 35

It is not yet clear how to analyze any such forms; cf.

. 6. It would be easy, however, to cite additional in­
stances :
Literally e.g. the only grammatical subjects of V
smile 'curve the corners of the mouth upward to form a
facial expression indicating pleasure, affection, or amuse­
ment' are 1) humans (thus, we ought to star strings like
*The penguin smiled lackadaisically before preening its
plumes.), 2) representations of humans (as in Zeus smiled
at her human weaknesses.), and 3) human body-parts like
mouth. Zips (thus we ought to star *Her kneecaps smiled
at me when she opened the door.). Nevertheless, we find
well-formed sentences like Even the goalie 's kneecaps
smiled when—kneeling on the ice—he so easily blocked
the oncoming puck., Fortune smiled on her., When Irish
eyes are smiling, and so on.
In E there are a number of related words indicating
covering worn around the shoulders or on the head: cape,
cap, chapeau, kepi &c. Historically, these words are
from L cappa 'hood, cloak', ooo. The P development (with
> s in F) is well-known and not discussed in this book.
But chaperon also belongs to this group and is relevant
to the notion of metaphorical extension discussed here.
Our proposed synchronic S derivation is roughly from
'hood' to 'protector' to 'protector of a young woman',
supplemented with whatever features are necessary to
specify the surface S representation of chaperon. In
this family are still other examples of S development:
cap from 'close-fitting covering for the head' to 'tight-
fitting covering for bottles', from 'put a cap on' to
'lie on top of' {snow-capped peaks). Something like ex-
-capp-are, presumably with a lit. meaning, has resulted
in F échapper (E escape from a North F dialect in which
failed to undergo palatalization; scape(goat) aphetic
for escape). Chapel from cappella 'cloak' to 'place con­
taining a holy cloak', whence chaplain.
As indicated in the last paragraph, metaphorical ex­
tension is not restricted to E. Beside hiems 'winter',
for example, -himos 'winter old' is used in (contracted)
bīmus, trīmus to mean '(two/three) years old'. Again,
n. 35 42

from pēs, pedis ' foot1 are derived words like pedículo,
'fetter', e x p e d i r e 'free (the feet) from fetters', imped-
īr 'put (the feet) into fetters'. But pedículo, may also
mean 'shackle' (i.e. not restricted to "feet"), and the
verbs too may be used in a more extended sense: expedīre
'free, extricate', impedīre 'entangle, ensnare', the
sources of E e x p e d i t e , impede. As another example, con­
sider Vivo 'furrow', with rhotacism from l e i s - ā (Lth lysė
'farming strip 1 , o-grade OCS Vexo < lois-, LEXA &c). From
līra is derived dēlīrāre 'turn de- aside from the furrow'
> 'deviate from a straight line' > 'deviate' > 'be(come)
deranged'; from delirare is derived delirium 'madness, de­
lirium'. S development of leis- 'track, furrow' is slight­
ly different in Gmc, but the principle of extension re­
mains the same. Here we find forms like o-grade lois- 'fol­
low/find the track' > Gth loistyon 'follow', OE leornion,
G lernen 'learn' and caus. lehren 'teach', OE lor (NE
lore), OE lost 'track' > 'footprint' > 'sole of the foot'
> OE l c è s t e 'a last' and læston 'follow (a track)' > 'car­
ry out, perform' > 'continue, last'.
In mathematics, one speaks of osculoting piones. But
planes are not equipped to osculate, except when speaking
metaphorically.
Some proper names may have been formed in this way.
For example, E o l c y o n e , the widowed daughter of Aeolus, who
threw herself into the sea and emerged a kingfisher (αλ-
kuwv, ooo) . E holcyon 'calm, peaceful' is from this source.
Citation of further examples {bigwig 'important per­
son' , broinwosh, deflower, heortbroken, housebroken, stee­
ple-jock &c) would serve only to enforce the by now surely
already agreed upon conclusion: somehow or other, what we
call "grammar" must make available to native speakers
means to produce and understand S metaphorical extension,
be it in the form of a cliche or an original contribution.
I should point out that not all examples are quite so
straightforward as those above. The V crone e.g. is de­
rived from the name of the bird with the long neck. One
can easily envisage situations in which this piece of in­
formation is specialized knowledge, apparently unavailable
to language-learners. A grammatical difficulty in not de­
riving the V from the N, however, is with selectional re-
 43 n. 35

strictions on the object of crane: it must be neck and the

neck must belong to the subject (*Max craned her neck.).
Logically, there is no reason one cannot crane one's arm,
but typically cranes stretch their necks to see further,
cranes do not have arms, and so on. To compound the pro­
blem, the N crane 'machine for lifting heavy objects' is
also derived from the name of the bird, because of the long
"neck" of the machine.
It scarcely needs emphasis that devices of the type
mentioned in this note and in n. 6 (however they are best
to be captured formally) seem also to be employed in larger
units like phrases, sentences, paragraphs; shorter examples
include b all ears 'listen attentively', eggs sunny-side
up early b i r d , h e a r t s t r i n g s , eat one 's heart out, the
heart of the m a t t e r , a heart-to-heart talk, sweetheart,
the turn of the century, make eyes at 'gaze at flirtatious­
ly, ogle', fall in love, make love, make a clean breast of;
butchers who leave their meat in display cases uncovered
(by saranwrap) say "Raw meat has to breathe." And so on.
 Brooks and men are not mere material; they are "formed"
material, signs for conceptions with one important charac­
teristic, number, added. But then, by simple contrast with
them, brook and man are also "formed", each implies not a
sign, but by the absence of an otherwise necessary sign to
the contrary, restriction to a single article of the kind
named.
Whitney, The Life and Growth of Language 36

PREFIXES

We have not subjected these to analysis. But here is

list of some common prefixes, including the main orthograph­
ic shapes and (rough) meanings, with a few comments. The
three subdivisions were determined in a historical setting,
but this can be disregarded (at least temporarily). Notice
the gloss of a prefix usually follows the meaning of the
root (progress 'move(ment) pro- forward', pervade 'spread
per- through' &c), suggesting a correlation between prefixes
and particles of the type mentioned in Intro.3. The lists
which follow may be easier to understand after becoming more
familiar with some of the work that follows; we present them
here because it will be convenient to refer back to them.

44
 45 PFX.1

Latin Greek Gmc

ab(s)- ob- a(n)- hetero- a-
ad- per- amphi- homo- be-
ambi- post- ana- hyper- for-
bi- pre- anti- hypo- fore-
com- pro- apo- iso- ge-
de- re- cata- meta- in-
dis- se- dia- ortho- un-
en- sub- en- para-
ex- super- epi- peri-
extra- trans- ex- pro-
in- syn-

1. Latin.

ab(s)-, a- 'away (from), off': abduct 'lead away (from):

carry off by force, kidnap' (dūcere, ductus 'lead'; cf.
duct (ile), duke [OF duo < dux, ducis 'leader'], duch­
e s s / - y , con-/de-/in-/pro-/re-/se-duct(ion), -duce(ment)
&c), abhor 'shrink/shiver away from' (cf. horrify 'cause
to shrink/shake/shiver'), ab-scise 'cut off' (cf. re­
scind; scindere, scīidī, scissus [from skid-t-os] 'cut';
related words with [k] include Gk schizo-, schism, Gmc
s k i , chine 'backbone' [from OF; échine is ult. a Gmc
loan]; for -n- in -scind, n. 64; for related sheath,
shed, App.1.8; š- in related shed, shingle, shin, App.l.
19; abscise is unrelated to words like abscess, inci­
sion) , abscissa '(line) cut off' (math.; related to
last entry), abs-tract 'draw away from' (cf. at-/con-/
de-/dis-/ex-/pro-/re-/sub-tract(ion) &c; trahere, trac-
tus 'draw'), abs-cess 'a going away' (cf. -cess, ex­
cess 'a going out of/beyond', process, recess, recession,
recessive, concede &c; cēdere, cessus 'go'), a-vert 'turn
away, ward off, prevent' (v. re-vert),...
ad-, a p - , a t - , a c - , af-, as-, a g - , an-, at-, ar-, a- 'to-
(ward)': adduce, admit (v. e-mit), adopt, append 'hang
PFX.l 46

ad- on' (cf. pend-ular), attract 'draw to(ward)f (v.'

abs-tract), access (v. abs-cess), acknowledge, acquaint,
acquire, affricate 'rub ad- on' (cf. friction; fricare,
frictus 'rub'), assimilate, agglutinate 'join ad- to (as
if) with glue', annex 'join to' (cf. nexus, connect),
alliterate, arrange (cf. derange), a-spect (cf. s p e c t a t o r ,
spectacle(s), inspect, perspective &c), a-scend,37 inad­
vertent (in- 'not'; v. re-vert),...
ambi-, amb- before V, 'on both sides, both': ambidextrous,
ambivalent, amb-ient (v. brans-ient),...
bi- 'two1 [from dw-is-; cf. bis (OL dois) 'twice', bini
'two by two' (from dwis- ) , bimus 'two years old' (from
bi-himos 'two winters old'), Gk di- (δίs < dwis), L dis-
'into two parts' (v. infra), Gmc twi- of pp. 8-9]: bi­
axial, bifocal(s), bigamy, bilabial, binary, bi-nom-ial,
combine,...
com-, con-, col-, cor-; - '(together) with' [cum < OL
com]: comestible 'edible', compact 'join(ed) together'
[pang-ere, pac-t-us 'join'], concatenate 'link together'
[catena 'chain'], concede 'go together with, yield' (v.
abs-cess), con-de-scend 'climb down with', conducive,
conform, congest(ion), con-nect(ion) 'join(ing) together'
(cf. an-nex), con-note, conspicuous (v. despicable),
contact 'come together, touch' (tangere, tactus 'touch'),
con-tra- 'against, opposing', contract 'draw together'
(v. abs-tract), converge 'turn together (toward one an­
other) ', colleague, correct, cohabit,...
de- 'down' and reversal, undoing: decelerate, deflower, de­
frost, degenerate 'go down from one's class/status', de­
gradation 'step down', dehumanize, delimit '[set] down
the limit(s) of', demagnetize, denationalize, denounce
'to "nounce" down' (cf. denunciation, an-/pro-nounce),
deodorize, depend 'hang down', deplume, deponent 'verb
that has put down/aside [the active voice in its conjuga­
tion] ' , deposit 'put down' [poneré, positus 'put'], de­
preciate 'to "precíate" down' (cf. appreciate, price),
depress 'press down' (v. op-press), deprive 'to "prive"
down' (cf. privation, privative), deracinate, deride
'laugh down' (cf. ridiculous, risible), describe 'write
down', (con)descend37 'climb down (together with)', de-
 47 PFX.l

spicable 'looked down on' (for spec-/spic- 'look', cf.

specter, a-spect, conspicuous, perspicaceous, suspicion,
and next entry), despite 'looking down on' [cf. dépit <
OF despit < despectus], destruction 'pulling down', de­
tain [OF detenir], deter 'terrify down', dethrone, de­
tonate 'thunder down', detract (v. abs-tract); (also
several (semi-)chemical terms like decalcify, dehydrate,
deoxidize &c),...
dis-, di- indicates negation, privation, reversal; separa­
tion 'apart, away from each other' (v. bi- 'two' above):
digress 'to "gress" apart' (v. e-gress), disadvantage(d),
disagree(able), disallow, disappear, disapprove, dis­
arm (ing), dis(as)sociate, disavow(al), disbelief (a hy­
brid), discard, disclaim(er), disclose, discompose, dis­
connection), disconsolate (cf. inconsolable), discon­
tinue, discord (cor(dis) 'heart'; cf. concord), dis­
courage (ment) , discover, discriminate (related to dis­
cern, concern, not crime, criminal, incriminate), dis­
ease,38 disenchant (F des-en-chant-er < cantare = freq.
of canere 'sing'), disfigure, disgorge, disgust (cf.
gusto), dishonest, disimpassioned, disinherit (from a
caus. verb inherit), disjunctive (jungere, junctus
'join'), disloyal(ty), dismantle, dismember(ment), dis­
miss 'send away', disobedient, disorder(ly), dispel
'drive away' (v. pro-pel), display 'unfold', displease,
dispossess, disrupt(ive) 'break(ing) apart/asunder',
dissect 'cut apart', disseminate, dissent (cf. assent,
consent, (dis)sentient), dissident 'sitting apart', dis­
similar, dissipate, dissonant, dissuade, dissymetry, di-
-stant 'standing apart', distract 'draw/pull apart' (v.
abstract), disuse, diverge (cf. converge; vergere
'turn'), di-vert/-verse/-vorce 'turn apart/away', divest
'un-vest/-clothe/-cover',...
en-, en- (the F form of second in- below): enamor [OF én­
amourer], envoy 'one on the way in, one sent in', embalm
[OF embaumer], employ 'fold in, involve, use',...; forms
caus. Vs from Ns and As: enact 'cause to become an act',
emblaze 'set ablaze', enslave 'cause to become slaves',
embitter, encourage 'cause to become courageous' (cf.
discourage), endear, ennoble 'invest with nobility',...;
PFX. 1 48

from other Ns, forms Vs meaning 'put/go intoT: embed,

encage, encamp(ment), encrust 'put in a crust', enshrine
'enclose (as if) in a shrine',...
ex-, ef-, e- 'out (of)' (for PRs of ex-, v. App.1.7 s.f.):
excursion 'run out' (cf. corsair, courier), excavate
'dig out', excess (v. abscess), exemplify ' take out of'
(from ex-em-l- with intrusive p; for em- 'take', cf.
red-eem 'take back', pre-empt, premium [< prai-em-iom],
consume 'take up (al)together' [< -sub-em-]; also,
IMET', VZJAT'), exhale, expire (from ex-spire, cf. in­
spire), explicate 'fold out = unfold, spread out', ex­
port 'carry out' {portare 'carry'; cf. port-able/-age/
-er/-folio/-manteau and com-/de-/dis-/im-/pur-/rap-/re-/
sup-/trans-port, sport (q.v.) &c), extinct (froi ex-
stinct, cf. instinct), extort 'twist out' (cf. con-/dis-
tort), extract 'draw out' (v. abstract), exude (from
ex-sude, cf. sudation 'sweat'), exult (from ex-sult, cf.
insult, result), effervesce 'boil/seethe out' (cf. fer­
vent, ferment), expatiate lit. 'spread/space out' (from
ex-spatiate, cf. space [exspatiari < spatium 'space,
room']), edict, egregious (n. 6), egress (cf. con-/di-/
pro-/re-gress), emit 'send out' (cf. ad-/per-/re-/sub-/
trans-mit),...
extra- 'outside, beyond': extramural (mürus < OL moirΌs
'wall'), extraneous (cf. (e)strange < OF < extra-neus),
extraordinary, ... Note ex-tradition, not * extra-dition,
in-, il-, im-, ir- from NEG n- (II.2.5): incapable, inde­
cent, indomitable 'not tame-able', illegible, immateri­
al, irrational,...
in-, il-, im-, ir- 'in(to)': incarcerate, incisor '[tooth]
which cuts into' (cf. incise, incision), inculcate 'im­
press' [calx, calcis 'heel'], indent 'tooth in, make a
toothlike impression', illuminate 'enlighten', imbibe
'drink in', immanent 'dwelling in' (cf. mansion, per-
man-ent, re-main), import 'carry in' (v. export), irra­
diate, irrigate 'water in' (cf. rain, n. 168),...
ob-, -, of-, op-, o- 'to(ward), against': objection
'smth. thrown to (ward)/against ' (cf. eject 'throw out'.,
in-/inter-/pro-/re-/sub-ject), oblige 'tie to' > 'make
indebted to' (cf. ligature, ligament, obligatory 'tying
to, binding, compulsory'), oblique [cf. Iiquus 'slant-
 49 PFX.l

ing'] 'slanting/sloping against' > 'indirect, not

straightforward', obsequious 'following to [the will
of another]1 > 'submit to' (cf. sequel), obstacle 'smth.
standing against' > 'hindrance', obstruct 'build [a
wall, obstacles] against' {obstruent belongs here; cf.
c o n s t r u e ' construct('ion)> structure, destructible), ob-
-trude/-trusive 'thrust(ing) against' > 'push(ing) for­
ward, forc(ing) upon others' (cf. ex-/in-/pro-trude),
obtuse 'beaten against, blunted' (cf. contusion 'in­
jury, bruise'), obverse 'turned toward [the observer],39
obvious 'in the via way' > 'easily seen/understood',
occult 'hidden against' (cf. (con)ceal 'hide', cot(or)
'hider'), occur 'run toward, meet' > 'take place' (cf.
c u r r e n t , corridor, cursory &c; v. pre-cursor), offer
'carry to(ward)' (φερεlν., ferrey OE beran 'carry'; cf.
efferent, semaphore 'sign(al)-bearer', bear(able),
and next entry), opprobrium 'what is brought pro- for­
ward against [one]' > 'disgrace, shame' (same root as
in offer), oppose 'put/place against' (cf. depose 'put
down', juxtapose 'put side by side'), oppress 'press a-
gainst' (cf. ( com-/de-/ex-/im-/re-/sup-) pres s), omis­
sible, ...
per- 'through': percolate 'filter through' (cf. colander
'strainer'), perennial '[lasting] through the years'*
perforate 'bore through', permute 'change through(out)/
thoroughly', perspicacity (v. despicable),...
post- 'after, behind': postdate, postnatal, postorbital 'be­
hind the orbit [of the eye]',... Posthaste does not be­
long here; the first member means 'with post horses =
speedily'.
pre- 'before' [F pré-, L prae-]: preamble 'what walks in
in front', precede 'go before' (v. abs-cess), precursor
'forerunner' (cf. c o r s a i r , courier), predict 'foretell',
pre-empt 'take before [others]' (v. ex-empli fy ) , prepos­
terous 'coming after (= posterous) before' > 'absurd',
prejudice 'judgement beforehand', preside 'sit in front
of', premature,...
pro- 'forward': proceed 'go forward' (and the derivative
process; v. abscess), procumbent 'leaning forward', pro­
gress 'step/go forward', project 'throw forward', pro-
PFX.l 50

mote 'move forward' (cf. mot-ion), pronoun (with pro-

here 'for, in place of'; cf. pro and con(tra) 'for and
against1), propel 'drive forward' (cf. not only com-/
dis-/ex-/im-/re-peZ, but also, from the same root mean­
ing 'drive', (re)puZse, com-/ex-puZsion, im-/pro-puZ-
sive &c; peZZere, pulsus 'push, drive'), propose 'put
forward', prospect(ive) '(smth.) looked forward to',
protract 'draw forward' (v. abs-tract), protrude 'thrust
forward' (v. obtrude), provide 'foresee' [videre, Vi­
sus 'see'], provoke 'call forward' (cf. oon-/in-Voke),
reproduce 'lead/bring forward again',... For profane,
see n. 159.
re-, red- before V, 'again, back': re-ceed/-cess(ive) 'go
back', recourse 'running back, return' (cf. corsair),
re-flex(ive)/-fleet(or) 'bend/turn/throw back' (cf. de-
fleet (ion) 'bend(ing)/turn(ing) down/aside'), regener­
ate, rejoice (cf. joy), re-member (n. 73), retract
'draw back', revert 'turn back' (cf. avert [abs-], in-
-ad-vertentι con-/in-/per-/sub-vert; vertere, versus
'turn'), de-re-lict 'abandoned' (cf. re-Zinquish, n.
92), redeliver, reduce, red-act(ion), red-eem/-emption
(cf. ex-/pre-empt), red-olent (cf. ol-factory),...
se-, sed- 'aside, apart': secede 'go aside/apart' (v. abs­
cess), sed-it-ion 'going apart' > 'revolt' (cf. it-in­
erary , exits in-it-iaZ, trans-it; iter, itineris 'jour­
ney', ed (from ei-o), ire 'go), seduce 'lead aside/a­
part', segregate 'set aside/apart from the flock', se­
lect 'pick out, choose' (legere, Zêctus 'gather, col­
lect'), separate 'pare/put aside/apart' (cf. disparate,
prepare),...
sub- (from *sub-, cf. super-, Gk hypo-), sue-, suf-, sug-,
sup-, sus-, sum- '(from) under': subway (a hybrid), sub­
ordinate, subject (to), succeed 'go from under, rise'
(v. abscess), suffuse 'pour under(neath)' > 'spread
through' (cf. infuse 'pour in', transfuse 'pour across
= from one container to another'; fundere, fusus 'pour'),
suggest 'put underneath, furnish, supply', support 'car­
ry from below' (v. export), suspect, suspicious (v. de-
spicabZe), summon (cf. monitor, ad-monish, pre-moni-
tion),...
 51 PFX.2

super-, supra- 'over': superb (with -b from root in be),

superman [cf. G Übermensch], supersonic, suprarenal,...
trans-, t r a n - , tra-J through, across1: transfer (v. offer),
transgress (gradi, gressus 'step, go'; E con-/di-/e-/
in-/pro-/re(tro)-gress), transient 'going/passing
through (from one place or time to another)' (v. sed­
ition) , transmit, trans-lucent '[letting] light
through', transport 'carry through/across', trans­
parent 'see through' (cf. -parent), trans-spire
(cf. spirit ~ sprite 'fairy', conspire; L spirare
'breathe'), trans-continental, tran-scend 'climb
through',37 tran-sect 'sect(ion)/cut across', tra­
jectory 'throw/path across',...

2. Greek.

a-, an- 'not, without, less' (NEG n- in II.2.5): achromatic

'colorless', anechoic 'without echo(es)'; more examples
in nn. 199-202.
amphi- 'on both sides of, of both kinds, both': amphibious
'living both [on land and in water]' {-bi- as in bi-o-
-graphy, bi-opsy, (sym)bi-osis, (macro)bi- tic &c), am-
phibrach 'short at both [ends]', amphora 'jar with two
handles' (from amphi-phor-; for phor- 'carry', v. of­
fer above),...
ana-, an- before V, 'up(ward)': anatomy 'science of tom-
cutting things ana- up', an-ion '[particle] ϊον going
ana- up [in electrolysis]' ( c h e m . ) , an-ode 'the up [pos­
itive] way [in electrolysis]' (chem.; for od- *go', cf.
odometer, exodus), analects (v. se-tect above and ec-
-Zectic below),...
anti-, ant- before V, Opposite, against': antibody (a hy­
brid), anti-American, antifreeze, antimacassar, antipa­
thy (πάθος 'suffering'), antithesis [from θεσις 'a put­
ting, placing' = de-V noun from redup. τίθεναί !put,
place', cognate with facio 'do, make', Ε do3 deed> G
tun. Tat], ant-agonize 'struggle against' (cf. ag-itatey
agents agony, act(ion) &c), Ant-arctic, ant-acid (a hy-
PFX.2 52

brid), ant-onym (cf. syn-onym),.. .

apo-, - before V, 'away (from)': apogee 'point farthest
away from the earth' (astron., with -gee 'earth' as in
ge-o-physics &c), apostle 'one sent away, messenger',
apocope 'cutting away' (cf. syncope 'cutting up'; κοπή
'cutting' < κόπτειV 'to cut'), ap-agoge 'leading away,
reductio ad absurdum' (v. ant-ag-onize),. ..
cata-, cat- before some Vs, c a t h - before other Vs, 'down­
ward)': catabolism 'a throwing down' (for bol- 'throw',
cf. ballistics in III. 5.2), cataclysm 'a washing down,
deluge', catalepsy 'seize/take down', catapult '[machine
for] hurling [things] down' (cf. impuls (iv e) , expulsion;
v. pro-pel in §1), catarrh 'a flowing down' (cf. ser-
'flow' in nn. 88-9), catastrophe 'a turning down, over­
turn' (cf. boustrophedon), cat-echize 'sound/ring down'
(cf. echo [ekO]), cathode (cf. an-ode above ana method
below), cat-ion 'ion going to the cathode' (cf. an-ion
above), cathedral (from kat-hed- < -sed- 'sit'),...
dia-, di- before V, 'through(out)': diabetes 'a going
through' (cf. adiabatic 'not going through', with NEG
α-), diagnose 'know throughout', diaphoretic 'producing
what can be -phor- carried dia- through (= perspira­
tion) ' , diarrhea, diathermy 'heating through' (θερμός
'warm'), diatom '[microscopic aglae] torn- cut through'
(cf. atom with NEG α-., diatomic 'composed of di- two
atoms'; v. en-tomology below), diuretic (from dia-
uretic),...
en-, em- '(with)in': encephalo- 'in the head' (κεφαλή
'head'), enthetic 'put/placed in' (v. hypo-thetical),
embolism [εμβολισμός 'smth. thrown in, insertion' (cf.
cata-bolism above; for bol- 'throw', III.5.2)], embryo
[εμβρυον 'what grows in (the body)'], entomology 'study
of [animals which are] torn- cut in, in-sects ' , . . .
epi-, ep- before some Vs, eph- before other Vs, 'on, above;
among; besides': epidermis 'that which is on (= the out­
er layer of) the derm- skin', epicenter 'above the cen­
ter', epitaph '[inscription] on a tomb', epidemic '[dis­
ease] among the dem- people', epilog 'a saying besides
(= in addition)', episode 'a coming in besides (= in ad­
dition)' (-s- here from *ένς 'in'; for -od- 'go, come',
 53 PFX.2

v. peri-od), epenthetic 'put en in epi besides' (v.

hypo-thetical), ephemeral (ήμερα ' day ' ) , . . .
ex-, - before C, 'out (of)' (cf. e c t o - , exo-, L ex-): ex-
egete 'one who seeks out [explanation(s)]', exodus (for
-od-y v. -od), ecbolic 'throwing out, abortive'
(with bol- of III.5.2; cf. ballistics, hyperbole, meta­
bolism) , eccentric 'out of (= deviating from) the cen­
ter', eclectic 'selected out of [various sources]' (for
-leg- 'select', cf. analects 'selected (= picked/gath­
ered ana- up) writings', collect(ion), elect(ive), se­
lect [v. L se-]), eclipse 'leave out', ec-stasy 'stand­
ing out(side) of [one's senses]', (append)ectomy 'cut­
ting out of' , . . .
hetero- '(an)other, different': heterodont 'with different
kinds of dont teeth', heterodox 'differing in opinion'
(cf. ortho-dox) [δόξα 'opinion'], heterogeneous 'of dif­
ferent gen kinds', heteromorphic 'with different morph
shape/form', heterosexual,...
homo- '(the) same': homodont, homogeneous 'of the same gen
kind', homophonous,...
hyper- 'over': hyperbole 'over-throw, excess, exaggeration',
hypercritical, hypersensitive, hypertension, hyperbaton
(n. 184 s.f.),...
hypo- 'under': hypodermic 'under the derm- skin', hypothal­
amus 'part of the brain directly under the thalamus',
hypothetical 'put under' (from θετικός 'put, placed' <
*dhe- 'put, place'; cf. suggest under L sub- and anti­
thesis) , hypocoristic [κόρος 'child'],...
iso- 'equal, same': isosceles 'with equal sides [lit.
"legs"]', isothermal 'at the same temperature', isobar
'[line connecting points of] equal pressure',...
meta-, met- before some Vs, meth- before other Vs, 'behind;
changed': metacarpus 'bones behind the carpus wrist',
metaphysics 'investigation of what is behind [= "be­
yond"] physics/physical reality', metathesis (for -the­
sis, v. hypo-thetical), metencephalon 'posterior part
of the encephalon brain', method 'an od going behind/af­
ter' (v. peri-od), metabolism 'change', metamorphosis
'change of morph form',...
ortho- 'straight, correct, right': orthodontist, orthogonal
PFX.2 54

'right-angled', orthodox 'adhering to accepted beliefs'

(cf. heterodox 'departing from accepted beliefs'), or­
thoepy, . . .
para- 'beside': paradigm 'comparison' (-dig- < dik- 'show',
cf. deictic), parathyroid, parallel, parasympathetic,
parenthetical 'put en in para beside' (v. hypo-thetic­
al·) , ...
peri- 'around, enclosing': perimeter, pericardium, peri­
odontal, period(ic) 'going around' (cf. od-o-meter,
electv-ode¿ epis-ode, exodus_, method; see syn-od below),
peripatetic (n. 279),...
pro- 'before(hand)': prognosis 'foreknowledge', prolegome­
non 'what is said beforehand, introduction', prologue
'speech beforehand', prothetic (from θετικός 'placed,
put', v. hypo-thetical·),...
syn-; syl- before l·; sym- before p, b, m; sys- before sV;
sy- before sC or z; 'together with' [ooo]: syn-ag-ogue
'assembly, leading together' (αγειν 'lead'; v. ant-ag-
-onize), synchronic (cf. synchronize, synchrony , chron-
( ) 3 chrono-, anachron-ism {ana- here 'behind');
χρδνος 'time'), syndactyl 'with digits united' (δάκτυλος
'finger', ooo), synod 'coming together, meeting', syn­
cope, synergetic 'working together', syn-onym-ous 'hav­
ing the same name' (n. 271), syn-opsis (n. 243), syn­
tax, synthetic 'put together, constructed' (v. hypo­
thetical·), syllogism, sympathy, symphony, symbol, sym­
metry, syssarcosis 'union of bones by means of muscle'
(anat.), lit. 'togetherness with flesh' (cf. sarcopha­
gus 'stone coffin', lit. 'flesh -phagus eating'), sy-
-stem 'a grouping together of elements', med. systole 'a
drawing together, contraction (of the heart)' (= oppo­
site of diastol·e), syzygy 'the zyg yoking/joining (of a
heavenly body) together with (the sun)' (astr. ; cf.
zygo- 'yoke', azygous 'odd, a- not forming a pair, not
yoked', zeugma &c),...
 55 PFX.3

3. Germania.

a- [from OE an, on] 'on': aboard, afield (OE on felda; cf.

feldspar), afire [OE fyr, G Feuer], afloat [OE flota],
alee, aloft, aloud [OE hlud], amid(st) [OE on middan 'in
the middle*; OE midd < med-y-, cf. Gth midyis, L médius;
MEZDU 'between'], around, ashore [OE scoren], astern, a-
straddle, athwart, awake(n), awash, awry,...
be- imparts intensifying (profuse or excessive) degree, or
indicates action that causes a condition to exist [cf. G
be-]: bedevil [OE deofol, deoful], bedraggle, befit, be­
friend [OE freond = PRT of freon 'love', just as feond
'enemy, foe' (E fiend) = PRT of feon 'hate'], befuddle,
begrudge, behalf,40 belated,40 belove,40 beneath (cf.
nether),40 benumb,40 bereave [OE bereafian < reafian
'rob'], beseech,40 besiege, bespangle, bestir [OE bestyr-
ian < styrian 'agitate, stir up', G stören], bestow, be­
strew [OE bestrêowian < streowian, strewian 'scatter'
G streuen, L struere, etruotus 'pile up, build'], be­
think,40 betray, betwixt, bewilder, bewitch, beyond (cf.
yon(der)),...
for- it is not clear to me what is the best meaning to give
for this prefix; but it is related to the next entry;
and here are the usual examples: forbear 'refrain/desist
from' (cf. bear 'carry, endure, suffer'), forbid 'order
smb. not to do smth.' (cf. bid 'direct, command'), forget,
forgive(ness), forlorn 'lost, deserted, almost hopeless'
(cf. arch, lorn, lose), forsake(n) 'give(n) up, aban­
doned), renounce(d)' (cf. sake 'purpose, benefit', most­
ly in for the sake of smth., for smb. rs sake), forswear
'renounce/repudiate utterly, swear falsely' (cf. swear),...
Also 0-grade fr- in fret 'eat up/away' (related to eat,
etch, and (more distantly) to ed-ible).
fore- 'before': forebear 'ancestor', forecastle (naut.),
forefront (a hybrid: frons, frontis), foreground, fore­
hand, forehead, foreordain (a hybrid: ordinäre '(arrange
in) order' < ordo, ördinis), foresee [cf. L providere
'foresee, act with foresight'], foresight, forestall,
(cf. stall, from a root meaning 'stand'), foretell, fore-
PFX.3 56

thought (cf. *forethirik), forewarn, foreword, fore-

ward (s) (cf. direct, -ward in back-/home-/in-/north-/
out-/to-ward(s), the last with contraction) ,. . . Pre­
fix fore- is related to—from the same root as i n —
words like far(ther), ferry, first [OE fyrst < SUP
fur-ist- < fr-], fore-most [cf. OE SUPs formest, frymest
< SUP forma 'first' < PREP/ADV fore ' before (hand) ' ], for­
mer, forth, furth-er/-est (cf. *fur(th); COMP/SUP, and
also forth, from fur-th- < fr-). Fore- in foreclose has
a quite different source (mentioned in I.1.0) and does
not belong here.
ge-, a-, e-, i-, (y-) '(together) with': gestalt [G Ge­
stalt 'form, shape' < stellen 'place', cf. locus < OL
stlocus 'place']; aware (cf. beware, wary, OE gewœr),
afford (an incorrect, "etymological" spelling; cf. ME
aforthen, OE gefordian, with single ƒ ) , enough [OE ge-
ndh, G genug, N0SÍT'], handiwork [OE handgeweorc], ar­
chaic yclept [OE gecleopod],. . .
in- has uncertain status as a prefix: inside, instep, in­
ward (cf. north-/home-ward), income (cf. come in), in-
bound (cf. bound in), inlet (cf. let in); in- is not
préfixai in inning, the nominalization of an archaic V
inn; inner and inmost are COMP and SUP, resp., of in;
analysis of inmate is unclear.
un- (NEG η- in II. 2.5): unfair [OE unfœger < fœger ' love­
ly' ], unable (but inability), uncouth 'not known, uncom­
mon', uneven [OE efen, efn 'level, even', Gth ibns, G
eben], ungainly, unholy [OE halig, Gth hailags, G heilig,
cf. OE hal 'whole, healthy'], unkempt 'not combed', un­
wieldy, ...
un- expresses reversal: undo [OE undon], undress, unfold
[OE unfealdan < fealdan; also E -fold (OE -feald); Gth
falpan;_Gmc faith- < o-grade of pel-t-], unload, untie
[OE untiegan < tZegan, tigan 'tie' < teag, teah 'rope'],...
 57 PFX.4

4. Alternate Forms of Prefixes.

These are mostly P-determined. Here is a list of pre­

fixes with altered shapes:

a- < L ab(s)- 'away (from), off', mostly before v: averts

averse, aversion, avocation 'calling away',... Also
a-bridge(ment) (contrast ab-breviate), and a few others.
a- (Fa) < L ad- ' to(ward)', mainly before sC: ascend(ancy),
ascension, ascent37 ascribe, aspect, aspersion (asper­
geré, aspersus 'sprinkle on' < spargere, sparsus 'Sprin­
kle, scatter'; cf. E intersperse, sparse), aspir-e/-ant/
-ate (spirare 'breathe1; cf. spirit, con-/in-/per-spire),
astringent, ...
a- < Gk an- 'not, without, less', before any except h: a-
chromatic, agnostic, apathy (more examples in n. 201).
a-: the various forms of this Gmc prefix (see under ge- in
§3) are Ρ derived, in part by rules not given in this
book. Although i may sometimes be the regular Ε reflex
of OE ge (as in handiwork < OE handgeweorc), -i- in
handicraft is not [OE handcrœft] ; this -i- is by analo­
gy to -i- in handiwork.
a- < Gk sm- 'one, together, same' (P development is sm- >
sm- > sam- > ham- > ha- > a-): a-colyte 'one who goes on
the same path', Fhil-a-delphia [φιλάόελφος 'loving those
from the same womb'], amoeba (from m t w - 'change'), At­
las (from tl- 'carry', whence 'suffer'),...; cf. homo-
< som-o-,
abs- before c, t: abs-cess, abs-cond, abs-tain, abs-ti-
nent, abs-temious, abs-tract(ion), abs-truse 'thrust
away, hidden, obscure' [trudd 'thrust'],...
ac- < ad- 'to(ward)', before c, q: accent 'song [added] to
[speech]' (F chanter, cano 'sing'), acquire 'seek [in
addition to], gain possession of' [quaerere ' ask, seek'], ...
af- < ad- before f: affect 'do something to' [faceré 'do,
make'],...
ag- < ad- before g: agglutinate 'glue to, unite' [gluten,
glutinis 'glue'],...
al- < ad- before l: allocate 'place to, allot, assign',...
PFX.4 58

an- < ad- before η: annex 'bind to', annihilate 'reduce to

nothing',...
ant- < Gk anti- 'opposite, against', before Vs: Antarctic
'opposite the Arctic',...
ap- < ad- before p: apparent 'visible to' (cf. transpa­
rent; parère 'be visible'),...
aph- < Gk apo- 'away (from)', before some Vs: aphetic, aph-
esis, aphorism, ... (for the shift stop > continuant in
apo- > aph-, cf. cath-, eph-, hyph-, meth-).
ar- < ad- before r: arrogate 'claim to/for oneself', ar­
rogant [rogare 'ask'],...
as- < ad- before s and sometimes representing [s]: as­
siduous 'sitting ad- by/beside [one's work]' (sedere
'sit'), as-certain [certus 'sure'].,...
at- < ad- before t: attach 'tack/fasten to' [F tache
'nail, hook' is a Gmc loan], attend 'stretch toward,
direct attention to' [tendere 'stretch],...
cat- < cata- 'down(ward)', before some Vs: catechism,...
cath- < cata- before some Vs: catheter '[device to] let/
send/throw [fluid] cath- down'; the root here is the
same as in jacid, j a c t u s 'throw', from which Ε has words
like ab-/de-/e-/in-/inter-/ob-/pro-/re-/sub-ject, ad­
jective, conjecture, trajectory, circumjacent, ejacu­
late, jet(tison) &c; for cata- > cath-, cf. aph-, eph-,
hyph-, meth-),...
- < com- '(together) with': coalesce 'grow together' [al­
es cere 'grow up' = inch, of alere, altus 'nourish'], co­
here, coincide,...
col- < com- before 1: collaborate 'work together', col­
lide, .. .
con- < com- before any except p, b, m, I, r.
cor- < com- before r: correlate 'relate together with',
correspond [responderé 'promise in return, answer' <
spondere, spdnsus 'promise'],...
di- < Gk dia- 'through(out)', before Vs: dielectric, di­
optric (s), diuretic,...
di- < L dis- 'apart, asunder', before voiced C: digress,
dilate 'make/become wider' (cf. lateral, latitude), di­
minish (cf. minimum, minute), direct, diverge (cf. con­
verge), ...
 59 PFX.4

e- < L ex- 'out (of)', before voiced C: ebullient 'boiling

over', edúcate 'lead out', egregious 'out of the herd',
egress 'exit', eject 'throw out', elaborate 'work(ed)
out (in detail)', emit 'send out', enumerate 'count
out', eradicate 'root out', evacuate 'empty out',...
ec- < Gk ex- before C: eccentric, ecclesiastical, eclec­
tic, eclipse, ecto-(plasm), eczema, (append)-ectomy 'a
torn- cutting out of',...
ef- < L ex- before ƒ: effluent 'flowing out' [fluere,
fluxus 'flow'],...
em- < F en- before p, b, m: empower, embellish 'make beau­
tiful' [cf. F belle],...
em- < Gk en- 'in, at, near', before p, b, m: empathy, em­
phatic, embryo, ...
ep- < epi- 'on, above; among; besides', before some Vs: ep-
-archy, ep-enthesis, ep-onymous, ...
eph- < epi- before some Vs: eph-emeral 'lasting a short
time' (cf. nn. 221, 251, andaph-, cath-, hyph-, meth-),...
hyp- < hypo- 'under' before some Vs: hyp-osmia 'weakening
of the of smell' {med,; cf. anosmia 'lack of the
sense of small'),...
hyph- < hypo- before some Vs; hyph-en lit. 'under en one
[word]',...
il- < in- before 1: illicit [licêre, licitus 'be permit­
ted'], illuminate,...
im- < in- before p, b, m: impasse (NEG n-), impede 'put
in- into ped fetters' (cf. expedite), imbecile, reim­
burse, immature, immerse,...
ir- < in- before r: irregular, irradiate,...
is- < iso- 'equal, same', before Vs: isanthous 'with reg­
ular flowers' (cf. the bot. term anther),...
met- < meta- 'behind, changed', before some Vs: met-en-
-cephalon, met-onymy,...
meth- < meta- before some Vs; method (for -od, cf. peri­
ls §2),...
- < ob- 'to(ward), against', before m: omit,...
oc- < ob- before : occupy 'take to/for oneself' [capere
'take'],...
of- < ob- before f: offend 'strike against' (cf. (de)-
fend),...
PFX.4 60

op- < ob- before ρ: opponent (oppdnere, oppositus 'put/

place/set against'; cf. oppose, opposite, opposition) , ...
orth- < ortho- 'straight, correct, right', before Vs: or-
th-odontist (cf. odont- 'tooth/teeth'), orth-optic, ...
(but orthoepy ; we will see later this ep- (also in epic,
epos) is from wep- and is cognate with wok- in voed
'call', vox, voois 'voice')
par- < pava- 'beside', before Vs: par-enthesis, parody
(cf. ode, melody, prosody &c)., par-onymy, paroxytone,...
su- < sub- '(from) under', before sp : suspect (cf.
speot-ator),...
suc- < sub- before c: succor 'run under, help' (cf. cor­
r i d o r , F (se)courir , L currere 'run'),...
suf- < sub- before ƒ: suffer 'carry from under' (cf. in-/
of-/trans-fer & ),...
sug- < sub- before g: suggest [gerere, gestus 'carry'],...
sup- < sub- before ρ: suppose 'put/place/set under' [po­
nere, po situs],...
sur- < sub- before r: surreptitious 'snatch from under/
stealthily' [rept- < rapere, raptus 'seize'],...
sus- < sub- sometimes before p, t, : suspend 'hang up',
sustain 'hold up' [F soutenir], susceptible 'liable to
be taken from under(neath)' [capere, captus 'take'],...
sy- < syn- 'together with', before sC or z: systematic
'standing together', syzygy (see under syn- in §2),...
sym- < syn- before p, b, m: sympathetic, symphonious, sym­
biosis 'living together', (a)symmetrical (cf. meter),...
sys- < syn- before sV: syssarcosis (cf. under syn- in
§2),...
tra- < trans- 'through, across', before d, v, j : traduce
'lead across', traverse (also transverse), travesty (from
vest- 'clothes'; cf. also transvestite), traject 'throw
across' (cf. adjective 'what is "thrown" to/near (the
noun)', conjectural 'thrown together', dejected 'thrown
down, depressed', project(or) 'throw forward', e-/in-/
inter- 'between4/ob-/re-j ect), ...
tran- < trans- before q, s: tranquil(ize) , tran-scend,37
transcribe, transect (cf. section), tranship (also
transship), tran-silient (cf. resilient), transistor
(coined from trans [fer + re]sistor , transpire (cf.
 61 nn. 36-38

spirant, and aspire under second a- above), transub­

stantiate (also transs-), transude (cf. sudation [su­
dare < *swoid- 'sweat'], exude < exsude 'sweat out',
sweat, hidrosis [iδρόσ < *swid-]).

NOTES

36
As cited in Koerner, 1980.
37
The root is skand- 'climb1, which appears in
scan 'examine closely/quickly, analyze verse' (with no -d,
like lawn, an alternant of land). For a > e in scan but
scend, n. 118. Scale 'climb up (as if) with ladder/rope;
marks at fixed intervals for measurement' belongs here,
from skands-l; similarly, escalade, escalat(or) with pro-
thetic e- from F. Radical remains intact before a, but
assibilates before e (= in prefixai forms, with e < a).
Degemination occurs as usual: in PR of transcend 'climb
over, rise above, surpass' from transskend, e.g., there
is not a sequence of three, but a single [s]. [46]
38
This form raises a difficult problem with which
we will not be overly concerned in this work, so-called
"intervocalic voicing". As can be seen from the examples,
s of dis- generally remains voiceless between vowels. But:
disease, disastrous (pej. dis-, hence 'ill-starred'; L
aster < αστήρ), dissolve (cf. [s] in dissoluble, dissolu-
nn. 38-40 62

tion, dissolute)-, AHD gives discern with both [s] and [z],
but my idiolect has only [s]. [47]
39
Another good example of S specificity: when used
of coins, the N obverse means 'side with the main design'.
40
A range of distributional restrictions seems to
be imposed by prefixai be-: behalf only in on smb. 's be­
half; belated(ly) but *belate; begone is used (if at all
now) only as an imperative (cf. *Odile was long begone by
the time I got there); belove only in passive or derived
PRT (much-)beloved; numb/nimble , benumb but *benimble\ be­
think is a transitive V but must have a reflexive object
(is this analyzed as a reflexive V, like behave, endear!);
&c. Ρ alternations are apparently also engendered merely
by prefixing be-: nether ~ benEth, seek ~ beseech. [55]
 Le lien unissant le signifiant au
signifié est arbitraire, ou encore,
puisque nous entendons par signe le
total résultant de l'association d'un
signifiant à un signifié, nous pouvons
dire plus simplement: l signe lin­
guistique est arbitraire.
Saussure, Cours.

I. ABLAUT IN STRONG VERBS

1. Introduction

The only viable synchronic analysis I have seen of

this is in the "stratificational" framework of Lockwood
1973a; any examination of ablaut in strong Vs will have
to give serious consideration to his proposal. This is
not to say, however, that his approach is entirely ac­
ceptable.
This chapter is arranged as follows: first are dis­
cussed some defects both of Lockwood's specific analysis
and of stratificational linguistics in general (§2); then
we consider the problem of endings for PRTs and PAST (§3);
next, ablaut in strong Vs is examined (§4); in §5, the
ablaut rules proposed for strong Vs in §4 are considered
1.2.1 64

briefly in a more encompasing, DM perspective; finally,

in §6, we offer a few preliminary--and highly specula­
tive--remarks on E syllabics.

2. On Stratificational Linguistics.

2.1 A Stratificational Principle.

One of the basic tenets of stratificational linguis­

tics is the binary principle that grammars (1) do not con­
tain rules and (2) do not reflect "processes". Thus, for
example, a sequence of "rules" anything like S -> NP VP,
VP -> V NP, NP->Art Ν,... cannot, in this view, re­
present the most revealing linguistic description of any
natural language. Reich conveys that stratificational
opinion of rules with "once we express a grammar in terms
of a relational network, intermediate symbols become super­
fluous. What has become of the concept of the rewrite
rule? We find that we can replace it with the notion of
signals moving through the network" (1968/1973: 98). Again,
Makkai and Lockwood write (in small majuscules, as shown)
that "stratificational theory does not use any rules at
all, but views linguistic structure as consisting entirely
of relationships, so that the notion of a 'rule' does not
have any meaning within it" (1973: 118). It would be easy
to find numerous similar citations.
I am rather skeptical of such proposals, even at the
presumably "elementary" level (stratum) of P. In §2.2 are
discussed some stratificational analyses which support this
 65 I.2.2

skepticism, and in §2.3 I mention briefly some counterex­

amples from Slavic.

2.2 Stratificational Analyses of Monachi, Latin, and Eng­

lish Phonology.
In Makkai and Lockwood's reader, much is made of the
above principle; it is repeated over and over. Something
I find suspicious is that when apparently sound Ρ analyses
are presented, the only one that seems to support the prin­
ciple uses dialectal differences in an exotic language few
of us can be expected to know; when well-known languages
familiar to all linguists are discussed, however, either
the principle is quietly by-passed or else the analyses are
easily seen to be wrong.
Thus Lamb (1966/1973: 133 ff.) seems to present strong
support for the principle with his example m ~ W (nasalized
W) in the Bishop dialect, but m ~ W in the North Fork dia­
lect of Monachi (a Uto-Aztecan language of California).
Unfortunately, however, this presentation is intricately
connected with an attempt to show that the Chomsky-Halle
attack on taxonomic phonemics41 is not well-founded and
that in Ρ analysis one must accept not merely one phonemic
level (this is claimed insufficient, but for reasons dif­
ferent from the Chomsky-Halle reasons), but "two distinct
phonemic levels" (161). If one is not totally convinced
that Lamb's phonemic analyses are correct (as I am not),
the Monachi example loses much of its persuasiveness. But
I am in no position to discuss Monachi P, and in fact this
is not necessary for the point I want to make here. Let
us agree (temporarily, at least) that the Monachi alterna­
tions support the stratificational principle.
Consider now a stratificational analysis of L paradig­
matic inflection, as presented in Lockwood 1973b What one
might call "underlying" and "surface" representations of
two Ns are given there, silva 'forest1 and oculus 'eye',
as shown in (17) on the next page. For a number of rea­
sons (explicitly noted by Lockwood), this is a rather in­
sightful analysis. For example, under this analysis both
Ns are seen to have a single, constant stern-vowel (-a- for
silva, -o- for oculus), a fact that is not obvious when one
1.2.2 66

looks only at the surface representations (given in tradi­

tional orthography). Again, it can be seen from (17) that

(17) SG FL
nom: silva < silv-a-Ø silvae < silv-a-i
" "
gen: silvae i silvarum :rum
" "I
dat: silvae i silvis i:s
" "
cc: silvam m silvas :s
" "
bl: silva : silvis i:s

nom: oculus < ocul-o-s oculi < ocul-o-i

" "
gen: oculi i oculorum :rum
" "
dat: oculo : oculis i:s
" "
c: oculu m oculos :s
" "
abl: oculo : oculis i:s

the "endings" of gen. sg., abl. sg., and acc. pl. are real­
ly the same (-i, -:, and -:s, resp.), although this is far
from clear when one examines what seem to be the endings on
the surface (-ae vs -i, -a vs -δ, and -äs vs -os, resp.).
The proposed endings are quite abstract--on the surface,
for example, it is not possible to have a "segment" like
[:], whose sole purpose is to indicate length of a preced­
ing vowel; but in underlying representations, it might per­
haps be a C-coefficient which assimilates completely to
preceding vowels. Also, as Lockwood observes, some of
these abstract, synchronic representations "correspond to
a diachronically earlier form" (fn. 10).
But this analysis is almost self-contradictory if one
holds the general stratificational view of process-formation
in linguistics. Algeo states this view clearly: "Because
each text exists on six different strata and because two
texts can overlap on some strata but not on others, there
is no need and indeed no room for process statements in the
Lamb-Gleason stratificational grammar, except as descrip­
tions of historical change" (1969/1973: 8). This view is
frequently expounded by stratificationalists. Lamb says
"synchronic morphophonemic alternation is quite different
from diachronic phonological change (which really is a pro-
 67 I.2.2

cess)" (1966/1973: 142). It would be easy to give further

corroborating citations.
The point here is that if, as in (17), synchronic
UPRs "correspond to a diachronically earlier form"--not
yesterday or the day before, but perhaps hundreds of years
earlier--then (according to the stratificational view)
real processes must have taken place to arrive at the con­
temporary forms (the synchronic PRs) from the diachronic­
ally earlier forms.42 Naturally these processes must have
taken place at different points in time. If one is going
to promote the view that synchronic grammars do not have
rules and do not reflect process-alternations, one is ob­
liged to explain to the reader how he arrives at PRs start­
ing with the UPRs in (17). Lockwood does not do this, and
it is difficult to construe silence as anything but admis­
sion the originally proposed principle of §2.1 is wrong.
The assertion in fn. 10 that "this correspondence [between
underlying synchronic representation and diachronically
earlier form] merely bears out the observation often made
by linguists that a careful morphophonemic (stratification­
al morphonic) analysis will to a great extent recapture an
earlier stage of the language in the same way as the meth­
odologically parallel technique of internal reconstruction"
may be interesting in its own right, but it is evasion of
the issue at hand.
The third type of stratificational publication dis­
cussed here is exemplified by Lockwood 1973a. My objection
now is that the proposed analyses are incorrect precisely
in that they do not reflect deeply enough an "earlier stage
of the language"--alternatively, that the technique of in­
ternal reconstruction was not sufficiently enough employed.
That raises a problem in this context because--like silence
--it permits evasion of the issue under discussion.
One example of this occurs when Lockwood claims he
intends to treat all verbal ablaut in E (swim ~ swam ~ swum
&c), together with the vowel-alternation of pl. Ns (feet,
teeth, geese, mice, lic , men &c), in exactly the same way
(175). Such an analysis overlooks the fact that the ob­
servable vowel-changes in pl. Ns are few, whereas the
changes in V-inflection are many (cf., e.g., (84) in §4).
This fact indicates that two quite distinct processes are
1.2.2 68

involved, that it would be a mistake to treat the two as

one, and that to do so would be to capture a false gener­
alization while missing the real one(s). I return to these
Ns when we can discuss vowel Ρ more knowledgeably, suggest­
ing that the few vowel-alternations here show umlaut (as­
similation at a distance), not ablaut. We will also see
that certain other alternations {food ~ feed, full ~ fill,
proud ~ pride &c) are better treated as instances of um­
laut than ablaut.
A second example of the same type concerns Lockwood's
treatment of "ot-verbs". For Vs like swim he proposes to
replace the "vowel of the 'basic' form" with œ in PAST and
with in PRT (175). Naturally for Vs like seek, teach,
bring, think, buy, catchy fight, Lockwood proposes to re­
place (in the same way) the vowels of the basic form with
(cf. sought [sot], taught &c). But he also proposes that
-t be a "replacive" here: he points out that the post-
vocalic "codas" of these Vs show considerable variation and
suggests that this replacive -t "be realized in place of
any other possible coda, or, in the case of buy, in place
of zero coda". It seems unlikely to me this analysis could
be right.
In the first place, the "coda"-variation is not that
great: one finds only -k, -g (in bring), -c. -t, or 0 ("ze­
ro"), and -c may well not be primary but derived. More­
over, fight(at least in orthography) is not simply in -t,
but in -ght, suggesting deeper analysis might reveal a ve­
lar [cf. G fechten]. With only eight verbs extant, the pos­
sible number of "codas" obviously cannot be very great (un­
der no circumstances e.g. can it be greater than eight).
Moreover, Lockwood is discussing here surface "codas" (i.e.
PRs); we will show later it may be more advantageous to con­
sider UPRs, which can consistently be construed as terminat­
ing in a velar.
In the second place, the so-called "replacive -t" is
reminiscent of another -t, the one which occurs in PAST and
PRT of Vs like send, leave, deal, dream, feel &c. Under
Lockwood's analysis one would have to state explicitly that
this latter -t may occur everywhere except after underlying
velars, where (idiosyncratically) it may not appear--instead,
velars are replaced with a different t by application of a
 69 I.2.2

special rule. In evaluating Lockwood's proposal one should

note--aside from the ungainly repetitions--that if one
looks even summarily at the PRT data (cf. §3) it is seen
to be quite difficult to restrict PRT -t from occurring on­
ly after velar-stems.
If the analysis suggested here (that -t in brought
thought &c is morphemically the same as -t in sent, left &c)
is accepted, 44 then none of the idiosyncratic statements in
the last paragraph need be mentioned. Furthermore, if it
should turn out that the stems under consideration do most­
ly end in velars, then there is at least a possibility that
[o] in sought, caught &c is Ρ derived, not an idiosyncratic
ablaut-replacement.
From the S point of view, our analysis is preferable
to Lockwood's, which (so far as I can see) does nothing.
Within our analysis, whatever is the difference in meaning
between feel and PRT felt will be precisely the difference
in meaning between catch and PRT caught because both PRTs
are formed by the same rule of DM; in fact, within our a-
nalysis, the representations of both PRTs will contain the
same PRT-morpheme. Again, within our analysis, whatever is
the difference in meaning between feel and PAST felt will
be precisely the difference in meaning between catch and
PAST caught because both PASTs are formed by the same rule
of DM; within our analysis, the representations of both
PASTs will contain the same PAST-morpheme. Even if there
were a difference in meaning--if, say, felt meant 'resist
by feeling' and caught 'cook by catching'--that difference
would not support Lockwood's analysis: he says nothing of
any such difference. Of course we feel there is no such
difference between felt and caught or (to look ahead) be­
tween felt/caught and loved, and we will search for an a-
nalysis in which the PRT-/PAST-morphemes in felt/caught
are the same as those in loved.
To return to our more limited topic, if the P-analy-
sis suggested here is correct, it will require at least
one process-rule to handle the word-final C-clusters -k-t/
-g-t.45 Moreover, this rule might look suspicious because
of well-formed words like (f)act, dialect, insect, duct,
croaked [-kt] &c, where the rule seems not to have applied.
No doubt it is at least in part for these reasons Lockwood
I.2.3 70

preferred his analysis of replacive -t, But we have to ex­

amine this proposal because it may teach us something about
the hidden mechanisms of E.

2.3 Counterexamples from Slavic.

In addition to analyses like those of §2.2, which sug­
gest the principle of §2.1 may be wrong, there seem to be a
number of Slavic forms which are outright counterexamples
to the principle. I discuss briefly here two R words, SËL/
SLA [Sol/Slá]46 'he/she used to go, was going (on foot)'.
Linguistic analysis of R verbs of motion presents cer­
tain well-known difficulties: there is a difference between
motion on foot and motion by vehicle, direction is indicated
with a fairly complex set of prefixes, there are aspectual
differences beyond (im)perfective (cf. Jakobson 1957, Miller,
Traugott, et al.), and so on. Despite these potential com­
plications, however, the simplified Ρ presented here should
be reasonably straightforward.
For verbs meaning 'go on foot', there seem to be three
different roots involved, those in 3 sg. XODIT, in 3 sg. I-
DËT, and in the past forms already mentioned, SEL/SLA. The
form XODIT belongs to a major category with 3 sg. in -IT,
cf.VISIT 'is hanging', GREZIT 'dreams', ZAMETIT 'notices',
G0TÓVIT 'prepares' &c; clearly we can divide XOD-IT. The
other form, IDET, belongs to another major category, with
3 sg. in -ET, cf. VEDËT 'leads (by the hand while walking)',
ZIVËT 'lives', BERËT 'takes', PECËT 'bakes' &c; clearly we
can divide ID-ET. The past of almost every R verb ends in
-L (mase, subject)/-LA (fem. subject): ZAMETIL(A) '(s)he no­
ticed', GOTOVIL(A) '(s)he was preparing', CITÁL(A) '(s)he
was reading', SMOTREL(A) '(s)he used to look', ZABYL(A)
'(s)he forgot' &c; presumably we can divide SË-L/S-LA, al­
though these forms are unusual because they also show Ε ~ Ø.
Nevertheless, it certainly looks ("sounds") as if we are
dealing with three separate roots, which appear to be XOD-,
ID-, and SË-/S-.
Elsewhere in R phonology, however, it is well-known
that velars shift to palatals before front vowels (see my
1972 for details). Thus w e f i n d ~ C in pairs like 1 sg.
-U ~ 3 sg. -Ё , BEREGU ~ BEREZET 'take(s) care of',
 71 I.2.3

inf. MAX-ÁT' ~ 3 sg. MAS-ËT 'wave(s)' &c. For examples

like CUDO 'wonder, what is talked/heard of' (cognate with
κυδος 'glory, f a m e , source of Ε kudos 'acclaim, prestige'
and related to caus. show 'cause to be seen' from (s)kw-
'see, hear' of n. 116), see n. 49. It is possible, there­
fore, that underlying SË-L/S-LA is some more abstract re­
presentation with an initial velar, x, in which case SË-L/
S-LA and XOD-IT might be from the same root.
One support for such a hypothesis is the behavior of
0-l clusters. If the 0 is s/z (e.g., 3 sg. NES-ËT 'car­
ries in one's hands while walking'/LEZ-ËT 'climbs') or k/g
(e.g., 1 sg. PEK-Ú/BEREG-Ú) or p/b (e.g., GREB- ET/ rows') ,
word-final -I drops; hence mase, past NËS, LEZ, PEK, BERËG,
GRËB vs fern, past NES-LÁ, LEZLA, PEKLA, BEREGLA, GREBLÁ.
But if the verbal 0 is d/t (e.g., 3 sg. KLAD-ËT 'puts'/
PLET-ËT 'weaves'), the d/t always drops before Z; hence,
mase, past KLAL, PLËL, fern, past KLÁLA, PLELA.
Thus if SËL/SLA were from the same root as XODIT,
its UPR would presumably be xVd-, and from the past forms
xVd-Z-, the d would automatically be dropped by a rule
needed elsewhere in the grammar for independent reasons
(i.e. to derive past KLAL(A) alongside 3 sg KLADÉT mention­
ed just above).
Remaining to be explained are (1) Ё/0 in SËL/SLA and
(2) difference in underlying vowel between XODIT and SËL/
SLA. The latter is a problem because if SËL/SLA begins
(like XODIT) with an underlying velar, it must be followed
by V to shift it to a palatal; XODIT [xo-], on the other
hand, must have an underlying back vowel (presumably o)
after the velar. This difference in vowels may be due to
an ablaut-rule, resembling vowel-differences in E pairs
like get ^ got^ tell talk¿ sing song &c. If so, we
can derive SËL ~ xVd-l and SLA ~ xVd-l-a' provided only we
can also satisfactorily explain E *\J 0. Under the analysis
pursued here, both SËL/SLA and XODIT are derived from the
same root meaning 'go on foot', and the grammar conse­
quently reveals a deeply hidden sound-meaning correspondence.
The problem of V ~ 0 alternations in R is not re­
stricted to SEL ~ SLA; it pervades the entire Ρ system.
Here we can consider only the most summary outline, point­
ing rapidly at pairs like nom. LED ~ gen. L'DA 'ice' (cf.
I.2.3 72

GNËT, GNËTA oppression' with no alternation), ROT ~ RTA

'mouth1 (cf. STOL, STOLA 'table1 with no alternation).
At the level we consider this question here (and al­
so in my 1972), there are eight "underlying" vowels, four
short and four long. The Vs are most stable. Long a un­
derlies [a], long e underlies [e], long i underlies [i],
and long underlies [y], the high, back, unrounded vow­
el. 47 Underlying vs suffer the most Ρ change. Short un­
derlies [o] and [a], short e underlies [e] and [o] (see
below), and short i/u are either lowered to [e]/[o] or else
dropped. 48 The vowels underlying LËD ~ L'DA 'ice' and ROT
~ RTA ' mouth' are high i and u, resp. These high v"s (call­
ed "jers" in R) are lowered before a syllable with a high
V, dropped elsewhere (in that order). Thus we have the
following, rough derivations (cf. also (21) below):

(18) LED L'DA ROT RTA

UPR: lid-u lid-ä rut-u rut-â
i/u lowered: e
i/u dropped: Φ Φ Φ Φ
PR: *led *lda rot rta
The derivation of SLA is similar to that of L'DA, but
slightly more complex:

(19) UPR: xid-1-ä

> / V: s
i/u lowered:
i/u dropped: 0
t/d dropped before 1: 0
PR: sla

We cannot yet derive SEL [sol] from xid-l-u: instead

we derive *[sel], like *[led] above in (18) for LËD 'ice f .
The difficulties here are first that Cs before Vs are pal­
atalized (hence XÔDIT [xod'it] < xod-i-t, BEL [b'el] <
e- & c ) , 4 9 and second that e is backed to before non-
palatalized Cs (whence alternations like PETR [p'otr] 'Pe­
ter' ~ PÉTJA [p'êV'] 'Pete', in which e > before non-
palatalized t in PETR but remains intact before palatal­
ized t' in PÉTJA; GREZA 'a dream' ~ GREZIT 'dreams'; there
is a list of such pairs in my 1972, including another fa­
miliar borrowing, FEDOR ~ FEDJA, as well as several real
 73 I.2.3

Slavic pairs). With these two additional ordered rules

(which reflect processes), the derivation for SËL is as
follows:

(20) UPR: xid-l-u

> / -V: š
> ' / -V: š'
t/d dropped before 1: Ø
i/u lowered: e
i/u dropped: Φ
e > / - :
PR: *š'ol

Still, the PR is not right. But it is close. In the

dialect under consideration, palatal continuants are always
non-palatalized (= š and z). Since e > before š/z (as in
DESEV 'cheap!, EZ 'hedgehog' &c), we know depalatalization
(š'/z' > š/z) must apply before e > (v. my 1972: 83, n.9).
With this ordered rule added, we give fuller derivations of
relevant forms in (21). It is worth pointing out that the

(2l) SËL SLA XODIT

UPR: xid-l-u xid-l-a xod-i-t
> / V:šš
š!
> ' / V: š' d'
t/d dropped: Ø Ø
i/u lowered: e
i/u dropped: Ø Ø
š'/z' >š/z:šš
e > / :
PR: šol šla xod'it

LED L'DA ROT RTA

UPR: lid-u lid-a rut-u rut-a
> ' / V:l'l'
i/u lowered: e o
i/u dropped: Ø Ø Ø Ø
e >o/ C: o
PR: l'od l'da rot rta
I.2.3 74

d assumed in the UPR of šEL/šLA (in order that the grammar

might make explicit a conjoined sound-meaning relationship)
is not entirely without precedent: it actually appears pho­
netically in the past act. PRT and past gerund SEDSI(J)
(for the failure of e > here, 1972: 223, fn. 9).
Above were given seven, ordered process-rules (all
required for derivation of SEL/SLA), and we pointed to oth­
er process-rules. If these process-rules (or smth. like
them) are not used, then we will not be able to make ex­
plicit the immanent relationships which hold between forms
like SEL and SLA (not to mention more distantly related X0-
DIT): the Ρ of R will be reduced to a few confused, super­
ficial statements about surface representations of some of
the forms; none of the latent, inner workings of R will be
revealed. The kind of Ρ proposed here is deeply interre­
lated with M, as can be seen from some of the examples a-
bove. Of course we purposely chose inflectional variants
as examples so that no questions about S would arise. Our
theoretical framework is similar to the one used by Jakob-
son in his seminal paper of 1948.
From the examples we have given, it seems necessary
for R grammar to explain that in a strong sense each of the
related pairs like SEL ~ ŠLA 'was going', LED ~ L'DA 'ice',
ROT ~ RTA 'mouth' &c exhibit the same Ρ differences and re­
flect a block of tightly intertwined processes, which by
their nature must be ordered. But it does not seem one
could arrive at these insights within the constraints of
the principle of §2.1. The point is not merely to improve
the above analysis (this is not too difficult), but to come
even close to it, using the principle of §2.1. Unless that
can be done, the principle has to be rejected, not only for
R, but for Ε and all the other natural languages as well.
We will have to look elsewhere than Lockwood 1973a for a
satisfactory analysis of ablaut in Ε strong verbs.
And for R we will have to look elsewhere than Halle,
Sound Pattern of Russian, for Ε elsewhere than Chomsky-Hal­
le, Sound Pattern of English. The linguistic view of these
latter scholars, its emphasis on "sound", continues along
the neogrammarian tradition, with its easy view of language
and its misleading slogan, the tradition which exerted such
 75 I.3.1

great influence on linguistics around the turn of the cen­

tury, culminating in Brugmann's handbook (but see Lehmann
1980: 844-5 for a slightly different, perhaps more pene­
trating interpretation). Instead we will be obliged to
follow the more contemporary suggestion of Saussure, which
was based on internal reconstruction and which sometimes
led to use of peculiar symbols resulting in unpronounceable
etyma, the suggestion exemplified best in his 1878 Memoire,
which has unfortunately not yet met with widespread accept­
ance, despite Kurylowicz's confirming identification in
Hittite and Benveniste's supportive work on la théorie de
la racine.
We examine first the PRT/PAST endings (§3) and then
(in §4) turn to ablaut itself.

3. Past and Past Participles.

Before discussion of the main problem that concerns
us in this section--attachment of the different PAST/PRT
endings to V-sterns (follow-ed, tol-d, fel-t &c)--it will be
convenient to examine a purely Ρ (= non-ablaut) type of
vowel-change, the one in feet ~ fett &c.

3.1 Vowel-Shortening before Consonant Clusters.

For reasons not investigated in this book, it may
sometimes be advantageous to consider intermediary repre­
sentations of vowels specified for a binary feature like
short vs long. Roughly following the SPE proposal, we
assume Vs underlie phonetic diphthongs and Vs phonetic
monophthongs.50 As in SPE, majuscules represent Vs, min­
uscules Vs.51 The transcription is in (22); note AW, ΟΥ
are digraphs, each representing a single V. As elsewhere
in this work, here too we are not unduly concerned with
"sound"; that, for example, long I "sounds" like a diph­
thong with a low, back vowel and short i like a monoph-
thongal high, front vowel is not at issue here (v. III).
I-3.1 76

(22) short long

rabid A rAbies, fAl, At
e fed (open e) E fEd, sEl, bEt
i filth (open i) I defile, nit, rhlme
gone (open ) 0 gO, quOte, thrOw
{dU [duw], educate
{does foot} 50
fU [fyuw], tlphUn [-fuwn]
a canic AW tAWer, AW, sAWnd
{girl, turn, beard, OY bOY, chOYce
sofa, again

o, ü represent front, round vowels (as in G storen, dünn, F

peu, lu), y the palatal glide in yeah, yolk, and g the af­
fricate in join, edge; and so on.

Vowels are usually short before C-clusters (but not

always--see e.g. discussion of -ed in §3.2.1, ofldin
§3.2.4, of nd in III.4.1, and the list of "exceptions" near
the end of this section); thus we find V ~ V alternations
as in (23):

(23) pt: crEp ~ crept [OE creopan]

kEp ~ kept [OE c , ]
lEp ~ lept [OE hleapan, G laufen, ooo]
slEp ~ slept [OE slœpan, slœpte]
(s)wEp ~ (s)wept [OE (s)wëpan]
bt: (in)scribe ~ (manu)script [scribere, seri tus]
p : dEp ~ depth [OE dëop]
ft: thEf, thEve(ry) ~ theft [OE peof(ian), peof, G Dieb]
vt: berEve ~ -reft [OE berëafian, G rauben 'rob!]
clEve ~ cleft [OE oleo fan, G klieben 'split1]
hEve ~ heft ( ) [OE hebban, G heben]
lEve ~ left [OE lœfan, G bleiben ' remain']
wEve ~ weft [OE wefan, weft, G weben]
fIve ~ fifty, fifteen(th) [OE fif, fiftig, fiftene,
G ƒünƒ]
Vθ: five '~ fifth [OE flfta]
dp: tOd [ME to de., tade < OE tade < tadige^ ooo] ' tadpole
(-pole 'head* the same as poll- in polliwog; hence
tadpole ' toad-head')
 77 I.3.1

st: frOze ~ frost [OE frosty forst]

lUse ~ lost [OE losian]
sk: tUth ~ tusk (η. 247) [OE top ~ G Zahn; OE tuso]
sb: hAWse ~ husband (n._24)
sd: wise ~ wisdom [OE wis, wisdom]
zl: dAze ~ daezzle
dθ: wide ~ width [OE wld, G weit]
kt: constrUe} /. ( [struere, struxi, struotus
- ην ~ Struct (ion) 4 ,, .-,, * _ -1ττ ,- .,
destrOY J V build , but v. III.5.4]
frUt fruct-ify/-uous [früotus !fruit']
1
gt: produceAgency
Agent, ~ act(or)[dücere,
~ -duct(ion) [agere,ductus
actus'lead ]
'drive, do,
make'; possibly cf. also H 'as- 'drive, do, make']
: scribe ~ scribble [scribillare = freq. of scrZbere]
tAble ~ tablet [L tabula, ooo]
sl: goose ~ gosling (n. 22)
mAWse ~ muscle [OE mus, L musculus 'little mouse, mus­
cle' = dim. of mus, mûris 'mouse']
mt: drEm dremt (n. 63) [OE dream < Gmc draug-m- = o-
grade of drreugh- 'deceive'; for the velar, cf. G
Trug 'deception']
nt: mEn ~ ment (η. 57) [OE mœnan]
plEnary ~ plenty [plenärius, plënitâtem, both from
plenus 'full']
lt: dEl ~ delt [OE dœlan 'divide, distribute', dœl 'part,
share'; Gth dailyan, dails; G teil(en); Ε dole
(out)]
fEl ~ felt [OE felan < Gmc folyan < o-grade pol-; G
fühlen]
ns: clEn ~ dense [OE clœne, clœnsian]
Iθ: defile ~ filth( ) [OE fylb, OHG fulida]
hEl ~ helth(y) [OE hœlan, hœl ]
stEl ~ stelth(y) [OE stelan, G stehlen]
rθ: dEr ~ dearth [OE deore < Gmc deur-y-; G teuer]
rl: dEr ~ darling [OE dëorling < deore]
str: nOse ~ nostril (cf. III.5.1)
Qrn: sAWth ~ southern [OE suderne < sud]
mbl: humility ~ humble [humilitas < humilis]
mbr: numerical ~ number [L numerus]
msl: dAme ~ damsel [OF dame, damoiselle]
I.3.1 78

n k t : jOYn ~ juncture [jungere, ¿unctus 'unite']

ndl: bInd, bAWnd ~ bundle (cf. III.4.1) [G binden, Bund]
ldr: child ~ children (§3.2.4)

We already mentioned this frequently cited constraint

on Vs before CC in discussing gosling and husband. It is
unfortunate we do not know how exhaustive the list in (23)
is, because there are so many apparent exceptions to the
proposed distribution. If we had (nearly) exhaustive lists
of both the regularities and the exceptions, we would be in
a more reliable position to interpret the data than we are
now. At present, we cannot even say the constraint at
least holds in V-inflection because of minimal pairs like
[lept] vs [lEpt]. Dialectal loss of auslaut -t from cer­
tain clusters (producing "new" pairs like INF/PRES [slEp] ~
PAST/PRT [slep]) simply confounds the problem. As matters
stand, about the best we can do is list the data at our dis­
posal, along with the customary warning. Here are some of
the exceptions:—
Abraham; ain't (substandard, used in all persons and
numbers; cf. I am, but aren't I?); baste 'moisten1 [ooo];
1
baste 'sew loosely [OF bastir, a Gmc loan]; beard; beast
(only with E, but bEstial ~ bestial); boast; bolt [OE
bolt]; boost [ooo]; bounty (bonitatem; cf. bOnus, boon,
bunt); chaste (OF < castus 'pure'; cf. chast-ise/-ity,
castigate); Christ 'the anointed one' (with short i cf.
chrism 'holy oil' and perhaps cream); coast (with short
[a], cf. (inter)costal, accost [costa 'rib, side', Sp cue-
sta, F cote, KOST1 'bone']); cobra; colt [OE colt];
Coors; count (cf. on the one hand compute [a doublet of
count, both from L computare], on the other constable, lit.
'count of the stable'); counterpoint (music; cf. contra­
puntal); dolt (cf. dull); don't (vowel change from do
not, but no shortening); east (cf. paste below); egret [F
aigrette, a Gmc loan]; faint (we will see later the source
is thikh- knead'; if there is objection to this now, every­
thing within these boldfaced parentheses can be temporarily
disregarded; related words include feint, feign (n. 64),
(con-/dis-/pre-/trans-)figur(ation), figur-ant/-ative/-ine,
figment, fict-ile/-ion/-itious/-ive, effigy 'shaped ex-
 79 I.3.'

out', thigmo- 'touch1 (as in thigmotropism), thixotropy,

paradise Twalled para- around, garden of Eden, dough (from
o-grade thoikh-; cf. OE dag, G Teig, Gth daigs 'dough',
digan 'knead'; III.4.3 s.f.), dairy (suffixal -erie; cf. OE
dæge 'fem. kneader of dough'), and the compound lady (OE
hlæfdige 'loaf-kneader', cf. OE hläf, Gth hlaifs 'loaf,
bread1, and Gmc loans in OCS xlebu, XLEB [not *XLËB], Finn
leipä); cognates are figura 'form, shape', fingere 'mold',
T8LXOC/ TOLXOQ 'wall' (dissimilated from theikï1-, cf. E
Tiehodroma 'genus of birds1, lit. 'wall-runnerT [drom-
'run' in dromedary s hippo-/patin- (TiaA.LV 'again, back­
ward ') /syn-drome, and some technical terms like anadromous
going ana- up rivers to spawn']), OR deza 'baker's trough',
Lth dieïïti 'knead thoroughly'—with metathesis, OCS zïdati,
Lth ïïiedSiu 'build'—Av daeza 'wall' and pairiâfCèza 'en­
closure', whence whence L paradisus); Faust;
feast (App.1.1); fierce (cf. feral 'wild'); flagrant [L
flagräns, PRT of flagrare 'burn, blaze']; foist 'palm off'
([from Du vuist 'fist'], cf. fist); fount(ain) (cf. font
'source of abundance', anat. fontanelle); fragrant [fra-
gräns, PRT of fragräre 'smell']; ghost ([OE gast, G Geist];
with short [ ], cf. ghastly, aghast, flabbergast); haste
[OF haste, a Gmc loan]; heist (slang) 'rob(bery)' (cf.
hoist); hoist; host (v. II.5.3); hydrant and several oth­
er words in hydr- (n. 135); jolt [ooo]; joust ([from juxta
'near, close to', through F with loss of ] 9 with short
cf. juxta-(pose) '(place) side by side'); Jules (Verne); li­
brary (liber, 'book', cf. libretto); lubric-ant/-ate;
lucrative; lugubrious; migrate [migräre 'change, move from
one place to another']; molten (cf. melt); most; mount­
ain) (cf. montage, monte(video), rodomontade); Negro(id)
[~L niger, ooo]; Niels (Bohr); nutr-ient/-ify/-iment/-ition/
itious/-itive; okra [non-IE]; paint ([OF peint = PRT of
peindre < L piotus = PRT of pingere], cf. piat-ure/-orial,
pigment, pimento [Sp pimienta = pi. of pigmentum 'plant
juice, paint'], depict(ion)); paste, pastry (like eastern,
with V before str despite suthern and nOse nostril; cf.
the F loan pate); Pierce; pint (named from the painted
gague sign); (com)plain(t) (from plag- 'strike', cf. L
plangere 'beat, strike', pläga, \ ^\ 'stroke, blow, wound';
other E derivatives are -plalnt-ifff-ive, plœng-orous/-ent ,
I.3.1 80

plankton (a coined word), plectrum 'small metal-/plastic-

piece to strike strings of a musical instrument', plague,
apoplexy, paraplegia 'paralysis of lower half of body on
both sides = stroke para- around', and Gmc flaw 'sudden
gust of wind' [cf. Dan, Nrw flage]); post- 'after, be­
hind' [L post-]; post 'stake' [L postis]; post 'military
base; office for mail' [pono, positus 'put, place'];
Proust; quaint (ME cointe < OF coint < cognitus 'well-
known'); roast [cf. G Rost, F rôtir] ; Rolls (Royce);
roost(er) [OE hrost]; saint (ME, OF saint < L sanotus 'sa­
cred' = PRT of sancZre 'appoint as sacred'; η. 64 s.f.);
scarce; Sears; (con)strain(t) (PRT of OF estreindre <L
stringere 'draw tight'; cf. strait 'narrow passage of wa­
ter' [OF estreit (F étroit) < L strictus = PRT of string­
ere], (a)stringent (a- < ad-), string, strong, strangulate,
(re)strict(ure)); taint (F teint = PRT of teindre < L tin-
gere, tinatus 'moisten, dye'; stain (aphetic for dis-tain;
cf. similar splay < dis-play 'unfold' [F déployer < plia-
are 'fold'], sport < disport [portare 'carry'], stress <
distress &c), tinct(-orial/-ure) [L tinctus], tint < ear­
lier tinct, tinge, and (from Gmc) dunk 'plunge in liquid');
taste [VL taxitare < L taxare 'touch' < tag- 'touch'];
toast; vagrant [ooo, perhaps related to vague < L vagus
'wandering']; waist (related"to wax 'grow', augment''in­
crease'); waste [vastus 'empty']; Wayles [wAlz]; weird;
yeast [OE gist, G Gischt], and so on--this is not a com­
plete collection; v. ninth &c, n. 57.
For what it is worth: of the (roughly) 80 boldfaced
examples above, 30 have V before st, 17 before nt, 6 before
gr, 5 before lt, 5 before br, 4 before lz (all proper
names), 3 before rs, 2 each before rz, kr, br, and one each
before dr, nth, tr. We feel an attempt to interpret these
numerical data would be premature: a scan through the en­
tire vocabulary of E needs to be made in order to arrive at
realistic numerical figures.
In what follows, our attention will be mostly con­
fined to verbs. We will assume--at least for verb-inflec­
tion--that restriction to V before CC holds. One of our
goals will be to find representations for endings that ex­
plain V ' V in pairs like lEpt ~ lept. That is to say, we
 81 1.3.2.1

will try to avoid a description which classifies leap [lEp]

as an optional exception to V-shortening before CC.
Given the assumption V-shortening before CC (or some­
thing like it) is a bona fide process in E, a question nat­
urally arises concerning the proper interpretation of the
shortening, with all its exceptions: proper interpretation
would presumably lead at least to the beginning of formal
description in terms of rules. There is a language-indepen­
dent formulation of this process (in terms of A and Trk) in
my 1972: 410-11, fn. 23. I return to this question to sug­
gest (admittedly, without great satisfaction) a different,
possible interpretation, one with more widespread applica­
tion (at least for E) in III.2 s.f.
It will be convenient, at first, to focus attention
on PRTs; in §3.3 we will consider PAST forms.

3.2 The Participial Endings.

3.2.1 -ed.
The regular and productive ending is pronounced [-əd]
after dental stops (patted, ceded), otherwise [-t] after
voiceless segments (capped, laughed [laaft], unearthed
[Anar6t] (with [ -] as in uncle, unctuous, undulate, un­
guent, ungulate; contrast [ə-] in unless, until), kissed,
meshed, reached, worked) and [-d] everywhere else (grabbed,
craved, bathed [ ~\, bugged, whizzed, edged [egd]., rouged
[rUžd]j beamed, dined, pealed, humored, played, vowed, eyed,
viewed [vUd]). There are more endings (given below), but
even if this -ed were the only ending, it would still be of
interest, for at least two reasons:—
First, its voice-assimilation is in the wrong direc­
tion. Not much attention has been paid to voice-assimilation
in E, but it is an integral and important piece of the Ρ
system, and we ought to look at it even if only briefly.
The peculiar thing about voice-assimilation in the PRT/PAST
(and also in the PRES and N-endings [-s/-z]—the only other
examples) is that in an 0-cluster 0 1 0 2 , the voice of 01
governs that of 0 2 (hence capped [-pt] but bugged [-gd],
and so on). 5 2 Elsewhere in E, however, voice-ass.imilation
applies in the opposite direction; thus, V in give devoices
before -t in gift (= giv-t > gif-t), and so on; there are
1.3.2.1 82

also a few exceptions like Aztec [seztèk], lobster &c. In

R, where voice-assimilation is widespread, it always ap­
plies in the direction of gift, with voice of 02 governing
that of 01. Lehmann has suggested the direction in which
assimilation moves is closely connected to the direction
of the object (0) with respect to the V: in languages with
order V0 predominant, C2 governs C1, but in languages with
0V order predominant, C1 governs C2 (v. his 1978). 53 For Ε
and R, underlying word-order is V0. Under Lehmann's sug­
gestion, direction of voice-assimilation in R is correct, as
also in Ε examples like gift < giv-t. But however we view
voice-assimilation in general, the direction in which it
travels is unusual in the particular case of PRT-/PAST-endings
-ed (and also -s in the poss./pl. ending of (pro)nouns and
PRES of verbs).
Before turning to the second interesting characteristic
of -ed, we list some Ε words with regular voice-assimilation
(= like gift < giv-t):

(24) absorb ~ -ption contiguous 'touching' ~ tac­

[sorbre 'suck1] tile 'pert, to the touch'
agent ~ act (or) [tangere, tactus 'touch']
[agere, ctus] contingent55 ~ tax 'make dif­
anguish ~ anxious [L anx- ficult demands on'
ius < angere 'tor­ dia-/pro-logue ~lecture,
ment ' ] lexicon
a-stringent ~ constrict dis-/ex-stinguish~ -stinct
(§3.1 s.f.) [L distinguere, -stinetus;
bereave ~ -reft cf. in-stinetus]
broad ~ breadth [0E brad] eligible ~ elect [eligere, e-
cingulum (anat.) ~ cinc­ lectus 'pick out, choose']
ture [L cingere, duc­ figment ~ fictitious [L fig-
tus 'gird'] mentum < fingere, fictus
cleave ~ cleft 'fashion, form, shape']
coccygeal ~ coccyx [ ó - five ~ fifth, fifteen(th),
κυξ, κόκκυγοσ] fifty [OE / /, G fünf]
comb [OE comb] ~ unkempt fragment ~ fraction [frangere,
'uncombed' fractus ~reak']
compaginate 'join togeth­ freeze, froze ~ frost [OE
er' ~ compact freosan, frost]
 83 I.3.2.1

heave ~ heft(y) [OE pragmatic ~ practical,

hebban] praxis
impinge ~ infraction regulate ~ rectify56
[-infringere < frangere remiges ~ sg. remex
~reak 1 ] (in)scribe ~ script (cf.
intelligent ~ -lect (the shrive below)
prefix is inter-) segment ~ section, dis­
languid ~ lax [L languidus, sect [segmentim < se­
laxus < lag-s-os] care, sectus 'cut']
laryngeal ~ larynx [ λάρ- shrive, Shrovetide ~ (short)
υγξ, λάρυγγος shrift [loans from scrZb-
1
throat1] ere; cf. the Ε treat­
leave ~ left [OE lœfan] ment with G schreiben]
longer length [-k0] [OE sphygmo-(manometer) ~ as­
lengdu < lang- - ] phyxiate fracpugict, with
magni(fy) maxim-al/-um NEG a-, related to σφυ­
[L maximus = SUP of γμός ~eat, pulse']
magnus 'great'] stronger ~ strength [OE
meninges i» meninx [μηνίγΕ, strengpu]
μ ή ν ι γ γ ο ς 'membrane'] Stygian Styx [Στύξ, Στυ-
nose ~ n o s t r i l [OE nosu] Ύός]
n u b i l e ~ n u p t i a l [nubere thrive ~ thrift(y)
'marry'] twelve ~ twelfth [OE twelfta
phalanges ~ phalanx < twelf]
p h a r y n g e a l ( i z e ) ~ pharynx unguent ~unctuous [L un-
ΕράρυγΕ, φάρυγγος guere, tmctus 'anoint']
'throat'] wide ~ width [OE wid, G
pigment ~ d e p i c t [pingere, weit]
pictus 'paint']

A few Ε pairs like those above do not display 0 voice-assim­

ilation despite their suggestive surface representations; in
(24) we pointed to segment ~ section, with its L voicing of
underlying before m--the related math. term secant 'cut­
ting (line)' assures us the UPR in Ε must be k. Some Ε fa­
milies, however, do not contain members adequate to verify
the true voicing of an underlying 0. For example, Gk Sphinx
--who in the myth asked a riddle, eventually solved by Oed­
ipus--is related to sphincter 'a constrictor', but there are
I.3.2.1 84

no probative forms to show the base voicing of the velar.

Ancient Greeks knew it was g because of their σφίγγεLV
'constrict, draw tightT [ooo], but we cannot use that in­
formation in the synchronic analysis of E.
The second interesting feature of the ending -ed is
that before it nothing happens. However the verb is pro­
nounced in INF/PRES, so it is pronounced before -ed. In
particular, the V of a stem is not shortened, even if a
C-cluster results. Thus we have V before -ft- in fifty
(from five), but the V is never shortened in the verb
knife: the PR of PRT knifed (as in She 's knifed him in
the back. &c) is in [-Ift], where the vowel is phonetical­
ly long before -ft, even though the same V is shortened
before ft in fifty < fIv-tE. We find a minimal pair here:
the fift- in fifty vs fifed, PRT of the verb fife. Ab­
breviated derivations are in (25); notice that voice-as­
similation travels in different directions:

(25) UPR: fIv-ty fIf-d

voice-assim: f t
V- shortening: i
PR: fifty fIft

The only way to object to fift(y) vs fifed as a mini­

mal pair involving both voice-assimilation and V-shortening
would be to claim that fifty is derived from an UPR spelled
"fifty" (with V and voiceless labial continuant—that is,
roughly the way it "sounds"). Such a claim would be equi­
valent to the suggestion that fifty is not derived from five
followed by a decade-suffix -ty (which happens, by chance,
to appear also in every other decade except ten—20, 30, 40,
60, 70, 80, 90, which happen, again by chance, to be the on­
ly cardinals with a gliding vowel (n. 27) before ordinal
-th). But even if the objection were valid, that would
not concern what we are discussing here, which is that vow­
els keep their shape in front of the PAST/PRT ending -ed.
Before leaving the subject, I mention one other minimal pair:
Verbs keep their shape not only before -ed, but also
before 3 sg. -(e) s, where voice of s behaves like that of d in
- e d , as shown in (26) on p. 85.
 85 I.3.2.1

(26) A = stem-final consonant; = voiceless; = voiced

A: t-/d- s-/z- k-/g-

{patted [-tad] kissed [-st] worked [-kt]
:
pats kisses [-saz] works [-ks]

{goaded [-dad] whizzed [-zd] bugged [-gd]

:
goads [-dz] whizzes [-zaz] bugs [-gz]

Since s is voiceless and d voiced, perhaps it would be

better to say voice in these two is reversed (-s may be
voiced, -d unvoiced); the important thing is direction of
voice-assimilation is the same (for both -s and -d, voice of
ending is governed by voice of stem-final segment). Further­
more, stem-vowels are not shortened before -(e)s even if a
C-cluster results. Thus with Vs (none of which are ever
shortened),58we have verb-forms like gapes [gAps], leafs
[1Efs],59 grieves [grEvz],60 robes [rObz] &c. Beside
cleanse [k1enz], there is also clean [k1En], whose V is not
shortened in 3 sg. Thus we have a minimal pair, 3 sg.
cleans [k1Enz] vs cleanse [klenz], where V in the latter is
shortened before ns because s is a derivational (not a
paradigmatic) suffix.
There are, incidentally, some highly specific con­
straints on the appearance of 3 sg. -s: it is not used e.g.
with negative or interrogative of AUX need {*She needs not
leave us now. &c).
About 20 years ago, Halle suggested an analysis of E
word-final[*)]from -Ng#, where N assimilates to g, which
subsequently drops. Such words retain their shape before
the endings under discussion; none of the following e.g.
show [g]: noun p1. or 3 sg. wings, PRTs winging, winged (nor
forms like wingless, dim. winglet, agentive winger &c). But
"g-drop", which must be formulated roughly as in (27), will

(27) g > 0 / Ν #, where # represents a morpho­

logical boundary "stronger"
than a morpheme-boundary.
I.3.2.2 86

not apply to the representations of wings, winged &c unless

the endings are preceded by a boundary, #. For various
reasons (we can specify # to block shortening, for example),
we follow this analysis here, suggesting derivations as
shown below:

In summary of §3.2.1, stems retain their shape before

the "regular" endings -ed and -(e) s. This general state­
ment also covers the unusual direction of voice-assimila­
tion: it is endings that assimilate, leaving stems intact
before them.

3.2.2 -n.
These PRTs are easiest to discuss in groups. The
most straightforward is formed from Vs which do nothing:
from see [sE] is derived seen [sEn] simply by addition of
PRT -n. Similarly, show(n), blow(n), know(n), grow (η) ,
draw (n) , throw (n).
In the next group, the stem-vowel always changes, as
in do[dU] ~ done [ ]. Similarly, go [gO] ~ gone [gon],
fly [flI] ~ flown [flOn], swear [swAr] ~ sworn [sworn],
tear ~ torn, wear ~ worn, bear ~ born(e) [born]. These
verbs are difficult. In the last four, the root-V is short­
ened before the cluster -rn. Thus swear is from a root
spelled swVr; in the PRT, swVr-n. The V of the root may
be e: in swear apparently ê > ä before r; in sworn, this
V is shortened and undergoes ablaut (§4), whence [sworn].
But whatever the right analysis turns out to be, the four
pairs swear/sworn, bear/born(e) , tear/torn, wear/worn all
seem formed the same way. Later we will mention a differ-
 87 I.3.2.2

ent analysis for swear (p. 362).

In flown the V is not shortened because it is not
followed by a C-cluster. Only ablaut applies in fly/
flown/flew.
We are left with the pairs do/done and go/gone. For
do, the underlying vowel is short and is lengthened in
word-final position (but not in done or does):

(29) //du// > dU

(30) #du-n// > d^n

(31) #du-S# > #du-Z# > d^Z

All the verbs are explained except go. If go is from

go_, we can explain go and gone like do and done above, but
goes then ought to be *[goz], like does [dAz]. Another pos­
sibility is that go is like show, blow, know, grow, throw.
But in this case, the PRT ought to be *[gOn], like shOwn,
known, blown &c.
We will assume the UPR go, with 3 sg. regular (i.e.
with the ending #s) and PRT with -n:

(32) //go// > go

(33) //go//s# > 5// > g5z [cf. (31)]

(34) go-η (no rules apply)

As an aside, I mention the peculiar fact that the verb

go—regardless of how it may best be analyzed—when prefixed
with be-, appears only in imperative (interjection?) begone!
(cf. prefixed verbs like for-/under-go and imperatives (for-/
under-)go!). To attain observational adequacy we may have
to analyze this be- as a verb (cf. Be finished by the time
Gaston gets back!). Gone also appears in a few other idio­
syncratic expressions like A foregone (cf. 'an undergone
treatment, *the begone workers), let bygones be bygones,
perhaps slang doggone and certainly before agential -er
(H was a goner.). In my idiolect, go too may precede
I.3.2.3 88

agential -er, but only in compounds (churchgoer). Other

particular features include As foregoing, ongoing from
to go on (like oncoming from to come on, cf. 'onlooking
from to look on, *ongone), a homophonous N go (as in She
gave it a go., She was always on the go., It was no go.
&c), and the compound go-getter. A full examination,
which we cannot present here, would have to contrast
items like A/V/N welcome [G willkommen, OE wilcuma 'a
welcome guest, one who comes in conformity to the will
of another'] vs *wêlgo.
Remaining verbs with -n all end in C, and -n syl­
labifies in this position: the stem of take is tAk-,
which forms PRT tAk-n < tAk-n; similarly, eaten from
Et-η, beaten < bEt-n, given < giv-n, fallen < fal-n,61
(for)gotten < -get-n, broken < brAk-n, stolen < stEl-n,
spoken < spEk-n, frozen < frEz-n, and chosen < chUs-n
(cf. also choice).
There are only seven verbs left. Just as in given,
PRT -n is added and syllabifies: driv-n > drivn (similarly
for bitten, hidden, ridden, (a)risen, striven, written).
But there is one difference: like drive, all these verbs
have V in INF/PRES (bite, hide, ride, (a)rise, strive,
write—contrast give with its V). The underlying vowel
of these verbs must be long, shortened in PRT. 62
As can be seen from the examples, auslaut N syllabi­
fies after any consonant except r (worn, torn, swarm, arm);
after I, compare fallen, stolen to elm, film.

3.2.3 -t.
We have not yet accounted for pairs like feel ~ felt.
Shortening applies in felt, but the underlying ending must
be -t: no other choice is available because -ed would re­
sult in *feeled *[fEld], like heal(ed), peal(ed), peel(ed),
seal(ed) &c. Along with felt are knelt, dealt [delt],
meant [ment], leapt [lept], and left, the last undergoing
regular voice-assimilation as well as shortening: lEv-t >
lEf-t > left. Compare derivations of inflected forms of
leave with those of leaf in (35) on the next page (and see
also n. 59).
 89 I.3.2.3

(35) leaves left leafs leafed

UPR: lEv#es lEv-t lEf#es lEf#ed
regular assim: f
V-shortening: e
V-drop: 0 0 Ø
end-assim: z vacuous
PR: lEvz left lEfs lEft

The last two rules in (35), which apply only to the

endings -ed/-eS, might have to include M specifications
in their formulations; for now we assume (36) and (37),
but see §3.2.6 below.

(36) e > 0 / x # ( x ) ~ ,#, where cannot be

χ End . , ~. xn , _ .,
identical dentals
(cf. (26), (35),
and (47)

(37) > [avoice] / [avoice]#( )End#

There are more PRTs in -t (= in addition to leapt,

knelt, lefty dealt, meant, felt), and some may have vari­
ants in -ed (discussed not here but in §3.3). Thus slept,
e.g., is from slEp-t with shortening. These forms are
listed in (38), separated from INF by an oblique:

(38) sleep/slept, creep/crept, weep/wept, keep/kept,

leap/lept, dream/dreamt/3 lose/lost [lUz/lost]

The last form in (38)—like driven, written &c at the

end of §3.2.2—has an underlying long vowel: Ws-t.
There are also a few PRTs in -t from verbs in a den­
tal stop; for example, met from meet. Here (just as for
lost), the underlying vowel is long, with shortening in PRT:
(40) meet met
UPR: mEt mEt-t
shortening: - e
degemination = PR: mEt met
I.3.2.4 90

Like meet/met are bite/bit, burst/burst, cost/cost

[a loan from OF], hit/hit, light/lit, shoot/shot, sit/sat,
spit/spat. Some of these undergo ablaut (§4).
PRTs of bend/bent, build/built, gird/girt (cf. gird­
ed), lend/lent (cf. loan(ed)), vend/rent, send/sent, spend/
spent undergo voice-assimilation (like left of (35)) and
then degemination:

(41) UPR: send-t

regular voice-assim: t
degem. = PR: sent

Wend (in wend one1s way) is problematic: it has regu­

lar PAST and PRT wended, but the form in -t is used as sup­
pletive PAST of go (interesting view of S development, v.
Traugott, p. 377, n. 10).
To end this section, I mention again that ot-verbs be­
long here (cf. §2.2).

3.2.4 -d.
Consider speed ~ sped. The PRT/PAST ending cannot be
#d, which results in speeded. The analysis adopted here
uses an ending spelled -d and provides derivations as in (42)

(42) speeds speeded sped

UPR: spEd#es spEd#ed spEd-d
V-shortening: e
(36) = e-drop: Ø
(37) = end-assim: z
degem: Ø
PR: spEdz spEdəd sped

Like speed/sped are bleed/bled, breed/bred, chide/'chid,

feed/fed, hide/hid, lead/led, plead/pled, read/read [red],
and slide/slid.
The PRT of hear cannot be in #ed\ that would result in
substandard heared [hErd]. Instead, the ending must be -d,
with derivations as shown in (43) on the following page.
 91 I.3.2.4

(43) heaved hears heard

UPR: hEr#ed hEr#es hEr-d
V-shortening: e
(36) = ö-drop: Ø Ø
(37) = end-assim: z
V-adjust. before r: e
?
PR: hErd hErz hard

Forms of say are similar to those of do in (29)-(31);

cf. also n. 58:

(44) say says said

UPR: se# se-z# se-d#
V-length: A (V-shift in III)
PR: sA sez sed

We cannot use #ed in (44) because se#ed would undergo

vowel-lengthening, resulting in *sayed *[sAd]. This pos­
sibility is realized in the verb shoe (from so, cf. n. 252),
with two PRTs, shod (from šo-d) and shoed (from šo#ed).
The verb (with)stand undergoes special N-insertion
(cf. (under)stood with no N).64
There is a rule in Ε that vowels are lengthened be­
fore Zd, provided no follows. Hence child from citd> but
p1. children (from cild-r-) retains its underlying V.
Hold/held are from radical hVld-. The^V of INF/PRES
hold is lengthened. But PRT/PAST are from hVld-d: length­
ening cannot apply because follows ld; geminal d's de-
geminate:

(45) hold held

UPR: hold held-d (ablaut in §4)
length before Id: O
degemination: Ø
PR: hOld held

Sell/sold and tell/told are from sVl- and tVl-, No

rules apply to INF/PRES sel/tel, but in PAST/PRT the V is
I.3.2.6 92

lengthened:

(46) sell sold

UPR: sel sol-d ( a b l a u t in 4)
length before ld: 0
PR: sel sOld

We cannot use #ed for PAST/PRT of either hold or

sell/tell: from hold#ed would be derived *holded, from
tel#ed, *belled *[teld].
Flee has an underlying V lengthened in auslaut:
flees [flEz] < fle#s. But PAST/PRT ending is -d (not
#d): [fled] < fle-d.

3.2.5 -0.
This is the last of the PRT endings. It appears in
begun, bounds b u r s t , clung, (be)come, drunk, dug, flung,
found, ground~hung, run, rung, shrunk, slung, smit, snuck
(nonstd. in AHD), s t r u n g , stung, stunk, sung, sunk, swum,
won, wound. Most of these forms undergo ablaut.

3.2.6 Once Again on #ed.

There is an analysis of this ending we have not yet
considered. Instead of starting from #ed and dropping the
vowel by (36), we could start from #d and insert the vowel.
A similar analysis is available for the 3 sg. and N end­
ings #s. With this approach we would require smth. like
(47) instead of (36):

(47) Insert e / 0 it 0
+fdent +dent
αcont αcont

Rule (47) inserts e in the env. 0# 0#, provided

the two Os are dentals which agree in continuancy, i.e. in
 93 I.3.2.6

analysis, insertion applies (properly) in forms like k^sns,

whiz#s, heat#d,65 goad#d65 &c, but not in kis#d, whiz#d,
hEt#s, gOd#s, drAp#s, drAp#d, oUMs, olIbM, flœg#s, fl.œgM,
achetts [Aks], ache#d [Akt] & . This analysis of #d, #s is
preferable to that of #ed, #es because rule (47) is easier
to formulate than (36). In addition, (47) makes explicit
the fact that these endings all display the same vowel;
with the analysis of (36), that fact is due to chance—to
the same reason PAST/PRT -ed, N p1. -es &c happen to show
the vowels of pedal, effort, dent, seven &c, and not those
of, say, Ice, ill, mAWth, fUd, tOY &c. Later on, we may
find another reason for preferring #d, #s.66
There is another situation in which we might find in­
sertion preferable to deletion: short SUPs in -(e)st. If
so, it might be possible to expand (47) in some suitable
manner. But we need to consider first short COMPs in -er:—
If we could characterize somehow (by list if neces­
sary) As which permit COMPs in -er, we would need only de­
termine the UPR of -er. Beside - e r , we could also posit
simply -r and expand N-syllab. of §3.2.2 to apply to r as
well, proposing derivations like #cEp-r# > #cEpr, #mœd-r#
> mcedg &c. Expansion of N-syllab. in this manner (= to
S-syllab.) is in any event required for pairs with S ~ S
alternations like those in (48) below (some affixes (-ing,
-ed, e.g.) are usually omitted from (48), even though they
may produce forms we are looking for, as in dangling parti­
ciple, rumbling, (s) tumbling, trifling, twinkling, (mind)-
boggling &c):

(48) acr-b(ate) 'sour, (em)bitter', exacrbate ~ acr-id

'sharp in taste/smell/language', acrimony 'bit­
terness in speech/action' (if this is a bona
fide example, it may pose a problem for the for­
mulation of > s)
Alexandr ~ -rine
altr 'change to an/the o t h e r ' , altrnate '(do) first one
(thing), then an/the other' ~ -ruism 'concern for
others'
I.3.2.6 94

ambr(-gris/-y) ~ -rosia ( i c o n o ) c l a s m ~ - m i c (m i s
ampl ~ -ly, ampli-(tude) s u f f i x a l , cf. -clast)
ancestr ~ -r-al/-y ( c a t a ) c l y s m ~ - m a l , - m i e (m
aneurysm ~ -m-al/-atic i s s u f f i x a l , cf. clysis¿
(phil)andr ~ andr-o-(gynous) clyster)
Angl(s) ~ Angl-ican/-icism/ (micro) cosm ~ cosm-ic/-o-
-icize/-o-, Engl-and/ (politan) /-os [κόσμος,
-ish ooo]
angr ~ -ry (en)cumbr, cumbrsome ~
arbitr ~ -r-ary/-ate/-ator -ranee, -rous (from
-astr 'star(like)', br- 'carry')
(dis)astr ~ disastrous (tri)cycl ~ -lic (contrast
7
'ill-starred' (pej. angel ~angelic, °
dis-), astral 'resem­ where—given only the
bling/pert, to stars'6 PRs—there is no way to
(but astrisk) distinguish the final
aviatr 68 ~ -r-ix/-ess (avis segments in cycle from
~ird') those in angel),71
balustr ~ -rade -l-ist/-oid/-ops/-otron,
barratr ~ -r-ous/-y encycl-ical/-opedia
(em)bezzl(ment) ~ -1er cylinder ~ -r-ical/-o-/-oid
Bibl ~ -lical darkl ~ -ling 'in the dark'
brothr ~ brethren (likely not from darkly
burgle -lar69 but from dark- + -ling;
cadastr ~ -ral PRT darkl-ing, will suf­
calibr ~ -rate fice)
cankr, cansr, chancr ~ can- dexter(ity) ~ (ambi)dex­
criform, cancroid, trous
chancroid doctr ~ -riñe
carpentr ~ -ry doubl ~ -l-er/-et/-oon/-y
cedr ~ -rine 'pert, to drizzl 'ν» -ly
cedar(s)' dupl 'VJ -lex, -lic-ate/
centr ~ -ral(ity), -ri- -ation/-ator/-ity
(petal), concentrate, entr ~ -r-ance/-ant/-ee/-y
eccentric evr ~ -ry
chapl ~ -lain exampl, sampl ~ exempl-ar (y) /
chasm ~ -mal, -mie (m may -ify, sampler
be suffixal, cf. chaos) (af-/inef-)fabl -ly
chrism ~ -mal (m is suffix- feebl(ness) ~ -ly
a l , cf. Chrxst) fevr (ish) ~ febrile
 95 1.3.2.6

fibr ~ -r-in/-o-/-oid/-ous syllabic in hamlet < ME

fickl(ness) ~ -1y hamelet < MF = dim. of
filtr ~ -r-ate/-ation ~ hamels a dim. of OF ham,
filt(e)rable related to OE ham 'home')
flowr(y) ~ flor-a(l)/-es- -12 ~ -1- (as e.g. in to
cence/-id/-ist/-i- handle °o handling; the -Z
(ferous) in to handle is a V-suf­
forestr ~ -ry fix, distinct from dim.
fratr(-nal/-nity/-nize) ~ -Ιι above and from the in­
-r-icide/-y strument-suffix in Ns like
gentl(ness) ~-ly (c/. Zast handle, shovel, spindle &c,
paragraph of . 70) given under tumid in II.1.2
goitr ~ -rous [guttur for thimble. The homopho-
* throat'] nous N/V pair handle is of
(pan)handl ~ -1er, theoretical value because
'handle a pan (for it shows the situation is
coins) T ; v. -l2 more intricate than proposed
hindj ~ -ranee (cf. tri­ in Intro.3: S dissimilarity
syllabic utterance) between N and V here sug­
hungr ~ -ry gests neither N < V nor V <
idl(ness) -l-er/-y (cf. N, even though both branch
idyll (ic)) from hand, even though both
idolatr ~ -r-ess/-ous/-y branches "sound" the same)
(sch)-ism ~ -ismatic (-ism -1 °o N -1er and/or A -ly {af­
from - -/--772 (e.g. ter amb- (= disyllabic N
Gallic[-ize/-ism]); ambler from V amble; but
the N-suffix 7?7 is also ambUl-ance/ -ant/ -ate/ -ation/
nonsyllabic in words -atory, noct-/somn-ambOlism
like theme,, char-is-m-a, &c), ang-, babb-, baff-,
sperm (cf. o-grade bramb-, brid-, brist-, bubb-
spore), time (cf. re­ buck-, bug-, bumb-, bund-,
lated ti-de, G Zeit) &c bung-, burb-, bust-, cab-,
jewelr ~ -ry cack-, chronic-, chuck-,
juggl ~ -1er, jongleur [F < cobb-, codd-, coup-, crack-,
OF ¿ogleor < joculätdr- crad-, crink-, cripp-,
em 'jester1] crumb-, crump-, cudd-,
kindl ~ -l-er/-ing curd-, dabb-, dand-, dang-,
dawd-, dazz-, dimp-, doub-,
-li ' -1- (a dim. N-suffix,
dribb-, drizz-, drumb-, em-
syllabic in words like
bezz-, freck-, fribb-, frizz-
chapel~ tunnel, but non-
I.3.2.6 96

fumb-, gabb-, gamb-, tumb-, twadd-, twidd-,

garb-, garg-, gigg-, twink-, wadd-, wagg-,
gobb-, grabb-, grapp-, wang-, warb-, weas-,
gridd-, grizz-, grumb-, wheed-, whiff-, whist-,
gurg-, guzz-, hack-, whitt-, wigg-, wobb-,
hagg-, heck-, hobb-, wrang-, wrest-, wrigg-,
hudd-, humb-, id-, jang-, wrink- &c)
jigg-, jing-, jost-, -It* ~ -let (after ank-, cab-,
jugg-, jumb-, jung-, cant-, circ- [of. also
kind-, knuck-, lad-, circular, not *circlar,
mang-, meas-, medd-, from kirk-1-al], coup-,
72
ming- (related to among),
mudd-, muff-, mumb-, doub-, drib-, eag-,
muzz-, nibb-, nubb-, gab-, quadrup-, ripp-,
nuzz-, og-, panhand-, sing-, trip- &c)
pebb-, pedd-, periwink-, laundr ~ -r-ess/-y
pidd-, pratt-, pudd-, lepr -r-osy/-ous
purf-, purp-, puzz-, listn list(e)n-er
quibb-, quidd-, raff-, (anti)logarithm -mic
ramb-, ratt-, rif-, lucr ~ -rative
ruff-, rumb-, rust-, lustr ~ -r-al/-ous, (il)lustr-
scabb-, scrabb-, scramb-, -ate/-ation, illustrious
scribb-, scuff-, scutt-, -m ~ -mic (after chas-,
(as-/re-)semb-, sett-, (icono)clas-, (cata)clys-,
shack-, shing-, shuff-, (proto)plas-, rhyth-,
sizz-, skedadd-, skitt-, spas- &c)
smugg-, snuff-, snugg-, marbl(s) -ling
spark-, spind-, sprink-, (dura/pia) matr, matrn-al/
squabb-, stap-, start-, -ity, moth~ (hood) o> matr-
stick-, stif-, stipp-, -i-(arch)/-ix [matrix
stradd-, stragg-, Strang-, 'womb, source, origin1]/
strugg-, stubb-, stumb-, -on(ly), metr-o-(polis)
suck-, swadd-, swind-, measls ~ -ly
tack-, (en)tang-, tatt-, meddl(some) ~ -1er, medley
thist-, thrott-, tick-, mediocr *\* -rity
ting-, tink-, tipp-, (dis)membr -fane 'cover for
todd-, topp-, tous-, members (of the body)'
tramp-, tremb- (cf. (perhaps from L mem-s-r-
trem-or/-ulous), trick-, with s > b before r, cf.
trif-, troub-, trund-, Gth mims, OCS mqso &c, but
notice dismembrr)
 97
(se-/tri-)mestr, lit. 'of
six-/ three-months ' ~
menstru-al/-ate
metr ~ -r-ic(s)/-o-(nome),
(sym)-metry
middj. -ling
mistr mistress
monstr -r-osity/-ous,
de-/pre-/re-monstrate,
remonstrance
muzzj ~ -1er
nacr nacreous [-krEas]
niggr (vulg.) Negro(id),
denigrate (but niggrish)
[L n i g e r , ooo]
neutr ~ -r-al(ity)/-ino/-on
nitr ~ -r-ate/-ic/-ide/-o-
-(gen)/-OUS (ahem.)
ochr -roid (but ocher-ish/
-ous/-y; L "oohra < ωχρός
1
(pale) yellow1, ooo)
ogr ~ -ress (but ogrish)
orgasm ~ -mic
paltr. ' trifle1 ~ -ry 'tri­ (as)sembl -l-age/-y
fling' [both words ooo]
peddl ~ -1er (cf. trisyllabic sepulchr -r-al/-ous
pédaler)
(salt)petr ~ -r-ify/-o-
(logy)/-ous
phantasm ~ -m-agoria/-al/
-atic/-ic
(multi)-pj ~ -pl-ex/-icable/ singl(ton) ~ -l-et/-y (but
-icand/-ication/-icity/
-ier/-y (V and ADV);
(double, duple, triple
bove a r e from t h i s r o o t , sombr ~ -r-ous/-ero [sub-
{pi- 'fold'})
(proto)plasm ~ -ma, -mic (m
is suffixal, cf. plast-er/
-io)
I.3.2.6
prism ~ -matic
(im)propr, proprty ~ -/
ex-pro-priate, propr­
ie tor/-ietary/io(cep-
tive)/-iety
puzzl(ment) *\» -1er
-r ~ -rous (after cumb-,
dext-, fib-, goit-,
idolat-, lep-, lust-,
monst-, nit-, sepulch-,
sinist-, somb-, wond-
&c, but cancr(ous))
registr -r-ant/-ar/
-ation/-y
remembr ~ -r-ance73
resemb1 ~ -lance
rhythm(less) ~ -mic, -mize
sacrdotal ~ -r-ament/-ed/
-liege74
salamandr [ooo] ~ -roid
schism ~ -matic
Scombr ~ -roid
Septembj -rist
sequestç -r-al/-ate
settl(ment) ~ -1er
sidl ~ -1er, -ling, -long
simpl(ton) ~ -l-icity/-ify/
-ex/-y
sbngUlar(ity))
sinistr(ly) ~ -r-al/-o-/-ous
a- sobr(ness) ~ -riety
umbräre 'put in shade';
cf. related umbr below]
spark-1 -l-er/-et
spasm -mic, -modic (m is
suffixal, cf. spastic)
I.3.2.6 98

(in)spectr ~ -r-al/-um/ tempr ~ temp(e)r-ance/-ant/

-o-(photometer)
sprinkl ~ -1er
subtl(ness) ~ subtly
suffr(able) ~ suff(e)rance
(from sub- -f -phr
*bearf; unrelated to
suffrage(tte) < sub- +
-frag- fbreak1)
(a)sundr ~ -ry
suppl(ness) -l-iant/-icate,
ADV supply
sweltr ~ -ry
swindl ~ -1er
tanagr ~ -r-ine/-oid
(in)tegr 'not touched, whole'
~ -r-al/-ate/-ity (from
tag- touch1)
tempi ~ contempl-ate/-ation/
-ative, templ-ate/-et
-ament/-ate/-ature
tendr,(loin) ~ -ril (but
tendrize)
theatr ~ -ric(al)
tickl ~ -l-er/-ing/-ish
tigr ~ -r-ess/-ine/-oid
(but tigrish)
timbr ~ -rel {mus.)
titr ~ -rate (ehem.; from
F < L titulus, ooo)
umbr ~ -r-a/-age/-ella/
-iferous (cf. sombr)
whistl ~ -1er, -ling
winter ~ wint(e)ry (but
winterize)
wondr(ment) ~ -rous(ly)
Zoroastr ~ -rian

Often, determination that [-əS] is from S (rather than

VS) has to be indirect. For example, from disyllabic spark-/
wrest-ler, we know formation is by addition of -l- to spark-/
wrest: syllabic -l must therefore be involved in derivation
of spark-/wrest-le. If -le in start-/stradd-le is morphemic-
ally identical with -le in spark-/wrest-le, then start-/
stradd-le also show -l (beside straddle, cf. (a)stride).
Similarly, gambler shows -le in gamble is from -l; if
-le's in mumb-/ramb-/resemb-/stumb-/tremb-le have the same
source, they too must be from.-l; in this case we have fur­
ther support for that analysis because of intercalated -b-'s
(cf. related (back)gammon, mum(mery), roam [ooo], sim-ulate,
stem 'hold back, stop', trem-endous/-olo/-ulous, resp·)· We
analyze d and b in words like Alexander, remembr,1 rumbl,
spzndl &c in the same way.
Usually (as in the examples above), an intercalated stop
will coincide with a syllabified S, although analysis sometimes
requires agility. In humil-ity/-iate e.g. we see an underlying
 99 I.3.2.6

vowel (glide) between the two Ss. To insert b in humble,

we have to drop that vowel and then syllabify after inser­
tion. Eumbl-er/-y, where 1 remains nonsyllabic, shows
this is the right approach. The root here is hum- 'ground,
earth', cf. humus [L humus, humilis lit. 'on the ground']·
But this is not the root of bumblebee: that would make no
sense S. The bee is better characterized by the noise it
makes (cf. bumblebee with a similar characterization); its
root underlies hum- in words like hum(-mer/-ming (bird)/
-drum). Morphologically, the two humble's are quite dis­
similar: from different roots, one is an A, the other a V;
phonologically, however, the two are similar, both from
hum-l-y where 1 in humblebee is a freq. suffix appearing
also in roughly a third of the Vs in (48) under -Is (e.g.,
bumb- [from bum-, cf. boom < ME bommen 'humT ]/'crack- /dr>ibb-/
drizz-/snuff-/wigg-le &c).
There are also words for which intercalation cannot
be used: cumbrous, encumbr e.g. are from the same root as
in bear 'carry', (wheel)barrow, berth, burden &c, and suffr
(n. 146). And there are, finally, some curious cases pos­
ing problems for analysis:—
We know E contains a rule with the phenomenal effect
words do not terminate in *[-mb]. Thus there is a root
{kw- ~end'} (it appears reduplicated in cacuminal) which
forms a base kw-b- 'lie (down)' underlying L words like con­
cubine, cubicle (dim./loc. -cle, lit. 'small place for lying
down'—by extension, 'any small room'), incubate &c (unre­
lated to cube, cubism). A nasal variant of this base,
kwmb-, appears (only under prefixation) in words like ac-/
de-/in-/pro-/re-cumb-ent &c. Therefore, a L word like suc­
cumb 'yield, submit' (lit. 'lie sub- down/under') poses
little analytical problem: the independently motivated un­
derlying -b is dropped to derive PR [sak/m]. A similar ex­
ample is plumb (line), where the underlying b shows up pho­
netically in related words like plumb-ago/-eous/-ic/-ifer-
OUS/-OUS (all from plumbum 'lead', of non-IE origin; E
plummet is from OF, in which L b is dropped). Analysis in
these (and similar) instances is manifest.
But how should we analyze crumb [ ]? In crumble,
is -b- intercalated? Or underlying? This question may be
I.3.2.6 100

complicated by the existence of no doubt related crumple,

which poses a separate problem, reminiscent of dribble(t) ,
drop(let) in n. 72. The following are somewhat similar:
thumb ~ thimble (but here, words like tumid, tumor(ous),
tumult~ (en) tomb, catacomb [perhaps dissimilated from kata-
-tum-] &c are probably related); numb lit. 'taken, seized'
[cf. OE, Gth niman, G nehmen], benumb ~ nimble 'quick to
take' (doubtless related are words like nemesis 'avenger1,
nomad 'one who takes (land for pasture)' &c); broom ~
bramble; grim, glum, grum 'morose1, pogrom (with the Slavic
prefix po-) ~ grumble (ME grummen, GROM, GREMÉT' &c, but
what is the synchronic analysis? Note ρ in grumpy). For
bomb we have bombard; cf. also related bump(tious). But b
may be intercalated in rumble because of related rumor.
For membr with L b < s before r, v. (48).
Sometimes specification of syllabicity for a sonorant
seems to be idiosyncratic. In 1979a I mentioned astroid
but astrology, where -o- following r in both words is. the
same connecting vowel as in electr- -magnet, laryng-o-scope,
Angl-o-Saxon &c (v. my 1978c); but sonorants before -oid are
usually not syllabic (cf. cylindroid, fibroid, tabloid &c).
The I in circle [L circulus] has to be morphemic be­
cause of related circuit, circus [F cirque], circum-(locu­
tion) &c. Dim. circlet (not *circulet) seems to show that I
is syllabic in circle. But in that case it is not entirely
clear why we do not have forms like *circlar, *circlate.
There seems no motivation (beyond attaining correct PRs) for
a[/-insertionrule. Perhaps we should posit underlying
before I, dropped in circlet. Table [tabula, ooo] beside
tablet/tableau/tabloid/(en)tablature &c but tabula (rasa)/
tabular/tabulate &c raises the same problem, except that
here it is not so easy to show I is morphemic.
Returning now to short COMPs in -er, we have not yet
shown the UPR must be -r. Disyllabic forms like gayer
[gAər], higher [hlar], lower [ ], in fact, seem to argue
against such analysis because -n / V # does not syllabify
(thrown [0rOn], not *[0rOn], drawn &c): hence we would not
expect r in that environment (in lower < 10-r &c) to syllabi­
fy either. But we must look at this argument more closely,
because it is not valid:
 101 I.3.2.6

Consider As in -y like shoddy, guilty, hazy, easy,

saucy, foggy, fuzzy, pretty, happy, heavy, picky &c.75
These cannot arise from underlying -E or they would have
end-stress (*shədE, *fəgE, *həpE &c). Their source (al­
though perhaps not the original source) must be -e which
lengthens in auslaut (ADVs like shoddily, guittily, hap­
pily— not *[šədElE], *[gəltElE], *[hə 1 ] & --seem to
confirm this analysis):

(49) #shod-e# > o > [sodE]

For these As we can use COMP-representation -r under

the following assumption:

(50)

A typical derivation would be:

(51)

In 1972: 331 ff., I argued in a language-independent

framework (with reference to languages like A, Acoma, Desa-
no, Diola-Fogny, E, F, IE, Japanese, L, Latvian, Lith, Old
Irish, Skt, several Slavic languages, Southern Paiute, Sp,
Syrian, Tübatulabal, Trk &c) that # should be considered a
degenerate consonant. If that argument holds (to my know­
ledge, no counter-arguments have been suggested), then (50)
is not more complex (in fact, it is less complex) than the
formulation suggested in §3.2.2 s.f.; cf. also n. 61.
For COMPs like gayer, higher &c, the same analysis
can be used here as well:

(52) #lo#r# > -#r# > #16 > [lór]

We conclude, then, that like the representation of PRT

-ed, the representation of COMP -er also must always be pre­
ceded by #, i.e. #r (like #d). Presence of # before the
COMP-ending is independently motivated because Vs in COMPs
are not shortened before C-clusters (i.e. chEpr not *ehepr,
I.3.2.6 102

bAsr not *bœsr, flnr not *finr &c). It is necessary to

observe, however, that the suggested analysis damages the
generality of Halle' s "g-drop11 rule (given as (27) in
§3.2.1). Thus, consider A long and its derived V long
[0E impersonal langian 'seem/grow long', whence 'desire,
long (for)']· With the V, g drops, as in longed [lond]
from long#d; but not with COMP longer [loijgr] , here pro­
posed from long#r. We notice, incidentally, that [lonç]
is not a phonetically impermissible word in E: if an agent­
ive in -er were formed from V long, it would be pronounced
[lonr]; there are extant; supporting agentives like singer
[sinr], (coat-)hanger [ ] & (hangar [for aircraft],
with an amusing etymological origin, belongs here; but not
finger [fingr]—hardly an agentive (there is no V *fing),
but perhaps from the root in five, quinque-, penta-(gon),
for the derivation, v. II.2.4—or anger, related to an­
guish, anxious, and consequently from smth. like œng-r).
Now we can consider short SUPs. These are for the
most part in syllabic -est [-ast]: happiest [-East], guilt­
iest [-East]., cheapest, fastest, quickest, soberest [sObr-
əst] &c. But there are some SUPs in nonsyllabic -st, like
best (presumably from bet-st, cf. better) J e most (cf.
more), and last (from lat-st, cf. latter). If the UPR of
SUP were -est, we would have to formulate a special rule to
drop its vowel in the very few words like best (*bettest),
most, and last ( * l a t t e s t ) . On the other hand, if the UPR
is -st—with no underlying vowel—we could expand (47) to
insert e / # st#; under this analysis, best, most, and
last would merely be exceptions to the new rule (47'). The
derivations of haziest, lowest, and best would be (roughly):

(53) hAz-e#st# > A > -E#st# > [hÁzEast]

(54) lo#st > δ > l6#st# > [lOast]

(55) bet-st# > bét-st# > [bést] (for tst > st, App.l.9)

We adopt these COMP and SUP analyses here. We cannot

yet discuss most' In formalizing (47'), one may not have to
add another full environment-specification to (47), as sug-
 103 I.3.3

gested above; we might be able to capitalize on the fact

SUP begins in #s, where s is dental. The problem in n. 27
may belong here: the decade-suffix, after all, begins with
a dental (this question to the side, we can at least say-
it likely has the same source as ten—and perhaps even as
hundred~ which originally may have meant 'ten tens').
For what it is worth, I mention a few data from my
idiolect, although I am aware some speakers may treat
these data differently. Agentive noun idler is disyllabic
(like peddler in the second paragraph of n. 70), but COMP
idler is trisyllabic. The proposed representations are
(#Idl-r#) and (#Idl#r#); rule (50) syllabifies only
r in the former (see n. 100 for brief discussion), but
both r and l in the latter. SUP idlest is trisyllabic,
from #Idl#st#. Similarly, S-syllab. applies in sobr(ness),
COMP sobrr, SUP sohlest (but not in sobriety), in COMP and
SUP of simpl, subtly suppl. It is hard to imagine how else
to analyze these data, other than the way suggested here.
The disyllabic ADVs seem to involve degemination: disyl­
labic amply; feebly, idly, simply, subtly [sAtlE], supply,
opposed to trisyllabic bittrly, sobrly, sombrely. Thus
these data confirm the proposed analysis—but only when
realized as above; different realizations may create (per­
haps awkward) problems in analysis.
To close this section, I mention one more SUP in non-
syllabic -st, although I cannot yet offer analysis for it:
least {ambition, competition, (dis)respect, impediment,
love, probability, promise, snow, success &c); COMP less
also poses a problem in analysis.

3.3 Attachment of PAST- and PRT-Endings to Verb-Stems.

Before analyzing attachment of PRT, we must consider
PAST, because the two are related: (1) -n or -0 in PRT gen­
erally corresponds to -0 in PAST; (2) -t/-d in PRT to -t/
-d in PAST. Thus, (1) She <has> spoke<n> softl., or She
{has) won the race. and (2) She {has) left us. or She
{has) led us astray. The straightforward examples of this
distribution are in (56)-(59) on the next page.
I.3.3 104

PAST/PRT
(56) -Ø/-n: blow, break, choose, draw, drive, eat, fall,
freeze, give, go, grow, know, lie, ride,
(a)rise, see, speak, steal, swear, take,
tear, throw, wear, write.
(57) -Ø/-Ø: (be)come, begin, bind, cling, dig, drink,
find, fling, hit, ring, run, sing, sink,
sling, slink, sting, swim, swing, win, wind.
(58) -t/-t: bend, cost, creep, deal, feel, keep, leap,
leave, lend, lose, mean, meet, send, shoot,
sit, sleep, spend, spit, weep, -ot verbs77
(59) -d/-d: bleed, feed, flee, have, hear, hold, make,
read, say, sell, tell.

We may ask if the category to which some of these Vs

belong is predictable; if so, the grammar should take ad­
vantage of whatever generalization is possible. But there
does not seem much to grasp here. For example, Vs in
-ing/-ink apparently belong to (57), but closer inspection
shows many do not: bring, think are -ot-verbs; shrink has
PRT both shrunk and shrunken; string has both strung and
stringed; blink, chink, clink, fink, link, ping, pink,
plink, rink, ting, wing, wink, zing &c are all regular in
#d. Even those Vs in -ing/-ink within (57) are not all of
the same ablaut-type: beside i— — a {drink &c) are
i—a—a {swing) and i—œ/a—a {sink; AHD lists sing with
this variant pattern). The last ablaut-type (the one with
variants) is at least in part due to indecision in choosing
between older sg. and p1. PASTs (cf. ME stinken; sg. stank,
p1. stunken); variance in ablaut-type is, however, not re­
stricted to Vs in (57)—shrink e.g. has the same i—œ/a—a
pattern as sink.
It seems, therefore, we must list which Vs require
which endings; listing #d last and without environment ac­
counts for its "productivity"; see (60)-(64) on the top of
page 154.
Some Vs have variants; my list is given in (65)-(70).
There is bound to be idiolectal variation here. I glanced
 105 I.3.3

briefly at some dictionaries and found I sometimes disagree

with them and they sometimes disagree among themselves.
For example, AHD lists sunken (along with sunk) as PRT of
sink, but I do not have that form; AHD lists only strung
for PAST and PRT of string, WEB has also stringed for PRT,
and I have stringed also for both PAST and PRT (They('ve)
carelessly stringed along., She (had) stringed the 'pearls
upon a golden thread. &c); both AHD and WEB draw fine dis­
tinctions between born and borne, but I disregard them be­
cause in my idiolect the two are homophonous. 78 Because no­
thing beyond lists is involved here, the reader can easily
make whatever changes he feels necessary.
There is, however, one point of difficulty. For Vs in
(65-7), the variant is regular (= in #d); these, therefore,
are listed as "optional" in environments for (57-9) when we
write the rule in (71-3). The other three classes are more
complex: bite of (69), e.g., has PAST/PRT bit/bit vs bit/
bitten—i.e. a choice between -t/-t vs -t/-n; the latter
must have -t (not -Ø) for PAST (= from bIt-t; *bIt-0 would
result in *[blt], which is grossly substandard). How to
generate the set {bit/bit/bitten} is a problem for which we

PAST/PRT
(65) -d or #d/-d or #d plead, speed, shoe
spill
(66) -t or #d/-t or dream, kneel, leap, light, spell,
(67) -0 or #d/-0 or #d hang, heave, sneak
(68) -0 or -0/-0 or -n get, shrink
(69) -t or -£/-£ or -n bite
(70) -d or -d/-d or -n hide, slide

cannot now propose an analysis, but we return to it soon in

§4. Disregarding b i t e , hide, slide (until §4), the revised
rule for generating PAST and PRT is given in (71-5) on the
next page.
The "variants" are apparently not "free", as suggest­
ed. For example, hove is used nautically: She heaved/'*hove
a sigh of relief when he finally left., and so on. One can
I.3.4 106

(71) -d for (59) and (plead, speed, shoe)

-t for (58) and (dream, kneel, leap,

(72)
light, spill)

(73) PAST/PRT > -0 for (57) and (hang, heave, sneak,

bind, grind, get, shrink)

(74) -Ø/-n for (56) and get, shrink

(75) #d

read e.g. the "Usage notes" in AHD on, say, (a)wake, bite,
hang &c and make whatever appropriate adjustments he feels
are needed in the above rules—serious study (which we have
not devoted to this question) would doubtless show the ad­
justments are complex in nature; we may e.g. have different
options with get than forget &c. To give an unsatisfactory
example, I once overheard a lady say, with reference to some­
thing that had been stolen from her, "The kids [mAStatUk]
it." Unfortunately, I could not question her, but judging
from the rest of her conversation, my guess is she would say
"Theyfve/Hefstaken(*took)it." Education may have erased
a good deal of inherent variation, which without explicit in­
vestigation we can only guess at.

3.4 Some Critical Remarks.

Before turning to ablaut, it would be good to bring to­
gether in one place some generalities which the preceding a-
nalysis fails to grasp. We will not pursue these elsewhere
in the book and they must be considered defects to be reme­
died.
First, the analysis does not capture in an attractive
manner presence vs absence of the vowel [ə ] in the endings
-ed/-es (n. 66).
Second, the status of the vowel inserted by (47) of
§3.2.6 is left unclear. Is this a purely Ρ element (like
e- before r- in Gk (n. 157), e- before sC- in OF &c)? Or
does the inserted vowel have M character? If the latter is
 107 I.4

true (or even only partly true), what morpheme does the vow­
el in -ed (and in -es, if this is the same) represent?
Third, a glaring omission concerns the Ρ nature of the
endings: they are all dental (-t, -d, #d, -n, -s). This may
possibly be an accident when we contrast Ns with Vs, contin­
uants with stops, nasals with obstruents. If the similarity
among these segments (i.e. their dental nature) is fortui­
tous, the grammar could capture that fact by specifying each
Ρ element separately. But it seems unlikely that similarity
among PAST/PRT -t, -d, #d is accidental, esp. when we consid­
er #d is realized both as [-d] and as [-t] (see also App.1.9
s.f.): precisely how should the grammar capture the similar­
ity (if it is real, not accidental) among these obstruent
dental stops?

4. Ablaut in Strong Verbs.

Some vowel-change in strong verbs has already been

treated in §3 by choosing appropriate endings and including
rules to shorten and lengthen vowels in certain Ρ environ­
ments. But there are inadequacies in some of that work-—
most obviously with verbs whose variant PAST-/PRT-endings
are not easily specified (bIte: bit/bitten, hIde: hid/hidden,
slide: slid/slidden). And also with some of the verbs whose
Vs must be shortened before syllabic -n; in fact, we have
minimal pairs here which are not properly treated: shorten­
ing before -tn in written (n. 62), but not before -tn in
eaten; before -sn in (a)risen, but not before -sn in chosen,
and so on.
These incorrect analyses suggest at least some of the
vowel-length alternations might better be treated by ablaut
than P-conditioned. Of course with bite &c, we could solve
the problem by specifying PAST and PRT separately in (74);
what argues against this, however, is the large number of
verbs in (56), where PAST in -0 does correspond to PRT in -ft.
A different approach to the " £ - 1 assumes the
basic vowel is short and that some segment, X, not found in
PAST/PRT, causes lengthening. Thus, we might postulate UPRs
like those in (76) or (77) on the next page.
I.4 108

(76) bXit

(77) biXt } — bit-0 — bit-n or bit-Ø

If X causes lengthening ( > J), this suggestion solves

the problem of assigning an ending for PAST bit, because now
we can use -0, which corresponds to PRTs in both -0 and -ft
(cf. (68)). To promote this analysis of bite, however, we
need a reasonable Ρ interpretation of X.
One satisfactory interpretation equates X with e in
(76). This requires a rule of monophthongization ei > (=
J), and a decision as to whether the ablaut-rule inserts e or
deletes it—in other words, as to whether the lexical repre­
sentation is bit or beit.
This analysis for bite also contributes to the problem
of "shortening" in risen but not in chOsen: the forms of rise
are from reiz, rOz, r i z - n , Now we can say zn/sn does not
cause shortening and derive chosen < οΌζ-η.
A difficulty remains with rise: its PAST shows long 0
and contains no.i. UPRs of the last paragraph were formu­
lated on the assumption ablaut-rules regulate V-alternations.
But for an ablaut-rule to assert that rise has 0 in PAST is
uninstructive: it explains neither why the vowel is 0 nor
why i of the other two forms {reiz- and riz-) is missing.
We could avoid this difficulty if long 0 in PAST rose
(like long I in rise) were of diphthongal origin, if the UPRs
were reiz, roiz, riz-η, with e 0m This is a V-alterna-
tion found in some other roots, like those in (78); the words

(78) - - ~ -o- ~ ~Ø-

temenos (n. 23), es­ atomic (from tmesis (from {tm-

teem (from -tem-, -torn-, with 'cut'})
with lengthened e; a- 'not')
see App.1.1)
 109 1.4

-e- ~, -o- ~ -0-

pro-gen-itor, cosmo-gon-y, co-gn-ate, pre-

(con)genital, gon-ad gn-ant ~efore
gen-erative bearing'79

com-pet-itor, hippo-pot-amus, archaeo-pt-eryx,

pet-ulant Meso-pot-amia a-sym-pt-ote8 °

(re) mind, de­ monument 'remind­ amnesia 'loss of

mented 'de- out er, warning', mo­ memory', amnesty
of one's mind', nitor 'one who 'a- without mem­
memento 're­ warns', admonish ory, a general
minder (of the 'remind, warn', pardon', mnemonic81
past), souvenir' premonitory 'fore­
warning ', remon­
strate, demon­
strable

ver-tigo, ver­ vor-tex, vorti­ wrench [OE Wreno],

tiginous, intro- cal, vortigi- 82
ver-sion nous wring

ex-cer-pt,83 cor-tex 'outer dis-cr-ete 'cut dis-

dis-cer-n 'cut layer (bark of a apart, separate'
dis- apart, dis­ tree, e.g.)'84 [discrêtus], dis­
criminate1 [dis- criminate [not from
cemeve, discve- crimen~ criminis
tus] 'crime'], critic(al)
'(one) able to dis­
cern/discriminate' ,
criterion 'means for
discernment/discrim­
ination'
85
cer-ebellum, cor-nea 'horny
cerebrum (both (covering)' [L, cr-anium
with k > s be­ from cornu 'horn'],
fore e) uni-cor-n, hor-n,
hornet [crabrón
I.4 110

-e- ~ -o- ~ -0-

en-/all-erg-y,86 work, organ, or­ wright, wrought87

erg [έργον giastic [όργανον
'work'] instrument' ]

L ser-um88 hor-mone89 rheum(atic), diarrhea,

rhythm, orrho-,
stream9 °

Telamon 'bearer1 toll, tolerate A-tl-as91

gelid 'very cold' cold (with V be­ glacial (n. 138)

fore Id; for g "\>
, v. II.1.6)
gen-uflect [genu
'knee'] (hexa)gon(al) knee(l) [nE] [0E
[ γωνία 'angle1, cneow(lian) ]
γόνυ 'knee'],
trigonometry
'measurement of
triangles (shapes
with tri- three
-gom- angles) '
(-metry also in
ge-o-metry 'meas­
urement of the
ge- earth'; cf.
apo-gee in PFX.2
and -metr- in me-
ter 'unit of meas­
uring length',
therm-/speed- -
-meter &c)

heart [hart] < concord 'together cardiac (from krd-,

hert because e > in heart' (cf. v. II.2.5), cardio-
a before r [ME ac-/dis-cord), - (vascular) [χαρδ α ]
h e r t , G Herz] cordial 'heart- (all forms cited here
y' (for --d- ~ from krd- 'heart', but
 111 I.4

-e- ~ - - ~ -0-
h—t-, II.1.3) cf. SERDCE/SERDEC
[cor(dis) ] ' heartT ' SREDNIJ,
SEREDÎNA 'middle'

helmet holster hull 'cover(ing),

casing, pod, shell'
(from Kl-; all
three words from a
root {hi- 'cover,
protect(ion)'})

set(tle), sit soot [OE sot] nest 'place to set­

tle ne- down' , nes­
tle, nestling ~ird
too young to leave
the nest'

sperm (and its spore, sporadic spray, sprout, spurt

many derivatives) 'scattered1 'gush out' (from spr-
'scatter', whence
'sow'; cf. σπέρμα
ασπαρτος'unsown'<
NEG a- + spr-t-s with
ar < r as in cardiac
three entries above)

stentorian 'ex­ detonate 'thunder thunder (from tn-r-;

tremely loud' de- down', aston­ for t > Θ, II.1.2; for
ish 'strike with η > un9 v. below and
thunder', stun II. 2.5) [OE punor, G
[VL extonäre, cf. Donner]
F étonner]

wet water hydrant (from wá-; for

d > t, II.1.5); [ΐ5όωρ
'water', ύόρο- &c]; h
is prothetic before Gk
u-; for > i, n. 251)
I.4 112

of (78) are more straightforward than rise because they do

not involve diphthongs which undergo rules we have not for­
mulated yet. Since the examples of (78) are so clear—
clear in the sense UPRs e, o, 0 appear roughly as e, o, 0
in PRs—we can use them to support the analysis of reiz,
roiz, riz-η;92 a few of the words in (78), however, do re­
quire slight Ρ detail (given elsewhere in the book).
We use this analysis for all verbs like (a)rise, viz.,
drive, r i d e , strive, write. No shortening at all is needed
in their PRTs: a V in PR here is reflection of the absence
of an ablaut-inserted vowel. Forms of somewhat outdated
smite are smite, smote, smit(ten), from smeit, smoit,
smit(n_), with underlying vowel-alternation like rise, vari­
ant endings like bite.
Representations of the roots mentioned are in (79); we
will see shortly these UPRs have to be revised slightly, but
not in any way pertaining to what we have done thus far.

(79) bite < bit-93 drive < driv-95

hide < hid- ride < rid-96
slide < slid-94 strive < striv-97
smite < smit- write < rit-98

Ablaut-rules, in this interpretation, insert e in ride

< reid- and in rode < roid-. Alternatively, the rules are
(1) insertion of e and (2) backing of this e to . It is
the latter version adopted here, partially on the basis of
Vs before N in verbs like swim:—
A distributional peculiarity of these verbs is predom­
inance of before N. This distribution can be captured
well if here corresponds to no underlying vowel at all, if
swum, hung, for example, are from swm-, hng-, with syllabi­
fication of N by (50) of §3.2.6.99 If the anaptyctic vowel
before N is w, the derivation is complete.
For derivations suggested in the last paragraph, how­
ever, we need to modify S-syllab. once again, in roughly the
following manner:

(80) S > [+syllab] / [-syllab] [-syllab], where

[-syllab] refers to any non-V,
i.e., to or #. 100
 113 I.4

The i's in (79) are from underlying z/Ts, syllabified

by application of (80).
Derivation of swim is swm- > swm- > swam.
Source of the other frequent V in these verb forms
is e, inserted by the ablaut-rule: swm- > swem- > swim¿
the last step by a P rule which raises e to i before N.
The third V here, œ, is derived from a, assuming the fol­
lowing rule (already motivated in Intro.4, p. 24, and dis­
cussed again shortly below):

(81) > a

Thus we propose two ablaut rules: the first (e-Abl)

inserts e in certain M-forms; the second (o-Abl) shifts e
to in certain M-forms, as in the following derivations:

(82) bite bit(ten) wrote

UPR: byt byt(-n) ryt
e-Abl: beyt e
- l: royt
(80) = S > : i
anaptyxis: un
(81) = > : —
monophth: I 0
PR: bIt rOt

drink drank drunk

UPR: drnk drnk drnk
e-Abt: drenk e
-AbZ: dronk
(80) = S > :
anaptyxis: un
(81) = > a: a
N-assim:
e > i before N: i
I.4 114

The form bitan in (82) may look odd, but with details
of surface stress marked in and unstressed a "reduced" to
ə, it presents a generally accepted shape. I should men­
tion, incidentally, that use of in PRs is usually not
strictly accurate: AHD correctly points out, e.g., that
"Vowels are never reduced to a single exact vowel; the
schwa sound will vary, sometimes according to the 'full'
vowel it is representing and often according to its pho­
netic environment" (p. xi).
There are four more strong verbs with N, all of which
show the same V variation: bind/bound~ find/founds grind/
ground/ wind/wound. The alternation is J ~ AW, i.e. [ay] ~
[aw], from which it looks ("sounds") as if the glide—not
the vowel—varies. Later we will see the underlying dis­
tinction here is the same as in drink/drunk above (and also
in filth/foul): from the root fnd- are derived find/fund
along the lines of (82); these forms undergo lengthening to
flnd/fAWnd. But we have to postpone details on this deriva­
tion.
Before returning to some remaining vowel-changes in
strong verbs, I might mention that numbers--as always--are
of interest, and--as usual--present difficulties;101 in II
we will see that the analysis here of N helps a little with
the problematic form hundred.102
Also, I should make clear that synchronic analysis of
strong Vs in E cannot be simply recapitulation of histori­
cal development. Lehmann (1962: 234-8), e.g., makes the
reasons for this easy to understand, esp. when he points out
that vowels in bit and drove (both from OE class I verbs)
have different sources: 0 from PAST sg. dräf but i from PAST
p1. biton (op. cit., 182). We may have the one original
class in (83) Lehmann proposes (op. cit., 104-5), but subse-

queiit historical changes—in particular, loss of sg. vs p1.

distinction in PAST (except was—weve\ cf. comments on ME
stank vs stwiken in §3.3), and along with that, occasional
 115 I.4

intrusion of PRT forms into the one remaining PAST form

(as in chose, op. cit., 182)—would seem to make the tech­
nique of internal reconstruction beyond recall if the goal
is recapitulation of history (see also II.2.1 below).
Another example of difficulty with straightforward
historical reconstruction appears in considering a rule
like (81) > a. This rule—at least the way it is used
in (82)—mirrors an early rule of both E and Gmc in general
(note arrow in (83); rule (81) applies also in Baltic (but
not Latin, Greek, or Slavic)—collis, Κολωνός, Lth kâlnas;
hostis, Gth gasts; rota, OHG rad, Lth ratas; nox, noctis,
NOC1, Gth nahts, Lth naktïs; hortus, χόρτος, GÔROD, yard,
Gth gards, G Garten, Lth gardas; porous, POROSJA, OHG farh,
Lth parsas &c). But let us reconsider (cf. Intro.4, p. 24)
— i n a purely synchronic vein—this question: what is the
short form of 01 By rights, it should be (parallel to
I—i, E—e &c), but usually (in American E) it is not:—
Another env. for V-shortening (in addition to before
C-clusters) is before -ic ( . 71), where we find examples
like satire ~ satirio(al), (an)esthEsia ~ (an)esthetic,
Ethiopia ~-opic, tOne ~ tonic, (tele)phOne ~ -phonic, cOne
~ conic, hypnOsis ~ -otic, episode ~ -sodic, harmOnious ~
-monic, PlatO ~ Platonic, ernbryO ~ -onic, (kaleido)scOpe ~
-scopic, asymptote ~ -ptotic, myOpia ~ myopic, IOnian ~
Ionic, (theo)lOgian ~-logic(al), diagnosis ~ -gnostic,
melodious ~ melodic, symbiosis ~ -otic, sOnant ~sonic &c;
boldfaced in all these examples represents [a]. In fact,
it is generally (not always) the case that when one expects
short, rounded in American E, one finds instead unrounded
[a] (although spelling may remain o, as in the examples a-
bove). Clearly the grammar requires a rule > a which must
apply after shortening in cOnic, phOnic &c; presumably the
new rule is specific to E. Nevertheless, the following ques
tion arises:
Are (81) and this new rule the same rule?
Until evidence can be presented to the contrary, we
have to assume an affirmative answer to this question. Thus
a verb like get is from UPR gt: we derive [get] by ~-ablaut,
got by o-ablaut, and PR [gat] by (81); similarly, kon- is
from kOn-ik-al by shortening, and PR [kan-] by (81).
I.4 116

I mention an absorbing instance of phonetic ~ a al­

ternation which seems to find its explanation in application
vs non-application of (81): long ~ langitude, langevity.
One might suppose L vs Gmc is the distinguishing character­
istic, but that cannot be right because of examples with [o]
like prolong [prolongare], oblong [oblongus]. I should add
we have a F form—a doublet of prolong, actually—with a
still different vowel: purloin 'steal, filch' [ME < Norman F
T
purloigner put far away' < OF porloigner 'prolong' < L].
Because of considerations like those in the last few
paragraphs, Ρ analysis here is not an accurate mirror of
history (perhaps, for this reason, some readers may want to
alter it correspondingly). One example of this is verbs
like freeze (PG friusan)I froze (PG fraus/fruzun)/frozen (PG
fruzan) , which are here derived from frws- with e-ablaut
throughout (> frews/frews/frews-n) and o-ablaut in the last
two forms (> frows/frows-n) ; we assume monophthongization
rules E < ew and 0 < ow. Similarly, speak (OE sprecan, G
sprechen) /spoke (OE sprœc/sprœcon, G sprach) /spoken (OE
sprecen, G -sprochen) from spwk-, and steal (G s t e h l e n ) /
stole(n) from stwl-. Bear (OE beran)/bore (OE bœr/bœron) /
born (OE boren) is from br- 'carry,lift1 with e-ablaut
throughout (> ber-) and o-ablaut in PAST/PRT (> bor/bor-n)
—similarly, swear, tear, wear; we are not yet sure how
best to derive PRES/INF [bAr] (from the same root we must
also derive related words like berth; birth, bairn [bArn],
bier, (wheel)barrow (perhaps with e > a before r, cf. my
1979a: 286), burden, cum-ber-some &c).
This analysis of ablaut in freeze, speak, bear & c —
e-ablaut throughout and o-ablaut in PAST/PRT—is parallel
to the analysis of get/got three paragraphs above. The
same analysis is applicable for sell/sold, tell/told from
sl-, t l - ; the phonetic difference is due to lengthening
before ld y cf. (46) on p. 92. Hold/held, from hld-, sim­
ilarly have e-ablaut throughout, but o-ablaut in PRES/INF.
Hang/hung are from hng- with e-ablaut only in PRES/INF,
followed by o-ablaut. Run/ran/run are from rm- with both
ablaut-rules applying in PAST. Sit/sat are derived from
st- with (like get/got, freeze/froze, tell/told &c) e-ab­
laut throughout, o-ablaut in PAST/PRT; from the same root
 117 I.4

must also be derived words like seat, set(tie), soot, nest

(for d in related L sedentary, sedate, sedative, sediment,
saddle [SEDLO, L sella < sed-lä]. preside(nt), residue, Gk
anode (ana- 'up'), cathedral (cata- 'down') &c, v. II.1.5).
We give now a list of vowel-alternations in strong Vs.
It is not clear how best to present the list. To specify
alternations in get e.g. as e—a—a is correct if one looks
only at PR, but it is wrong from the point of view of ab­
laut, which should be listed e-- — . Nevertheless, I have
chosen the former listing. Again, dig/dug belongs with
cling/clung from the phonetic viewpoint, although its ablaut
is clearly different; here also dig is listed with cling.
Put briefly, divisions in (84) were determined phonetically,
not phonologically. Verbs specifically mentioned above are
given first; others pose various problems, some of which are
taken up later. The changes are numbered, and verbs with
variants are given in numbered parentheses, so that sink in
i — a — a is cross-referenced to sink in i—œ—a , and so on.

(84)
1. i— — : cling, dig,103 fling, (shrink)2, (sing)2,
(sink) 2, (sling)#d, (slink)#d, (spring)2,
(sting)~, (stink) 2, (string)~, (swing)#d,
win.
2. i—as— : begin, drink, ring, (shrink)\, (sing)1,
(sink)i, (spring)1, (stink)1, swim.
3. — — : run.
4. — — : hang.
5. — —Δ: (be) come.
6. U—-i—Δ: do (3 sg. does)
7. A — e — e : say (3 sg. says)
8. I—AW—AW: (bind)#d, find, (grind)#d, wind.
9. I—i—i: bite, hide, slide.
10. I—0—i: (a)rise, drive, ride, (smite)33, strive,
write, [dive with PRT dived]
11. E—0—0: freeze, (heave)#d, speak, steal.
12. e—a—a: (for)get
13. 0—e—e: hold
I.4 118

14. e — 0 — 0 : sell, tell [swell with PAST swelled]

15. i— — : sit, (spit) # d
16. — — : bear, swear, tear, wear.
17. --0—0: break, (wake) 34
18. — —0: (blow)#d, grow, know, throw.
19. U--0—0: choose.
20. — — : eat.
21. I— — : lie. 104
22. I—-U—0:
(flt)#d
23. U — — : lose.
24. — U — : draw.
25. i — A — i : (for)give, bid.
26. E — o — E : see.
27. ' U — a — a : (shoe)#d, shoot.
28. E——E : sneak.103
29. Α — υ — : forsake, shake, take. 105
30. —e—e: fall. 103
31. I— — : (strike)32
32. I— —i: (strike)31
33. I--- — : (smite)10
34. — — : (wake)17
35. i—Ό: wi 11—would [0E willan—wolde].

For what it is worth—we have made nothing of this

fact in our description—these verbs may appear with three
different vowels (sing—sang—sung) or with two (take—
took—taken). Of the thirty-five possibilities listed a-
bove, only five (2, 6, 10, 22, 32) exhibit three different
vowels; the remaining thirty verb-types each show but two
vowels.
From the above can be seen how fundamentally our
treatment differs from Lockwood 1973a. On the other hand,
it will be seen also—perhaps here more clearly than else­
where in the book—how incomplete and introductory is our
analysis of E.
 119 I.5

5. Ablaut in Word-Formation.
We find the same 0 * ablaut outside strong
verbs, in word-formation, as was shown in (78). Here are
examples of some roots from which one of the grades may
be missing:—
From {dk- 'receive, accept; acceptable, good'} are
formed e-grade words like decorous, decent [cf. decens, de-
centis < decere 'to be good'], deign [ME deignen < OF
deignier < VL * dignare < dignärZ < dignus 'worthy' < dek-
n-], disdain (dis- [G zer-], related to di- 'two'), dig­
nity (< dek-n-) &c, and o-grade words like docile [docilis
'easily taught'], doctor 'teacher, one who causes smb. to
receive smth.', doctrine (< dok-t-r-in-), document(ary),
dogma(tize) [δόγμα < dok-m-], doxology, (un)orthodox 'ad­
hering to (un)established beliefs' (ortho- 'straight, cor­
rect'), paradox(ical) 'conflict(ing) with expectation'
(para- 'contrary to') &c. But there are no examples from
this root in Ø-grade.
Similarly, from {rg- 'straight(en)'} are formed e-
grade words like regicide [rëx; 1979a, n.13], regal 'pert,
to a king', regalia, regent, regency, regnal, regnant, rec­
tor, recti(fication), regulate, regular(ity), regime, regi­
ment(t), region(alism), and (with prefixes) anorexia (NEG
an-), correct(ive) (kom-, cf. OL com, G ge-, E y- &c), di­
rect (ionality) , erect(ile), insurrection (in-sub-), inter­
regnum &c, and o-grade words like abrogation, arrogate
'claim for oneself' (ad- 'to'), arrogant, derogatory, in­
terrogative, prerogative, prorogue, surrogate 'substitute'
(sub-) &c. Several other words, some with C-changes men­
tioned in II, are also from this root: rajah, royal(ty),
rule [OF reule], reck(on), right(eous), (bishop)ric,
Reich(stag) &c. For surge, cf. n. 56. There seem to be
few (if any) Ε words from Ø-grade.
The root {.nk- 'destroy'} provides another worthwhile
example, with e-grade derivatives like internecine 'mutu­
ally destructive', necro(phobia), perni"cious 'destructive,
deadly'106 &c vs o-grade nocuous, (ob)noxious, (in)nocent,
noxal &c, 107 but no examples from Ø-grade.
Another illustration is ed- ~ od- 'talk, speak' from
which are derived words like comEdian (cf. com-ic), tragedy
I.5 120

(cf. trag-ic) ~ Ode, melodic, parody, rhapsodic, threnode

(cf. thren-et-ic 'mournful1) &c. But there are no words
from ~-grade.
From {kr- 'grow1} are found 0- and e-grade words, but
none in o-grade {corn does not belong here, cf. grain, ZER-
NO &c in II.1.6). The examples are cereal, Ceres ~ create,
crescendo, crescent, accrue, decrease, increment, procre­
ate &c.
The root {sd- 'sit'}, from which many examples in e-
grade are given throughout the text (n. 136, e.g.), appears
in Ø-grade prefixed with ni- 'down1 (as in, e.g., ne-ther-
(most)108). The Gmc form is nest(le) < ni-st- < ni-zd-
(for d > t, II.1.5) < ni-sd-. In L, ζ undergoes complete
assimilation to the preceding vowel {ni-sd- > ni-zd- >
ni-id-; cf. F nid); Ε derivatives are nide, nidology, ni-
dulant, nidus [cf. R GNEZDO; discussion of this compound
in Meillet 1950: 20]. Saddle [OE sadol] seems to pose a
problem.
Another interesting root is {bl- 'throw'}, which ap­
pears in o- and Ø-grades, as in symbol(ic) 'throwing syn-
together', problem 'smth. thrown pro- forward' (forms from
this root are discussed with greater detail in III.5.2).
The only derivatives in e-grade, however, are rare, spe­
cialized words: belemnite 'kind of fossil', lit. 'dart-
shaped' (βέλεμνον 'dart'), and Belostoma 'genus of bugs',
lit. 'arrow-mouthed' (βέλος 'arrow', stomato- 'mouth').109
One could continue citing roots and their derivatives
at length. But we will end (v. III.5.2 for more examples)
by citing a last root, one that—like bl- above—has virtu­
ally no derivatives in e-grade, {tm- 'cut'}, from which are
derived anatomy 'cut ana- up', atom 'not cut', entomology
'study of (animals) cut en- in' (lit., in-sects), epitome
'summary, a cutting epi- on/above', trichotomous 'cut in
three', tome, the technical term of linguistics, tmesis,
and so on.
It should be clear even from the few examples in this
chapter, that the ablaut-analysis proposed for some of the
strong verbs is not restricted to strong verbs, but plays a
role in word-formation as well. The problem of, say, (vice)-
reg(al) vs (vice)roy(al)—or of any other pair (or triplet)
 121 I.6

in this chapter—is the same as that of fox vs vix(en): if

we do not derive both members of each pair from the same
root, then the grammar will conceal conjoined correlations
between sound and meaning. The grammar cannot correlate
in this way dough vs doe or quick vs fast, but it must thus
correlate (mono)log(ue) ~ l e c ( t u v e ) , hyp(notic) (from swp-;
cf. η. 251) ~ sop(ovific) (from swop-), and so on. Serious
analysis of 0 °o e ablaut will have to wait until the
relevant data can be operatively gathered together and pro­
perly organized. We return briefly to other vowel alterna­
tions like those of (84) in App.2.

6. On Syllabics.
In this chapter we have suggested E has no immanent,
underlying vowels. The segments nearest vowels are sonor-
ants, which (subject to not fully understood conditions)
may form syllable-nuclei. Aside from syllabic glides (i,
) , segments we call "vowels" originate in two insertion
rules. One creates anaptyctic vowels before syllabic so-
norants. The other—more complex and ill-understood—in­
serts a' neutral vowel (what we have written e) before the
final consonants of morphemes under conditions which at pre­
sent seem primarily to be M-determined. From these modest
beginnings, an intricate set of rules, some mentioned in
this Introduction~ sires the lavish panoply of syllabics
found in PRs.
A possibility we have not investigated is that - -
laut and S-syllab. are the same rule: the rule may specify
any consonant as +syllabic, in such a way that it must al­
ways apply at least once to the representation of every
word. This rule is followed by a rule of anaptyxis which
provides vowels for every syllabic save glides. Such a pos­
sibility cannot be realistically investigated without re­
course to computing machinery. That the inter-consonantal
environment for sonorant-syllabification works as well as
it does, however, would seem to argue against collapse of
the two rules into one. In addition to "ease of applica­
tion" (n. 100), it may be that characteristics of underly­
ing suprasegmentals (about which I know little) or of a mor-
I.6 122

phological nature play a role in promoting or inhibiting

syllabification.
Another defect of this Introduction is that we will
not be able to decide whether drnk- of drink, e.g., is a
simplex root or contains one (or more) suffixes—or whether
its nasal is radical, suffixal, or inserted by n. 64; simi­
larly with a base like splnd-, underlying splend-id/-or &c.
We will not know, in other words, whether or not representa­
tions like drnk-, splnd- contain internal morpheme-boundar­
ies, and it may be that the correct formulation of S-syl-
labification and/or ablaut is in some cases dependent on the
presence/absence of morpheme-boundaries. Although investi­
gation of such matters has been under way for some time now,
I am not sanguine over the liklihood of any immediately
shining results.
Still another defect is that we are unsure how even to
begin analysis of many E words, and we do not see resolution
to this problem soon forthcoming. To give one—perhaps su­
perficially amusing—example, we feel fairly confident in
our analysis of cow(boy); in fact, we will propose and de­
fend relationships between cow and words like kine, bovine
[cf. bos, bovis]; bucolic 'pastoral' [cf. βουκολικός 'of
cattle herders'], buffalo, butter &c. About coward(ice) al­
so we feel reasonably confident: it is probably related to
words like caudal 'pert. to the tail', coda 'final passage
(the "tail") of a musical composition', (curli)cue, queue,
and lit. means smth. like 'one who turns tail', with dep.
-ard as in drunkard, laggard, sluggard. Again, we will want
to relate cower not to words above, but to gyrate, with the
common S notion ~end, turn'. The analyses we propose for
these three sets of words are to some extent supported by
historical development: at least we know they are linguis­
tically possible analyses. But—despite the phonetic simi­
larity to cow, coward, cower—we are unsure how to analyze
verb cow 'frighten1; absence of a reliable etym. relation­
ship with any of the preceding words (or, apparently, with
any other word of E) augments our uncertainty. Clearly it
would be possible to "invent" a reasonably persuasive S re­
lationship between to cow and any of the words mentioned,
but we prefer not to; instead, we put verb cow (and a num-
 123 nn. 41-46

ber of other words) aside, until some deeper insight into DM

reveals a more discerning interpretation. In the end, we
may have to resort to analyses for some words based on sta­
tistical degree of liklihood. But at present, there are
graver responsibilities to meet.

NOTES

41As in (these are the sources Lamb cites) Halle

1959, 1962, Chomsky 1964, Chomsky & Halle 1965. [65]

42Except for o-stems with gen. sg. in - , which

(characteristic of Italo-Celtic) have been misanalyzed in
(17); cf. Meillet 1950: 35 and the two refs. there. [67]

Despite access to data-processing equipment, Lock-

wood missed at least one ot-verb, beseech. This is just the
kind of V we are looking for, because it is lexically relat­
ed to seek and shows derivation of < . It poses a pro­
blem in analysis, however: why is the distribution seek/be-
seech, and not *seech/beseek or * seech/beseech or *seek/be-
seek? [68]

44The pair seek/beseech of n. 43—both with PRTs in

-t—supports this view. [69]

~Earlier (n. 32), we noticed another—rather spe­

cific—process with word-final -k in verbs like (veri) f <
-fik, (ap-/com-/im-/multiz)ply < -plik. If suffixal -ly in
only is from -lik [OE antic] (App.2.4), this may be another
example of the same process; for pronoun X, v. II.1.6, s.v.
ego. [69]

46Both letters Ë and represent [ ]; Ё is here al­

most always stressed, and the preceding is always either a
palatal or a palatalized ("soft") C'; the letters I/E
nn. 46-52 124

(without diaresis) represent [i/e], and a preceding is

palatal(ized). Hence SEL [sol], IDÊT [id'ot], XODIT [xo-
d'it], SEST' [sest'], SEM' [s'em'] &c. R stress is not
predictable in any immediately obvious sense (see e.g.
Kurylowicz 1946), and (except monosyllabic words and words
with stressed Ё) is marked with an acute in examples be­
low. Unstressed, non-high vowels are "reduced" in vari­
ous ways not discussed here; for example, XODILA [xad'ila],
NESLÁ [n'isla], PJATI [p'it'i] &c. J plus a V-letter (as
in the last example) is a digraph representing a single
R vowel-letter before which Cs are palatalized: ΡJAT'
[p'at'h LJUBIT [l'úb'it] &c. Because the transliteration
symbols themselves are uniquely characteristic, no further
identification of R examples (i.e. with the sigil "R") is
necessary (similarly also for Gk). [70]

47High, back, rounded [u] is from ou; hence DUMAL

< doum-ä-l &c; cf. nn. 48-9. [72]

48Thus, for example, underlying monophthongal

short never appears as [u]; cf. nn. 47, 49. [72]

49Phonetic [u] after palatal or palatalized C'

is from eu; hence LJÛDI [l'ud'i] < leud-l (n. 26), LJU­
BIT [l'úb'it] < leub-Z-t floves1, CUDO [c'uda] < keud-o
'wonder* &c. Cf. nn. 47-8. [72]

50For realization of short, open —usually #, but

sometimes υ—see Guierre, 301 ff. [75]

51Another transcription, one with more merit, uses

geminates, like orthographic oo and . We do not use this
yet: the orthography needs another vowel-letter. Thus we
decided to remain with the (probably more familiar) majus­
cules, despite their inconvenience at times. [75]

520bviously there is no assimilation with verb-

stems in a dental stop because vowel separates stem from
ending; but we can at least notice here the ending is -d
(not -t) : patted [-tad] vs ceded [-dad] &c. From this it
 125 nn. 52-53

follows that if we assume underlying d for the ending, it

is capped [-pt] (not bugged [-gd]) that undergoes voice-
assimilation; that is, in bugged, final -gd remains intact,
whereas in capped we have -p-d > -p-t. It is on this basis
we claim that with the ending -ed, voice of 01 governs that
of 0 2 . [81]

53A, with basic VO order, provides an interesting

example. Here, C 2 governs C1, and a special orthographic
sign (tasd-id) often indicates the assimilation. For in­
stance, -n of 9an 'from' assimilates to m- of ma 'what' in
9ammä Tfrom what'; again, -n of 9αη 'that' assimilates to
l- of la 'not' in ~alla 'that not'. Probably the most well-
known example of assimilation, however, is -l of ART 9aZ to
the initial, following of words beginning with one of the
"Sun letters" (~alhurüf9assamsiya) = the dentals ty ., d,
Qj v, z, Sj 5, Sj d, t3 z, l3 n; before the "Moon letters"
(~alhuruf~alqamarZya), which comprise all the remaining
letters (Ζλ, ¿¿ fe, x, 9> g, ƒ, q3 k, m, h3 w, y) , the -l re­
mains intact. Thus, 9a£ëamsu 'the sun' (from ~ a l s - ) , ~ar-
rajulu 'the man', ? 1 'the Nile' &c, but 9albaitu 'the
house', ~alxubzu 'the bread', 9alqädZ 'the judge' &c.
Secondary stems of triliteral roots R1R2R3 formed in
the pattern RitaR~aR~or aR\taR2~3 seem to present an ex­
ception to this direction when R\ is one of the four "em­
phatic" or pharyngealized consonants s¿ d, t, z3 because
in this case t of the pattern is realized as t (from roots
like sdm3 tl9 are formed stadam~ attali9 &c); the pharyn­
gealized t is even written with the letter ta. One might
think this an example of assimilation with C1 governing
C2. An alternative (and preferable) interpretation (call­
ed 9itbäq in A), however, considers pharyngealization not
merely a feature of s¿ d, t, z3 but a prosody whose minimal
length is CV. Not only are contiguous vowels colored by
pharyngealization, but all the labials and dentals (not
just t, d3 z3 s) have two variants (pharyngeal and non­
pharyngeal) ; pharyngealized variants of all these segments
occur in any stretch of an utterance to which 9itbäq ap­
plies. From the phonetic point of view, the two examples
above are more accurately written stadam¿ attali9> where
nn. 53-57 126

in the latter form we see ~itbäq extending not only to the

right, but to the left as well.
As an aside, it is interesting to note here not only
that A orthography has no letters for vowels (this holds
for Semitic in general), but also that—details aside—it
is universally agreed the most revealing analysis of A does
not employ vowels in UPRs. Meillet stated it thus: "Les
voyelles ne servent qu'à la formation des mots et à la
flexion, et la signification de la racine est attachée
seulement aux consonnes," adding that ulrindo-européen em­
ploie ses voyelles de la même maniere. Ce ne sont pas les
voyelles qui caractérisent une racine ou un suffixe~ ce
sont les consonnes et les sonantes; et c'est uniquement le
type de formation qui est indiqué par le vocalisme" (1964:
154; my italics). I suppose it is not necessary to remind
the reader of logosyllabic Egyptian hieroglyphs which con­
tain no vowels, of North Caucasian languages with many con­
sonants but few vowels, and so on; it should suffice but to
imagine an orthography with only vowels (i.e., no conso­
nants). [82]

54This is also the order in G, where (roughly speak­

ing) the verb is moved by rule to the far end (= away from
its basic position before 0) in subordinate clauses. [82]

55Radical a in prefixed L forms shifts to i before

ng (cf. also n. 106). For η 0 in these forms, n. 64. [83]

56Su-rg-e looks like Ø-grade of rg- (cf. §5), but it

is from L surgere 'rise', a P contraction of *sub-reg'-eve.
F surgir is a Sp loan, which has replaced the (now infre­
quent) true derivative, sourdre (OF sordre), from which we
have (re)source. [83]

57This is the Gmc-Balto-Slavic formation (opposed to

shortened forms like viginti, είκοσι, Dor /ΐκατί, Arm khsan,
Av visaiti &c Ttwenty1, DVÁDCAT' &c). The last decade, [nln-
tE], is interesting in its own right because (unlike fifty
and mean ~ nient), it does not undergo V-shortening (nor does
ninths, unlike f i f t h , or n I n e t e e n ( t h ) , unlike fifteen(th)).
 127 nn. 57-58

In (23), south ~ southern was listed, but not in a

context suitable to show its underlying nasal, which ap­
pears phenomenally in sun < sw-n-. The pair is from
sw-n-Q(-r-n). Underlying radical W appears intact in
words like E swelter, G schwelen, Lth svblti; no doubt 0-
grade sultry (from sw-l-t-r-) is related to e-grade swel­
ter (from sw-el-t-r-). Under the analysis pursued here,
south undergoes the same VN process discussed in Intro.
2.3 for toothy goose; briefly, the derivation is sw-n-θ-
> su-n-θ- > sü-θ- (cf. 0E sud). We have already mentioned
(n. 24), and will bring up again in III, that monophthong-
al may diphthongize to aw; hence suQ > [saw0]. Shorten­
ing in southern (from su-d-r-n) must occur before diph-
thongization of . For -t ~-θ in east, west ~ north,
south, n. 113 s.f. [84]

58Naturally, there are a few (very few, actually)

recalcitrant words here, such as say [sA] but 3 sg. says
[sez]; cf. a regular, parallel verb like play [p1A] , with
3 sg. plays [p1Az], and v. (44). The PRT of this verb al­
so has V, said [sed], cf. played [p1Ad]. Another inter­
esting verb is do [dU] with V in 3 sg. does [dAz], cf. regu­
lar glue [g1U], 3 sg. glues [g1Uz]; with its less common
ending -n, PRT done [di\n] has the same V as does does; cf.
(29)-(31).
The verb be is too difficult to discuss here with pro­
per linguistic carefulness: am is a "leftover" form (cf. L
sum, Gk eimi, Lth ësmi, Skt asmi, G bin) ; no doubt related
are is and are (the latter from er-e with e > a / r (cf.
my 1979a: 286) and r < ζ < s (roughly) between vowels (II.
2.4); hence are < es-e, whose stem {es-) also appears in is
< es- [the shift e > i , incidentally, is characteristic of
Gmc V-weakening, n. 202]). This is the only verb in E with
a PAST whose sg. is still distinct from its p1., was [WAZ]
vs were [war]; a in was is from assimilation to w, and for
were, r < ζ < s between vowels; hence, briefly, wes-e >
wez-e > wer-e [the spelling] > war-e > war [cf. G war] >
Wer. We ought to consider some questions which .are unclear
about this verb: if are/is < es- and if were/was [OE wœ~on/
wœs] < wes-, what is the status of W in wes-? Synchronic-
nn. 58-59 128

ally (but not diachronically), this W- might be related to

b- in be (notice we have b ~ ν in im-bib-e ~ bev-erage,
diabol-ic ~ devil, febr-ifuge ~ fever, gubern-atorial ~
govern(or), lib-erate ~ de-liv-er, mob-ile ~ move, scribe ~
scr*ivener &c, and the b ~ ν alternations between G/E are
well-known: Biber/beaver, Dieb/thief, Fieber/fever, geben/
give, heb en/heave, Herbst/harvest, kerben/carve (from grph-,
no doubt related to (calli-)graphy), leben/live, lieben/
love, Nabel/navel, Rabe/raven, Salbe 'ointment'/salve,
Sieb/sieve, sieben/seven, sterben 'die'/starve, Stube
'room' /stove [a Romance loan], Taube/dove, treib en/drive,
weben/weave &c; on the possible relation between w in was/
were and b in be(en), we recall what Verner stated in his
paper to which we are all deeply indebted: "in the labial
series, ƒ and b have fused through secondary sound changes
into one sound in most of the Germanic languages, thus ob­
literating the differentiation originally present" [Lehmann
1976: 137]; in Ε we also have f-, as in fiat 'let it be
(done)' and future 'what will be'). But if w in was/were
is morphemic, then their source (up to now wes-) is di­
vided w-es-. If the source of was/were is w-es- and if the
source of is/are is es-, it should be possible to show the
two es-'s are the same and that all four forms (is, are,
was, were) are derived from the same root, which we can ten­
tatively spell es-. Clearly the questions raised here—re­
gardless of their proper answers—merit careful considera­
tion. But I shall pass on to my final remark about be,
viz., that am must be derived from the same root, from
es-m-: after all, we cannot explain am as a caprice of the
Ε language or ascribe its appearance to mere chance: we
should reconsider the older forms cited earlier and how much
they represent to us; then we could not persist in the hy­
pothesis that attributes appearance of am in Ε to chance—
linguistics cannot completely exclude the element of chance,
but it cannot admit chance occurrence en masse such as we
find here in 1 sg. of be. For will, would, which do not be­
long here, n. 131 s.f. [85]

59As in She leafs through the pages rapidly. Cf. N

leaf, leaves; we have a minimal pair here, 3 sg. leafs vs N
 129 nn. 59-63

p1. leaves. To now we have been talking of leaves on trees,

for which some readers may have p1. N [1Evz] ~ [1Efs] in
"free" variation. But there is also a V leave(s) 'depart(s)1
with derived N leave (= what soldiers get, or in the older
expression by your leave 'with your permission'), which has
the sole p1. leaves [-vz]. We have another minimal pair,
both Vs: to leaf vs to leave. See also n. 60 and derivations
in (35). [85]

60Cf. N grief(s). This pair (N grief/V grieve) is

similar to pairs like N belief (s)/V believe, N relief'(s)/V
relieve, N proof(s)/V prove. I return later to voicing of
final Os in these pairs (and in others like N house, houzes/
V houze), but will end here by noting it is not always easy.
We have N knife with p1. knives and V of the text knife(s).
But there is also N life with p1. lives and V live(s); the
two verbs contrast in both 0-voice and V-length, [nIf(s)] vs
[liv(z)]. There is also a minimal triad brief [-Ef] ~ ab­
brev-iate [-brEv-] ~ brevity [brev-], in which ƒ is voiced
in the last two, but the vowel short only in the last one.
Of course some stems never change, like N fife(s)/V fife(d)
of the text, N roof(s) /V roof &c.

61 The derivation is fal-n > fal-n > fol-%, with last

step rounding before l (as also in all, also, appal, balsam,
call, hall, (s)mall, palsy, salt, tall, walrus &c); the round­
ing occurs before word-final or pre-consonantal l. Sometimes
alternations result from application of this rule: bœllet,
bœllerina α> ball, fœllible °o false &c [88]

62Thus rlt-n > rlt-n > rit-n &c, but v. §4. [88]

63This PRT (which has a variant dreamed) may show in­

tercalated ρ (cf. the clear case consume ~ -sumption). Der­
ivation of the two PRTs:
(39) UPR: drEm#ed drEm-t
V- shortening: e
intercalate p: ρ
(36) = e-drop: 0
(37) = end-assim: vacuous inapplic.
PR: drEmd drempt
nn. 64-66 130

64There are several related pairs, only one member

of which shows N-insertion: constrict ~ astringent (prefix
ad-, cf. §3.1 s.f.); dere-lic-t ~ de-linqu-ent (n. 92);
figment, fiction [fictus = PRT of fingere 'form, shape, in­
vent' in §3.1] ~ feign [OF feign- < feindre < L fingere]',
grist(le) s grind; tax ~ contingent, impact ~ impinge, in­
fraction ~ frangible, infringe (see n. 55 for the last three
pairs; with the last of these belongs also frag-ment/-ile/
-ture/-tion ~ frang-ible) ; lap (up) ~ lambent (v. II. 1.4);
lax ~ languid; measure ~ dimension (but v. p. 11 for a dif­
ferent analysis); picture ~paint; plague ~plangorous;
predator ( ) ~ apprehend, prehensile; pug (ilist), pugna­
cious ~ pungent, poignant; scissile 'cut-able1, scission
'act of cutting', scissure ~ ab-/ex-/pre-/re-seind (v. ab­
scise in PFX.l); scrabble ~ scramble; sacred, consecrate ~
sanctify, sanctity, saint (neither sane nor sanitize of n. 3
belong here; n. 74); trap ~ tramp(le) &c. See also n. 267.
[91]

65Note how // blocks shortening before C2, as opposed

to, say, sped < spEd-d in (42); cf. also last paragraph of
§3.2.4. [93]

66The thorny problem of stating the correct env. is

an issue separate from the issue of insertion vs deletion.
The factual data are that of the possible stem-final seg­
ments (= V, N, L, G, p/b, t/d, k/g, f/v, Q/d, s/z, / , c/g),
the gliding vowel appears between (t/d)#d and between (s/z,
é/z, c/g)#s. More than one rule may be involved: beside the
possibility of treating #d separately from #s, another pos­
sibility is that insertion occurs together for #d and #s,
but in a wider env. than given above—the one insertion rule
would then be followed by a deletion rule,saybetweenΘ/
and #d. Notice, incidentally, that voice-assimilation of #s
— i n addition to applying in the wrong direction—is not
even restricted to Os (kissez, templz, barz, painz, clamz,
toyz, lowz, seez, mooz &c). It is doubtless significant
this question of how to treat N- and V-endings, for which
the factual data have been so long known, still resists
analysis. See n. 77 and App.1.9 s.f.
One may wonder why such a situation has arisen. Possi-
 131 η. 66

sibly it may have to do with keeping integrity of the sg.

vs p1. distinction intact, at least in nouns. True, a N
like peace would not likely be misinterpreted as p1. pE-s,
because the p1. is not often used; but homophonous piece
would be subject to such misinterpretation—and likewise
many other sg. Ns in [-s]: appearans, AWn-s, blAW-s,
chOYs, cros, doen-s, (of)fen-s, foks, fors, glœ-s,
hAWs, hor-s, ΙΑ-s, (re)lap-s, nucleu-s, nuisons, occur-
ren-s, pancreas, paradis, porpoi-s (lit. 'pig-fish*, cf.
F porc, poisson)~pre fas , prl-s, provins, quart-s, re-
clU-s, respons, rhinoceros, sau-s, sens, senten-s,
sek-s, (re)sour-s, ( r e ) v e r - s , (w)cek-s &c. There is a sim­
ilar (but less widespread) distribution of sg. Ns in [-z]:
ChinE-z, mU-z (cf. moose), nO-z, nOY-z, pau-z, prl-z,
(para)phrA-z &c.
The actual realizations of p1. for Ns prevent much of
this possible misinterpretation. Thus choice e.g. cannot
now be mistaken for p1. of a N choy, because p1. of that N
would be [cOYz], like toys, and so on. Only Ns like box,
fuse, haze, (re)lapse, prize &c could conceivably be mis­
taken for p1s., and some of these Ns have related forms
(easily perceptible, even to non-linguists—obv. we are not
here concerned with deep, subconscious pairs like prize ~
praise) to prevent such confusion: Vs like box (not *bok),
(re)lapse, prize, As like f u s - i b l e , haz-y &c. Many native
speakers have difficulty pairing p1. dice with sg. die, and
many "fancy" p1s. (ganglia, foci &c) are giving way to regu­
lar p1s. in -s (except in certain sophisticated circles).
This may be one reason for the peculiarly complex re­
alizations of the regular p1. ending in Ns. But when we
consider how intricately interwoven language is, we find
support for supposing this is not the only (perhaps not even
the major) reason.
English seems to have a curious constraint, not overtly
stated in its grammar—a by-product of its Ρ representations
and rules—that the PR of a N-stem or a V-stem before the 0-
ending should be the PR of that stem throughout its paradig­
matic inflection. The constraint is "broken" by what we are
calling strong Vs {sing ~ sang ~ sung) and by a few Ns like
locus ~ loci, matrix ~ matrices—by Vs and Ns which are com-
nn. 66-68 132

monly regarded as "irregular". It is interesting to note

that because the rules—however they may best be formulat­
ed—are restricted to paradigmatic inflection, E displays
such phonetically similar minimal pairs as p1. princes vs
fem, princess (cf. related A princely ; the hidden, imma­
nent representation of the stem of these words is discussed
elsewhere in the book).

67A11 these forms (as well as the secondary deriva­

tive aster 'kind of plant with flower-heads putatively re­
sembling stars', cf. n. 35) belong to the star-family (see
my 1979a). [94]

68Phonetically, there is no difference between

agentive -or [- ] and -er [- ]. The fem. in -ess (some­
times -ix) of both usually shows non-syllabic [-r-]: act-/
ambassad-/ audit- /bene fact-/command- /conduct-/edit- /elect-/
enchant- /ƒornicat-/'jbund-/hunt-/inherit-/inv]ent- /¿anit- /of­
fend- /progenit-/propriet-/solicit-/songst-/vict-r-ess (also
benefact-/fornicat-/¿anit-/pro curat-/progenit-/propriet-/
solicit-/vict-r-ix) &c. There is, however, a clear differ­
ence [-or-] vs [-Er-] in some derivatives: -orial (as in
dictât-, elect-, equat-, ¿anit-, médiat-, procurât-, pro­
fess-, sénat-) vs -erial (in magis-, minist-), and so on.
The fem, is not quite so straightforward as suggested
above. For some, syllabicity of r is optional: huckst(e)r-
ess, rect(o)ress, trait(o)ress; for others, such syllabic­
ity is obligatory: authoress, preacheress (the latter may
have a P explanation: there is no [cr] in E; orthographic
chr—as in chronicle &c—reflects Gk [kr]; cf. also preach-
erize, not *preachrize); the er in pantheres s is not agent­
ive. Fem. of procurer undergoes degemination: -cUr-r-ess
> [-kUrss]; this is apparently also the explanation for sor­
ceress < sorcer-r-, murderess < murder-r- (cf. also murder­
ous) , but it does not explain laundress beside launder,
laundry, launderer. There are examples with nonsyllabic r
in fem., but syllabic r in other derivatives: directr-ess/
-ix (but -tor-ate/-y; cf. rect(o)ress, -tor-ate/-y), e-
lectress (but electoral), emancipatress (but A -tory),
ogress (but ogerish), protectress (but -tor-ate/-y), tigress
 133 nn. 68-70

(but tigerish alongside tigr-ine/ -oid) , vietr-ess/-ix (but

vietor-ious/-y). From govern or) is govem-ess, *govern-
ress [ME governeress]. Finally, I mention em-pr-ess from
em-per-or [L imperator], cf. also empire [L imperium].

An interesting example: burglar is a compound,

from burgh/borough and l ( ), lit. 'town thief1; >-
¿7~ is a back-formation from burglar~ which raises a pro­
blem if we want to derive -I in burgle from the same root
as lar- in larceny [from OF larcin < larrecin < L latroci-
nium 'military service of mercenaries' < labro Mercenary1,
hence no doubt related to -latry 'worship' in idolatry from
OF idolatrie < L idololatria by haplology].

70Thus -el in angel presumably represents not -L,

but -VL; this analysis correlates with palatalization of g
in [Angal] but not of in [slkal]. There are other forms
like this, some listed here:
apo-/epi-stle ~ apostolic/epistolary, Aristotle ~
-Elian (not *Aristotlian), auth-/maj-/min-/pri-or ~
-ority, Athens ~ -Enian, atom ~ -omic (from o-grade
of {tm- 'cut'}), battle ~-alion, color(ation), demon
~ -onic (not *demnic), equ-/loc-/mor(t)-/origin-/tot-
al ~ -ality (cf. the minimal pair ped-al-er vs peddl-er) ,
ether(eal), flatter-er/-y, fragile ~ -ility (with
[-"g-Dj Germ-/org-/Sat-an ' -anic, Hellen(-ic/-ism/
-ist/-ize) (not *Hellnic &c), human(ity), humor(-esque/
-ist/-ous), lecher(-ous/-y), liable ~ -ility (not *li-
ablity, but see below), medal ~ -allion, metal ~ (bi­
metallic, omen ~ ominous, abominate, parable ~ -bolic
(III.5.2), similar(ity) (not *similrity), symbol(ic),
system(ic), utter(ance), vocal(ic) (not *vaclic) &c.
In (48) we noted some general examples of Ζ ' I before N
-er, A -(l)y9 and dim. -d)et (cuddl(some) -l-er/-y, ankl '
a n k l e t ) and of j"vr before -<?z¿s (lustr % -rous) . But, be­
fore the same suffixes, there are words where S appears in a
syllable; for example:
barter-er, bas(s)in-et, batter-er, beggar-ly, beleaguer-
-er, besom-er, bespatter-er, betoken-er, bevel-er, bitu-
men/-minous, bladder-y, blather-er, blister-y, blossom-y,
n. 70 134

blubber-ous/-y, bludgeon-er [-gen-ar] [ooo] , blunder-er,

bluster-er, bolster-er, border-er, (em)bosom(y), both-
er-er, bottl-er (but cf. butler(y), from the same source),
bower-y, Brahman-y, (em)broider-er, brother-ly, burden-
er, bushel-er, butter-y, button-er, cadaver-ous [L eadere
'fall'], calendar-er, calender-er, camphor-y, cancel-er,
canker-ous, canter-er, caper-er, (carni)vor-ous, carol­
er, castigator-y, cater-er, cavil-er, cellar-et, ceru-
men/-minous, chamber-let, chamfer-er, channel-er, char-
ter-er, chasten-er, chatter-er, chisel-er, christen-er,
cinder-y (another misspelling, cf. OE s i n d e r , G Sinter, OCS
sgdra &c; unrelated to incinerate from cinis, -eris 'ashes'),
(eman)cipator-y (but -tress), (de)cipher-er [A], clamber-
er (related to climb), clamor-er/-ous [clamor, -oris],
clangor-ous, clatter-er/-y, cluster-y, clutter-er, cof-
fer-er (but coffr-et), collar-et, color-er/-y, common-er,
copper-y (but cupric), cotton-y, cotyledon-ous, cousin­
ly, (dis)cover-er/-let, cozen-er, cretin-ous, cudgel-er,
(pro)curator-y, cushion-y [-sanE], custom-er, cymbal-er,
danger-ous, decamer-ous [-meras] 'with ten parts' (for mer-
'part', cf. chem. isomer [Isamer] 'compound with the iso­
same parts as another, but differing from it in chemical
and/or physical properties' (with the scientific S restric­
tion of n. 35) ~ isomeric [-merik] 'resembling/pert. to iso­
mers'), dexter ~ (ambi-)dextrous (but dexterity, *dextrity),
(pre)dicator-y, dinner-y, dishevel-er, dodder-er/-y, do-
lor-ous, dragon-et, drivel-er, dungeon-er [-gan-ar], en-
amel-er, epistl/-tol-er, even-er, examine (from ex-ag-s-
men-)/-min-er, falcon-er, fashion-er [-san-ar], fasten-er,
fathom-er, favor-er, feather-er/-let/-y, (coni)-fer-ous,
fetter-er, fever-ous(ly) (and feverish, but febrifug-all-e,
febrile 'of/having fever' [L febris]), finger-y, flannel-
ly, flatter-er, flavor-ous, flower-y, fluster-y, flutter-
er/-y, fodder-er, foramen/-minous, fritter-er, further-er,
gather-er, gelatin-ous, (en)gender-er, ginger-y, glamor­
ous, glander-ous, glimmer-y, glitter-y, glower-er, glu-
ten/-tinous [gluten, -tinis 'glue'], glutton-ous, gravel-ly,
grovel-er, gutter-y, hanker-er, harbor-er, heaven(ish)ly,
(pro)hibitor-y, hover-er, (con)jur-er, label-er, labor-er,
lacquer-er, languor-ous, larder-er, lather-er/-y, leather-
 135 n. 70

-y, lecher-ous (but *[leerás] would not be a possible

utterance in E), lemon-y, letter-er, level-er, libel-
er/-ous, lichen-ous, linger-er, liquor-y, (en)liven-er,
liver-y, (de)liver-er, loiter-er, lumber-er, lumen/
-minous, malinger-er, (pre)monitor-y, murder-er/-ess/
-ous, ocher-ous/-y (but ochroid), odor-ous, omen/omi­
nous, onus ~ onerous (r by rhotacism), (dis)order-ly
[ordo3 ordinis], palaver-er/-ous, pamper-er, pander-
er, panel-er, paper-y [l papyrus < πάπυρος, ooo], par-
don-er, (vivi)par-ous, patter-er, pepper-er/-y, peril­
ous [parlous is arch.], pester-er/-ous, pewter-er,
phantom-y, philander-er, philter-er (but -trous), med.
phlegmon-ous, phosphor-ous, plaster-er/-y, plunder-er/
-ous, poison-er/-ous, ponder-er/-ous, potter-er,
poulter-er {poultry from poult-ry, not from *poult-er-
y), powder-er/-y, precursor-y, predator-y, prison-er,
(tetra)pter-ous, pucker-er/-y, punitor-y (cf. puni-
t-ive), quarrel-er, quaver-er/-y, querul-ous (cf. quar-
r-el), ramul-ous (homophonous with N ramul-us 'small
branch'), rancor-ous, ransom-er, reason-er (but
reas(o)n-able), reckon-er, recover-er, render-er,
resin-er/-ous (also rosin-), rigor-ous, river-y, rois-
ter-er/-ous, rubber-y, ruin-er/-ous, saffron-y, satin-
y, saunter-er, savor-er/-ous/-y, scamper-er, scatter-
-er/-y, scriven-er, scrutin-ous, season-er, shatter-er,
shelter-er/-y, shimmer-y, shiver-y, shovel-er, shower-
y, shudder-y, silver-er/-y, simper-er, skeleton-y, slab-
ber-er, slander-er/-ous, slaughter-er/-ous, slither-y,
slobber-er/-y slumber-er/-ous, smother-y, snicker-er,
sober-er (but sobriety), solder-er, sonor-ous, sorcer-
-er, (pro)sper-ous, spider-y, splinter-y, splutter-er,
sputter-er/-y, squander-er, stagger-er, stammer-er,
stencil-er, (di)still-er, stupor-ous, stutter-er, suc-
cor-er, suffer-er, sulfur-ous/-y, summer-y, summon-er,
suspensor-y, swimmer-et, tassel-y, tatter-y, (pro)tec-
tor-y (but -tress), tellur-ous, (dis)temper-er, tender­
er, (de)termin-er, threaten-er, thunder-er/-ous [OE
punor, cf. ON porr < pun-r-oz], timor-ous, tinder-y,
titter-er/-y, toboggan-er, totter-er/-y, traitor-ous,
trammel-er, travel-er, treason-ous, tuber-ous, tumor-
η. 70 136

-ous, tunnel-er, twitter-er, ulcer-ous [ulcus, ulcer-is],

upholster-er, utter-er, valor-ous, vapor-ous, venom-ous,
vermin-ous, vertigin-ous, vigor-ous, vinegar-y, viper-
ous/-y, (pro)visor-y, (carni)vor-ous, wafer-y, wager-er,
wagon-er, wander-er, warren-er, water-er/-y, waver-er/-y,
whimper-er, whisper-er, winter-y, wonder-er (but won­
drous) , yammer-er, zephyr-ous
There are also examples like the following, which apparently
involve vowel-deletion (n. 68 and II.5.3):
able ~ ability ~ ably (from l hab-il- 'handle, manage';
cf. E words like (re)hab-il-it-ate and next entry), (tol-
er)-able ~ -ability ~ -ably (unrelated to able; -a- here
represents the l 1st conj. theme vowel [tolerare, toler-
äbilis]; see next entry), (cred)-ible ~ -ibility ~
-ibly (-i- here represents l 3rd or 4th conj. theme vowel
[crêdere, crédibilisa'), conifer(ous), infer Or inference
[-fr-] (from 'carry'}), gastero- ~ gastro- [γαστήρ,
γαστρος 'stomach'], gentle ~ gent-eel/-ile ' gently, min­
ister <\> -Erial α, -stry, (ad)ministrate (minstrel too—
which clearly displays vowel deletion—is from this
source [late l ministrabis < ministerialist), noble ~
nobility ' nobless, (con)stable O; stability ~ establish­
ment), humble [OF < l humilem 'on the ground'] ' humil-
-ity/-iate, (be)labor(er) ~ laborious * lab(o)ratory,
number [OF nombre < l numerus < nomer-os] numerical ~
(in)numrable, num(e)rous, opus: I have trisyllabic pl.
opera 'works' (with rhotacism), disyllabic sg. opera
[ ] 'musical drama'—but there must be a deleted vow­
el before the r to account for rhotacism, cf. tetrasyl-
labic operetta [opus, gen. sg. operis, nom. p1. opera],
-n't (after did, does, has, have, is, was &c) ~ not ~
-nt (after are, can, were &c), tartar ~ tartaric~ tar­
trate, Gk he-cat- ~ he-ct-o 'one hundred', sesquicenten-
nial 'pert, to one and a half centuries' (from sesqui-
'and a half [more]' < L sem-s-que 'a half -que and' <
semis-, cf. Ε semi-) &c.

Proper discussion of some words would lead too far a-

field. I cite one such instance: scandal(ous) [l scandalum
< σκανόαλον] α~ slander(ous) [ME sclaundre < OF escándele <
 137 nn. 70-74

scandalum] ~ esclandre [F < OF escandle < escándele]. [94]

71 The SPE proposal to derive As in -ic from UPRs in

-ic-al in order to assign stress properly (*angelic & ) re­
quires much idiosyncratic specification as to when this -al
should be (sometimes optionally) dropped. To give but one
example, alongside angèlic-*al, cf. related * evangelic vs
evangelical. Still, the cogency of the proposal does not
seem to me damaged by this observation: one finds support
for the analysis e.g. in ADVs, which although always spell­
ed -ically are usually pronounced [-iklE]: (ev)angelically
[-gêliklE]. We note, incidentally, that this approach to
the problem is one which failed for us in Intro.3 s.f.:
generate a class larger than the one found, and then elimi­
nate part of it.
Ev- in evangelical, by the way, is related to eu- 'good'
in eu-phemism, euphoria, eugenic(s) , eulogy, euthanasia &c.
Thus we see a word like evangelist means ~ringer of good
news' (cf. άγγελος 'messenger, bringer of news'), just as eu-
pehmize means 'use good words1 (cf. φήμη 'speech') &c. [94]

72These forms raise a separate problem because of ρ

in related drop(let), drip. [96]

73Many of these forms are interesting for reasons be­

yond S ~, S. Alongside re-membr(ance) with intercalated -b-,
for example, we find memory, memorial &c, from redup. o-grade
of the root {mr- 'think, consider, remember'}. Gk martyr-
(ize) and Gmc mourn(ful) are from nonredup. forms of the
root. Historically, the Ρ development of these forms is
slightly more complex than suggested here (cf., e.g., Skt
smarati, redup. μερμερος &c). [97]

74The r here is suffixal (cf. sexton and n. 64 s.f.).

The root is sac- 'holy'; interesting contrastive study on l
sacer : sanctus in an IE context, v. Benveniste 1969: 187 ff.
For a > e in consecrate, desecration, execrable &c, n. 118.
The -do- in sacerdotal, incidentally, is from {t~X- 'do,
make, put, place'},' which underlies Gmc do, deed, l fact(ory),
feat(ure), Gk theme, (syn)thesis &c (see under theme in II.1.
9). [97]
nn. 75-77 138

75Historically, not all these As in -y are from -ig

(like heavy < ME hevy < OE he fig; Gmc -ig (whence E - )
doubtless from the same source as F/l/Gk -ic); thus e.g.
j o l l y , hasty, easy from OF jolif, h a s t i f , aisif. Also his­
torically, ease, from OF aise < L adjacëns 'lying near to
one', is a doublet of adjacent, more directly from adjac-
ens, -entis; disease (lit. 'without ease') has the same
source, with prefix dis- (cf. (dis)comfort &c). [101]

76No doubt related also to o-grade boot-y and boot

(now only in to boot 'in addition1) with M-conditioned
lengthening [OE bot 'advantage, improvement;]; it would be
difficult (and doubtless wrong) to derive this boot from
the same source as homophonous boot 'protective covering
for the foot and/or leg' [cf. OF bote, F botte]. But boot
in give smb. the boot 'fire (from a job)' illustrates mere­
ly metaphorical extension (n. 35) of the latter boot; simi­
larly, cf. also F bot 'club-footed'. [102]

77There are numerous As beside verbal PRTs, like

pent 'confined (as) in a pen' (AHD gives pent also as an
alternate PAST and PRT of V pen, but I do not have those
forms), beholden, coined, drunken, gifted, graven, -hearted
(as in broken-/hard-hearted), -humored, laden, molten,
opinionated, sacred, shorn, sodden, unsung &c.
AHD strangely claims ADV very may sometimes "qualify
directly a past participle used predicatively in passive
constructions: He was very tired (or very discouraged).
This usage is generally acceptable when the participle is
felt to have the nature of a true adjective, as in the
foregoing. When the participle remains essentially a verb
form, it is preferable to replace very with very much,
much, greatly, or a like term: much disliked, greatly in­
convenienced" (p. 770).
Concerning the absence of Vs in NEG- (e.g. to *unfin-
ish, *uneat, *unsolve, *unpromise &c vs PRTs unfinished,
uneaten &c and the second un- in PFX.3, undress &c), see
e.g. Siegel 1973. It can be ascertained from PRTs like
those above that they are Stative, that Gross' view they
indicate "un etat" rather than "une action" holds (1975:
 139 nn. 77-80

83); as Couquaux succinctly puts it, "leur interpreta­

tion est clairement adjectivale, et non verbale" (1979:
259). Although we disagree with the particular shape of
some of Couquaux's rules and with his failure to consider
elementary outlines of syntactic typology, we are never­
theless in sympathy with his approach: he makes a signif­
icant linguistic contribution, opposed to works like Wasow
1977, Bresnan 1978, on the one hand, Gaatone 1980 on the
other, which do not.
Sometimes, incidentally, there is a phonetic differ­
ence between PRT and A; thus (at least in my idiolect), PRT
cursed [karst] vs A accursed [-sad], PRT learned [-nd] vs
A learned [-nad], PRT peaked [-kt] vs A peaked [-kad] &c;
possibly this fact may have relevance for the proper for­
mulation of the PRT analysis (n. 66), but I have not taken
it into account. Finally, the derivation and positioning
of these participial As (as in bereaved family members &c)
will surely involve syntactic intermediacy, a route not all
of whose problems have already been solved (in particular,
there are here, as elsewhere in DM, matters of ordering
that must be successfully dealt with, and so on); we do not
discuss any of these questions here, but will return to
them in a later work. [104]

78Makkai (1978: 409-10) mentions a homophonous V in

"She her sole in public". This is a de-Α from bare
'naked' and is therefore regular (hence there is no possi­
bility of his "*She bore her soul"). [105]
79From {gn- ~eget, bear'}, which underlies a num­
ber of words, including several with anlaut n- because g is
dropped here {natal < gn-atal~nascent < gn-ascent &c:
there are no E words in [gn-]). [109]

80These forms are S not so transparent as the pre­

ceding. The root means 'fly, fall upon'; in the examples
above, e-grade forms mean 'fall upon', o-grade forms 'what
falls downward, flows': hippopotamus 'horse of the river'
(cf. hippo-drome, with -drome 'run' as in I.3.1 s.f.),
Mesopotamia '(country) meso- between rivers'. An asym-
nn. 80-86 140

ptote is 'what does a- not fall syn- together'. There are

several other E words from this root (helieo-pt-er, hymen-
-o-pt-erous 'membrane-winged', med. pt-osis, (re)pet-ition
&c). In E, anlaut ρ- is dropped before t (as in pt-ero-
[tero-] 'feather1), but in Slavic, -t- was dropped (OCS/R
pero 'feather, pen'; but cf. related PTICA [pt'ica]
~ird'). l panache [pa-] 'plume', pen, pennate 'winged'
&c involve assimilation (l penna < pet-n-a). [109]

81From {mn- 'think, remember'}, but some forms are

not so clear as they seem (for mind e.g. see n. 102); for
related words inm- , n. 218, In ma-t-, n. 228. Memory.,
memoir·, memorable, remember &c are not from this root mn-,
but from a similar-looking root spelled mr-, n. 73. Rem­
nant, incidentally, is from remain [L (re)manere 'stay (be­
hind) ' ] , hence unrelated to amnesia and the other words
from {mn- 'think, remember'}; words related to remain, rem­
nant, from {mn- 'stay, dwell'}, include manor, mansion, im­
manent 'in-dwelling, inner(most)', permanent 'remaining
throughout, long-lasting' &c. [109]

From {wr- 'twist, turn'}, which fathers many

words (often in -ver-t-), some of which are S not so clear-
cut as these; w- drops before r in E: wring [rin] &c (there
are no NE words in [wr-], but cf. OE wringen). Cf. n. 131
for more examples. [109]

83From {kr- 'cut, separate'}; the Ρ is more complex

than suggested here; cf. n. 121 for more examples. [109]

84Lit. 'what can be cut/stripped off'; bark, with a

similar meaning, is from {b r- 'cut with a sharp instru­
ment'} (cf. bore, board, BORONA 'harrow', n. 149). [109]

85From { - 'uppermost part of the body'}; perhaps

cf. H qrn 'horn'; for ~ h in -corn ~, horn and for rhino­
ceros (£ινόκερως 'nose-horn'), v. II.1.3. [109]

86From wr-g- 'work'. Some words in this group have

their vowel obscured before r so that we do not know yet
 141 nn. 86-92

where they belong: bulwark, surgeon, dramaturgy, thauma­

turge &c. W almost always drops from Gk forms cited in
this Introduction', historically, w behaves differently in
different Gk dialects. [110]

87As in n. 82, w drops. For g ~ in erg 'unit of

work' ~ work, II.1.6 [110]

88From {sr- 'run, flow'}. [110]

89Gk s- > h-; in Ø-grade, this h- drops (except in

spelling). More examples of s- > h- in App.1.2. [110]

90Intrusive t I s r (also in Slavic, cf. cognate

STRUJÁ 'river'; another Slavic example is OSTR- 'sharp',
from the same base as in acerb of (48): ak-r- > as-r- >
os-r- > ostr-). [110]

91From {tl- ' carry'}, the source of some words in

l- because t drops: ab-l-ative 'ablatif1, col-late ~ring
together', e-l-ation, di-latory (prefix dis- 'apart'),
legis-lation 'carrying out/bringing forward lex, leg-Is of
a law', re-late ~ring/carry back', superlative 'carried
beyond', translate &c. In Atlas ["~τλας < stem ατλαντ-],
lit. 'one bearer (of the heavens)', prefix is a- < sm-
'one' (E same &c). Fleet Atalanta 'carrying the same (val­
ue [as a man])' poses a problem because of the vowel, which
appears also in talent (τάλαντον 'scale'), Tantalus ~earer
= sufferer (n. 35)' (from tal-tal-), tantalize. l forms
are tulZ, tlätus, tollere &c. [110]

92These e < <x> 0 alternations are just as (if not,

more) evident in some of the other IE languages (but not in
Indo-Iranian); for example, Gk 3 p1. pres. λεΐπ-ουσΐ ~ 3 sg.
pf. λε-λοιπ-ε α, 3 pi. aor. ε-λιπ-ον (from PIE *likw- 'leave',
cf. linquere (n. 64), iZquZ, lictus, Ε delinquent, dereliet
'abandoned', relinquish 'leave behind', relic(t), ec-lip-se
[l eclipsis < εκλειψις 'a leaving ex- out, abandonment'] &c;
in n. 17 we mentioned lth Vtk-ti 'leave', which is from this
root; cf. η. 175), and so on. For Gk ρ in these forms, II.1.
11. [112]
nn. 93-100 142

93Also from this root are words like bit 'small

piece/amount bitten off; mouthpiece of a bridle', bitter
'having a sharp, pungent, "biting" taste', hitters 'bitter
(alcoholic) liquid', bait 'cause to bite' &c; cf. n. 148.
Bit in computer language is unrelated, short for bi(nary
digi)t. [112]

94Also from this root, which means 'slip(pery)' ,

are sled and sleigh (a contraction of e-grade sled). [112]

95Also from this root are (a)drift and N drove

'flock, herd'. [112]

96Also from this root is road. [112]

97Also from this root is strife. [112]

98Also from this root is N writ. For W-, cf. 0E

writan 'cut, scratch, engrave, draw, write'; but one is re­
luctant to posit synchronic w- merely on the basis of OE
and/or NE orthography. [112]

lockwood has to decide which V "replaces" which

in swum, hung (1973a: 175); since we employ no V at all,
such a question does not arise for us. [112]

100There are a number of difficulties with this

rule, not the least of which is that in slng (underlying
slung), e.g., it must be η that is syllabified, not 1 (to
prevent derivation of *slng, ult. *[SA1IJ]); similarly, for
drunk from drnk, we want drnk, not *drnk *[d9rnk], and so
on. These two derivations could be achieved either by im­
posing a direction of application (from right to left; see
my 1979b: 302) on S > S or by imposing a constraint on
"ease of application" of S > S (that N undergoes syllabi­
fication with greater ease than l—at least in these two
examples, slung, drunk, and others like them). There are
also cases in which S > S even though S is not bounded by
non-syllabics; here are examples which Meillet 1964: 117-8
transcribes °1, °n &c (we continue to use 1, η &c); from
 143 n. 100

the charts which Meillet provides (pp. 117, 119), one sees
the final result of °l &c differs slightly from I (at
least in his historical terms; for a more recent treatment
of Siever's law, in the same context, see Edgerton 1934,
1943). Also there are examples like the following: in my
idiolect, seer is monosyllabic (homophonous with unrelated
sear [sEr]) in seer 'prophet1 (lit. 'one who sees'), but
disyllabic in sightseer [-sEar] < -sEr; again, fire is di­
syllabic [fayar] < fayr, but your/you''re are monosyllabic
[yuwr] (contrasting with ewer [yuwar]) or (more frequently)
[ ]. Finally are cases in which S > S does not apply,
even though the env. conditions are satisfied: monosyllabic
barn, burn, born; farm, form, firm; whorl, whirl; film,
(w)helm &c; perhaps related to this is the fact that sonor-
ants are sometimes dropped in certain clusters (hymn [him],
govern [gAvarn] but government [-armant] &c) or that ob­
struents are sometimes inserted (humility but humble; kin­
dred < kin-red (cf. kin), where -red appears also in hAtred
—not *[hmtrad]; thunder < Ban-r, cf. stun, detonate, ME
thuner, G Donner; spindle < spin-l; gamble < gœm-l, cf.
game, (back)gammon &c). When the Ρ of Ε is worked out in
detail, we may find S > S has to apply twice, once early
and once late in derivations, but here we will not investi­
gate such detail.
I should point out, however, that my 1979b treatment,
which suggests right-to-left application of a rule like
(80), is not correct even for Gk: consider e.g. gen./dat.
dual forms in -01IV, presumably from -ojjn, which under
that proposal would result in *-ogjn (ult. *-ojja). Al­
though this defect does not affect the point of that paper
(which deals only with ordering application of two rules),
it does raise again the question—in a somewhat different
context from here—of how to write the rule (rules?) for
sonorant-syllabification correctly. I mentioned a diffi­
culty with formulating this rule also in 1979a: 288.
Durand's notion of coupe lente vs coupe brusque may
play a role in alleviating some of the above problems if
one can find how properly to coalesce the notion with rule
(80). levin's critical comment may present too inflexible
a view both of NE stress-meter ("Most Americans pronounce
nn. 100-103 144

[flour, hire vs flower, higher].. . with an unstressed vow­

el after cutting off the stressed vowel abruptly with an
implosive [in the sense of Kurylowicz 1948: 81] consonant
[flAwr, ].") and of Gk ("where the meter depended alto­
gether on length, not on accent of any kind") (1971: 102-3).
To me these views—certainly widespread—seem like grammat­
ical fictions, convenient perhaps for abstract analysis, but
factually wrong in discussion of PRs: undeniably there are
pitch and length differences in E vowels (I do have the dis­
tinction Durand suggests (p. 233) between beater and b i t ­
ter) , and stress in Gk (while obv. subservient to pitch)
must have played some role in physical actualization of ut­
terances (levin himself notes {loo. oit.) that "It is hard
to see how [gen./dat. dual] -Oliv... could ever have aris­
en or been maintained in G[k] unless the -o- had a stress
accent, regardless of pitch."). [112]

101This may be a subjective view: the fact there are

so few numbers may deceptively suggest their analysis ought
to be easy; one has to keep in mind that even a small group
of forms can present difficulties because of its intercon­
nections with the large (potentially infinite?) group of
remaining forms. [114]

102Mind, given in (78) as an example of e-grade

men-, more likely comes from Ø-grade mn-, with syllabifi­
cation, anaptyxis, umlaut, and lengthening before nd (as in
find of the preceding paragraph; cf. III.4.1): mn-d-y >
-d-i>mun-d-i>min-d-i>min-d>mind[OEgemynd~Gth
gamundSj PÁMJAT', lth mintts 'thought, idea1 &c]. There
are simpler examples of umlaut with no lengthening (lust(y)
\> list(less) , full < fill) , as well as more complex exam­
ples: we might e.g. be able to use the same unlaut device
to front in fox for vixen (cf. Intro. 4), and perhaps al­
so to account for geese alongside goose (Intro.2.3). Also
from the above root {mn- 'think'}, incidentally, are de­
rived proper names like Epi-/Pro-metheus 'After-/Fore-
thinker'. [114]

103This verb is peculiar in showing a not followed

by N; cf. n. 105. [117]
 145 nn. 104-106

104 Liv 'prevaricate' is regular (= PAST/PRT in #d).

We might be able to predict this if we could say this lie
is de-N—opposed to the other examples of homophonous N-V
pairs {dig, fling, ring, run, bite &c), in which V is ba­
sic (cf. η. 78). Such a hypothesis cannot be tested until
the work outlined in Intro.3 is well under way: of all the
homophonous N-V pairs, those with strong V are few in num­
ber. [118]

105Like dig, sneak, strike of n. 103, these Vs show

not followed by N {shook [sUk], took [tuk]), but we will
see later this υ < U < 0 (cf. (105) in III.4.2). Histori­
cally, take is an ON loan—in the meaning 'seize, grasp' a
relative newcomer in Ε (Gth tek- 'touch'): OE tacan (PAST
too) replaced niman (G nehmen). [118]

106Cf. l perm" cid sus < pernincies 'death, destruc­

tion' ; - - is by the l rule e > i in open syllable after
prefix. Other examples include sedentary % assinduous, in-
sindious, presidium, residual &c from {sd- 'sit'} [sedère
vs -sidère]; spectator, spectacle, haruspex, specimen,
suspect, inspect (or) °o conspi11 cuous, despicable 'looked de-
down on', perspicacious, suspicion &c from {spk- 'look'}
[specere vs -spicere]; tenuous, tend(on), tension, on ten­
terhooks ~ (dis)contiguous &c from {tn- 'stretch'} [tenere
vs -tinêre; cf. 1979a: n. 4 for an interesting example from
l, Skt, lth; see also below]; equity °o iniquity (see be­
low, s.f.). The e-grade of rg-, mentioned in the last
paragraph, provides examples of this weakening e > i, but I
cannot find any with the vowel under stress: alongside cor­
rect are corringendum, incorrigible &c. I say dbri"gible>
but this word (beside di-rect) is an example for those who
say dirigible [-rig-].
The same weakening to i occurs also with a, producing
pairs like cadence, chance, case, casual ~ coin-ei nd-ent,
re-cid-ivist, deciduous from had- 'fall' [cadd, casus vs
-cid3, -casus]; capital, decapitate ~ occipital, 'pert, to
the back of the head', precipitate 'rush/fall head-first'
[caput, capitis 'head' vs -ciput, -cipitis]; capture, cap­
tive ~ parti-ci"p-ate 'take part' from - 'take' [capere
nn. 106-109 146

vs -cipäre]; fact(ory) ef-fic-acious, profiftc-ient, su­

perficial from fak- 'make, do1 (facile * dif-finc-ult be­
long here as well; cf. η. 240) [faceré vs -ficere]; ha-
bit(ual) ~ ex-hinb-it 'hold ex- out, display', inhibit 'hold
in, restrain', prohibit from hab- 'seize, take, hold' [ha­
bere vs -hibere\\ placate, placid % sup-plie-atory from
plak- 'soothe' [placare vs -plieäre]; salient, sally * re-
sil-ient, transilience from sal- 'jump' [satire vs -silZre];
sap-i-ent, sage, savoir-faire, savvy ~ desipient, insipid
from sap- 'taste' (App.1.4) [sapere vs -sipere]; tacit(urn)
~ reticent from tak- 'silent' [tacêre vs -ticere\\ tactile,
tangent ~ con-tig-uous, contingent from ta(n)g- 'touch' (n.
64) [tangere vs -tingere]. Given the clear S, the relative­
ly well-known status of a > i in prefixed forms, and the
number of roots showing this shift in E, we cannot agree
with Guierre's suggestion that invmical 'unfriendly' is
"sans radical attesté de façon transparante" (506; cf. ami­
cable, amatory, amity, amorous, amiable &c). This radical
weakening e,a > i may have a more general formulation than
given here; cf. nn. 118, 202.
There is another, apparently similar, but less widely
attested weakening in the same position given above: œ > i
(phenomenal [ay], although in some cases the resulting i is
shortened in E to ). For example, caesura [sEzUra] (from
caedere, caesus 'cut' < kaid-) ~ (sui)-cide, V (ex)-cise,
(in)-cision (from -cidere, -CLSUS); lesion (laedere, laesus
'injure, damage', ooo) ~ elide, collision (-lldere, -Usus)
&c. Actually, equity ~ iniquity belongs here, although
this may not be obv. because of subsequent E changes (cf.
aequus 'equal', ooo, vs iniquus 'unequal, unjust'). [119]

107We have two F words from this root: e-grade noy­

ade (cf. noyer 'kill by drowning') and o-grade nuisance
(cf. F nuire 'harm'). [119]

108Here, -ther is the same as in ei-ther, hither, nei­

ther, (an)other, thither, whether &c; cf. n. 253. [120]

109The PIE root is probably spelled V~Z-, cf. Skt

pa-gürya- 'swinging' &c. Synchronically, however, there
seems no reason not to postulate underlying b-. [120]
 Mais le signe, élément primordial du système
linguistique, enferme un signifiant et un signifié
dont la liaison doit être reconnue comme néces­
saire, ces deux composantes étant consubstantiel-
les l'une à l'autre.
Benveniste, 1939.

II. AN ENGlISH OBSTRUENT SHIFT

1. Examples of the Shift.

We have already mentioned, as conceivable alterna­

tions in E, phenomenal instances like d ~ t (dual ~ two),
t 0 (dental ~ tooth), ρ ' f (paternal α, father). These
are real alternations, engendered by an O-shift which ap­
plies to all E mellow stops. Before discussion, we give
some further examples. Of relevance for the lists which
follow (§§1.1-1.13) is only that the words exemplifying
the putative alternations (1) contain the Os in question
and (2) show plausible S similarity. The first example in
§1.1 (i.e. pedal foot), for instance, obviously satisfies
these requirements; that -edal does not correspond phonet­
ically with -oot is (for now) not part of our concern (but
see the caution in my 1979a: n. 10). Except the first, en­
tries are listed alphabetically; an entry usually does not
constitute all words derived from the root in question.
As will be seen from the examples which follow, we
have to stop thinking of UPRs in terms of earlier condi­
tions imposed on Ρ analysis—biuniqueness, and so on. This
follows directly from considerations of DM. For example,
divine and malign form perfect rhymes: both terminate in
[-ayn].

147
II.1 148

For linguistic purposes, we cannot tell much about E

words from orthography (despite claims by Chomsky to the
contrary). Rhyme e.g. is now spelled rhy- because of a mis­
taken confusion with rhythm (ρυθμδς), to which it is not re­
lated except for a somewhat vague similarity in "sound"
(PR). The infrequent spelling rime (ΑHD correctly—based
on usage—lists rhyme as "distinctly preferred" (p. vii) to
rime) is a more accurate representation than rhyme. But AHD
confuses the etymology of rhyme, mistakenly referring its
readers to "l rhythms, rhythm" (605). The word is Gmc in
origin, cf. 0E, OHG rim 'number' (OF rime is a loan), re­
lated to ri in words like Gk arithmetic (a in αριθμός is
prothetic, cf. η. 157 below), logarithm, l rite, ritual,
and so on (note the orthographic inconsistencies: * a r h y t h -
metic, *logarhythm, *rhyte, *rhytuai &c).
I cite another—less certain, but nevertheless in­
structive—example. Possibly related to ox is uxorious
'overly fond of one's wife' [uxor, -oris, ooo]. Definitely
related are humor [ME < OF < l (h)ümor, -oris 'fluid1 <
ugwmor-}, humid. As can be seen, the root is {wgw- 'wet,
sprinkle1} [ύγρδς Tmoistf]. Once again, in humor, we have
a folk-etymological spelling, which incorrectly associated
the word(s) with humus < hom-os 'ground'. But the result
this time is more strategic than with rhyme: now we have
phenomenal [h-] in humor(ous), humid(ify). They used to
think the humors (liquids) in the body determined one's
temperament; thus humor gives another example of S develop­
ment (n. 35): 'liquid affecting temperament' > 'temperament
itself', 'temperament, state of mind' > 'ability to express
what is comical'.
In the pair rough/ruffian, either one member is miss­
ing a g(h) or the other an f(f) : spelling revisionists
ought to have little trouble choosing between "rough(ian)"
and "ruff(ian)"—if the latter is chosen, A rough (i.e.,
"ruff") would be homographic with N ruff 'starched collar
of the 16th and 17th centuries' and with V ruff 'play a
trump card (bridge)', similarities not likely to cause con­
fusion, but very likely to earn the gratitude of school­
children across the nation.
To attain inner understanding of words, we have to
abandon prior constraints based on "sound" and "spelling".
 149 II. 1

Only through study of DM can we reach our desired insights.

Orthography does not establish underlying g in malign any
more than underlying h in rhyme or humor. It is only from
DM that we can find (by reference to DM related malignant
[-ig-]) underlying g in [-ayn] of malign, that we can dis­
cover (by reference to_DM related deity± deify [deus < Ol
deivos 'god1], diva [diva 'goddess' < divus 'divine']) tne

suffixal nature of [-ayn] in div-ine. Thus our study

shows—synchronically, at least—there is no relation (ex­
cept in "sound") between the [-ayn]'s of malign and divine.
To achieve significant inner insight into theoretical lin­
guistics, we must be prepared to discover and to deal with
such (non)relations. Inner g of malign('ant), in fact, is
from the root {gn- ~ e a r , beget'} of n. 79: malign(ant)
means (roughly speaking) 'ill-begotten' (cf. ill-humor(ed) ) .
[-ayn] of malign is therefore totally different (except in
"sound") from [-ayn] of divine, which is merely a suffix
meaning 'like, resembling'.
In the case of malign, orthographic g happens to cor­
respond to a g in UPR. But there is no way to ascertain
that in advance, before a DM examination. Orthographic g
in delight e.g. does not correspond to gh (or to g or to h)
in UPR but to k, which was dropped in F (η. 190): ME de-
liten < OF déliter < l delectare, a freq. of delicere 'en­
tice' < lak- 'snare'. Today in E we have related to delight
words like delectation, delicate (ssen)_, delicious, elicit,
lace (and its doublet lasso, cf. l laqueus 'noose, trap'):
here the 0 in UPR can only be k.
Above we have seen that orthographic g in malign cor­
responds Ρ to g (as in the root {gn- ~eget'}) and that or­
thographic g in delight corresponds Ρ to (as in delikate) .
In foreign, however, g is purely a spelling artifact: it
has no Ρ correspondence. Foreign is (roughly speaking)
from ME foreine < OF forain < l foranus 'living outdoors' <
foras 'outdoors', with [for-] here linguistically the same
as in foreclose 'close out, exclude' (OF forclos ; cf. OF
fors > F hors), forest (from forestis [silva] 'outside
[forest]'), forfeit (from ƒbris-facere 'act outside [the
law]'), forjudge (OF forjugier 'judge outside [the law]'),
and others. We will see later that for- in these words is
also related to words like E door and Gk thyroid (lit.
II.1 150

'door-shaped'), but unrelated to the Gmc prefix for(e)- in

PFX.3. The reason for the peculiar - ~-spelling is that
foreign was mistakenly confused by"folk-etymology"with
reign (whose g, we note, does happen to be etymologically
justifiable: OF reigne < regnum < regere 'direct, lead,
ruleT). With such fluctuations in orthography as we have
noted (it would be easy to cite further probative exam­
ples), it should be clear that spelling can scarcely serve
as a tool for linguistic analysis. Current orthography
may (sometimes) serve as a convenient means to translate
some of our inherently oral utterances to paper, but for
analysis of speech it is nearly worthless: it does not
reach even a preliminary level of observational adequacy,
let alone give insight into the structure of language.
It is true As in -al are sometimes derived from Ns
{increment-al, formal, logical, verbal &c), and it is
true flor- in floral sounds like floor. Nevertheless, A
floral is not from N floor ; in reality, floral has no
grammatical relationship to floor beyond a chance simi­
larity in sound. Again, Vs in -le are sometimes derived
from Ns (hand-le, nuzzle < nose, crumble, muddle < mud
&c), and cud certainly sounds like cud(d)- in cuddle.
Nevertheless, cuddle cannot be derived from cud 'food re­
gurgitated from the stomach to the mouth of ruminants1.
Not to agree with this would be like trying to claim that
opt- in optical is the same as opt- in option, that G ge­
nug 'enough' is derived from l genu 'knee' by addition of
an ADV-suffix -g, that Trk yirmi 'twenty' is from E year
by addition of a decade-suffix -mi, and so on.
As a more complex example, consider the doublet pen­
itence ~ penance [both from l paenitentia]; Ρ analysis of
this pair has to keep in mind that related repentance is
pronounced neither *repenitence nor *repenance. There are
quite a few such doublets in E; above we mentioned (neck)-
lace ~ lasso; other examples include adjacent ~ ease [both
from adjacëns, -entis; n. 75], balsam ~ balm [balsamum],
cadence chance [cadentia], cavalry ~ chivalry [cabal-
lärius], courtesy ~ curtsy (OF cortesie—unrelated to cor­
sair, courier), discreet ' discrete [discrêtus = PRT of
discernere], fidelity ~fealty [fidelitatem], fragile ~
 151 II.1.1

frail [fragilis], fragrant ~ flair [fragräre], guise ~

wise [Gmc wis- 'method, seeing' ], security ~ surety [sê-
curitätem] &c.
Similar deviation from purely phonetic or orthograph­
ic constraints on M and Ρ analysis will be found in all the
examples which follow.
In examining the lists in this chapter, the reader
will sometimes find the words proposed as synchronically re­
lated—derived from the same lexical root—are also histor­
ically related (this is the case, e.g., with pedal [from
pedalis < pes, pedis 'foot'] and foot [OE fot], both de­
scended (but along different paths) from an earlier, PIE
root pd- 'foot'). Our goal here, however, is not etymo­
logical (a few paired forms, in fact are not so related),
but only to show that Ε grammar must include a rule whose
effect is to bring about the O-shift illustrated. For p ~
ƒ, actually, just one or two reliable pairs (say, pipe ~
fife, pyre ~ fire) would suffice to realize this end. Our
reason for presenting more than one or two such pairs is
to show that the O-shift in question is not governed by
some negligible rule of Ε phonology, but by an important
(it will turn out to be crucial) rule central to the Ρ sys­
tem of E. If the reader finds pairs listed (say, pine
(tree) ~ fat) which he feels are not synchronically related
in the manner suggested, he can (for the time being, at
least) cross such pairs off the list; nothing in our de­
monstration would be lost by this erasure: since a major
objective of DM is to minimize fortuitous redundancy in the
lexicon, the three pairs listed earlier for ρ ~ ƒ obv. can­
not be thus erased, and these three pairs (or even one of
them alone) would be adequate for our introductory purposes
here.

1.1 ρ ~ f.
pedal ~ foot110
captain ~ chief (tain) [cap­
ut , capitis ' head']
corpulent ~ midriff (v. §1.3)
klept-omania(c) ~ (shop)-
lifter (§1.3)
lupine 'wolflike' [lupus] ~
(were)wolf [OE wulf],
wolverine [IE *wlp- ~
wlkw-j cf. Skt vrkah;
VOLK y λύκος, lth vilkas]
nepotism [nepos (< nep-dt-s),
II.1.1 152
gen. nepotis] ~ nephew
[OE nefa] (unrelated to
νέφος τcloud' or νεφρός
'kidney')
pabulum 'food' (from pa-
thl-om, §1.9), pantry
'place where bread [pa­
n-is] is kept', repast
[MF < l repastus = PRT
of repäscere 'feed a-
gain'] ~ food [OE foda],
feed [OE fedan, Gth fo-
dyan 'to feed'], fodder
[OE fodor], foster [OE
fostor]
pale, (ap)pall !make/grow
pale', pall-id/-or ~
fallow deer (from {pl-
' white, wan1})
palpable 'capable of being
felt' [palpare 'touch']
~,feel [OE felan]
para-, per(i)-, prae-, pre-,
pro- ~ for, for-, fore
(cf. pre- below)
pater-nal/-nity, patr-
-onymic/-on(age)/-icide,
Jupiter ~ father [pater,
patris, πατήρ,, Skt pita,
OE fœder, G Vater]
paucity [pauous 'few, little',
It, Sp poco] ~, few [OE
fea, pi. feawe]
pecuniary ~ fee [G Vieh 'cat­
tle']; for fellow [OE fe-
olaga], see Benveniste
1969: 57; cf. n. 265
peep 'chirp', pipe ~ fife
pelt 'hide, skin' pellagra
'skin disease', pelli­
cle 'membrane' [l pél-
lis 'skin, hide' < pel-n-
is], Gk erysipelas 'skin
disease', lit. 'red skin'
~ fell 'hide, skin' , film
'thin skin' [OE filmen
'membrane']
pent-agon/-ameter/-ateuch/
-ecost/-ose ~ five
peril(ous) [OF peril < peri-
culum 'experiment, dan­
ger'; cf, per- in PFX.l]
"u fear [OE fœr, G Ge­
fahr]
petal, 1 2 patent 'spread out,
open', patella, patio, ex­
pand 'spread ex- out' ~
fathom [OE fœbm 'both arms
outstretched' < pot-]
pine (tree), pinguid 'fat',
pitch, pituitary ~ fat
(from py- '(have/be)
fat(ty)')
pisc-atory/-atology/-es/-icul-
ture/-ine/-ivorous [piscis]
~ fish(erman) [OE fisc, Gth
fisks]
plain 'level, treeless land
area' [planum], plane 'flat,
level surface', plane 'tool
for levelling wood', plane
'to make level (as) with a
plane', plain 'free from ob­
struction, clear' [planus],
explain, explanatory, plain
song, esplanade, (air)plane,
plaza, piazza, platypus
'flatfoot' ~ field (fEld <
fel-d; cf. OE feld), flat,
floor [OE flor], flake 'flat
thin piece' (from pl(-a-)
'level, broad')
 153 II.1.2

plen-ary/-ty/-um, pleonastic, plethora, poly-, replenish,

supply, supplement, com-/de-/re-plete, implement ~
full(ness), fulsome, fill(ing), fulfill [OE full, fyl-
lan, Gth fulls, fully an] (from {pi- 'full'})
(im)plicate, ex-plicit, imply [plieäre 'fold, bend', relat­
ed to pleetere 'plait, twist'] ~ (un)fold, folded (in)
[OE fealdan, Gth falpan < Gmc o-grade fal-th- < {pl-
'fold'}]
plinth,, splint (er), split ~ flint (lock)
plume [pluma < plws-m-a] ~ fleece (from plews-; cf. ew > E
on p. 116)
pluvial (from pluvial; cf. pluviälis) ~ flood, flow [OE
fldd, flowan]
porcate(d) ~ furrow, furlong 'length of a furrow'
pork, porcupine lit. ' spiny pig' [POROSJA] ~ farrow 'litter
of pigs' [OE fearh 'piglet', G Ferkel]
port-able/-age, im-/ex-/trans-port ~ ferry, ford
pre-, prior, pro(to)- ~ (be)fore
pruinose 'covered with white powdei7 (bot.) [l pruindsus
'frosty1] ~ frost, freeze, froze(n)
(helico)pter ~ feather (cf. (72))
pus(tule), putrid ~ foul, defile, filth(y) [OE ful9 fyld]
(from {pw- 'rot'})
pyre, pyro-(maniac) [πυρ, πυρός 'fire'] ~ fire(trap) [OE
fyr, G Feuer]
spume ~ foam [OE f am, G Feim, PENA]
Yom Kippur ~ cafard, Kaffir (non-IE; cf. §2.2)

1.2 t ~ θ .113
British, Brittany ~ Bry-
thonic
dental [dëns, dentis] ~ lent(less) [l lentus
tooth [OE top, Gth
tunpus]
detonate, stun, astonish,
astound ~ thunder(ous)
[OE punor]
eutexia 'melting at a low
temperature', tabid
(med.) ~ thaw 'melt'
lento 'slowly' (mus.), re­
'pliant; slow'] ~ lithe
'supple, pliant, limber'
[OE iZde 'soft, gentle,
flexible']
(im)mortal, mort-ify/-uary ~
murderous (cf. ME mor-
dre, morthre, OE mordor)
II.1.2 154

Due to a typing error, eqq. (60)-(64) were omitted from the

bottom of page 104; they are given here, with apologies to
the reader:

(60)
(61)
(62) PAST/PRT
(63)
(64)

§1.2 contd:
nostril ~ thrill 'pierce' (III.5.1)
petal ~ fathom112
(helico)pter ~ feather (n. 80)
tabernacle ~ -thorp (in place names)
tauto- 'the same' [from το αυτό] ~ the [cf. - t, T- , -0 & ]
tecno- 'child1 [τέκνο- < τεκνον 'child1], teknonymy ~ thane
(in)tegument 'outer covering' [cf. OSTEGNUT'], protect, toga
[teg ere têctus 'cover'] ~ thatch (from Qak- < tog-; cf.
G decken 'cover', Dach 'roof')
tenuous, extenuate lit. 'to thin ex- out' [tenuis, TONOK]
thin [OE pynne, G dünn < tn-]
(pa-/ma-/fra-) ternal ~ fa-Ano-Zbro-ther1x4
ternary, trio ' three, thirty (n. 195)
(al)ternate ~ other (n. 108)
terra (in) , (dis)inter ~ thirst(y)1 15
tolerate ~ thole 'endure, suffer' (archaic; from {tl- 'carry'}
of n. 91)
trauma(tic) ~ thrash, threshold
(in)truder, protrusive(ness) [trüdd] ~ threat(en), thrust (v.
ob-trude in PFX.l)
tumid 'swollen', tumor [tumêre 'swell'], protuberance, tu-
ber(-cle/-culosis) ~ thigh, thumb [OE püma] , thimble
 155 II.1.3

(from puma + an instrument-suffix also in girdle 3 han­

dle ; ladle¿ shovel_, shuttle, spindle, tool, treadle &c
— in thumb is a spelling artifice)
Turdus, turdoid ~ thrush
veterinarian ~ wether Tcastrated male sheep'

1.3 ~ h.
acoustic ~ hear
cabinet, cage, cave(rn). cavity, excavate ~ hole, hold (of
ship), hollow(ed) 1 7
camisole, chemise (for F > s, cf. third paragraph of n. 35
and App. 1.15) ~ heaven(-ish/-ly) [OE heofon, ON himinn,
Gth himins, G Himmel] (all these words from smth. like
kern-/kam- 'cover')
canescent 'growing gray' [L aänus 'gray' < kas-n-os] ~ hare,
harrier 'small dog used to hunt hares' [OE hara, G Ease
'the gray animal'; for s ' r, App.1.1]
canine, kennel, cynocephalic ( - > s-) ~ (grey)hound [cf. ON
grey 'dog'—unrelated to color-term gray], hellhound,
dachshund (for those interested in astronomy: Procyon
[prOsEàn], a star in the constellation Cants Minor which
rises before the Dog-Star, is lit. 'pro- before the dog'
[κοων, κυνος 'dog']; oynos- in cynosure [si-], lit.
'dog's tail', has the same source)
cantor 'singer', chanticleer 'sing clear' °o hen 'the "singing"
bird' [G Hahn; for a in these words, v. Meillet 1950:34]
canvas(s) [κάνναβις] ~ hemp (cf. Lehmann 1977)
(de)capitate [caput, -itis] ' head [OE hëafod, G Haupt]
capon 'castrated rooster', apocope, syncope ~ hash 'chopped
meat and potatoes', hatchet [OF hache(tte) is a Gmc loan]
capture ~ have 118
carbon ~ hearth119
cardiac, cordate 'heart-shaped', cordial, ac-/con-/dis-cord ~
heart (v. §1.5)
caress,120 charity, cherish ~ whore [OE hore]
carnage, excerpt (s- < k-) ~ harvest, harrow
century, centigrade (s- < k-), hecatomb 'sacrifice of a hundred
oxen' ^ hundred(th)
II.1.3 156

cervine 'pert, to deer' [L cervus 'deer'] ~ hart Tadult,

male deer' (lit. 'the horned animal', from {kr- 'up­
permost part of the body, head, horn'} (n. 85); cf.
G Hirsch 'deer, stag, hart')
(ex)claim, clamor ~ to low (hi- > Z-; cf. OE hldwan; §5.1)
clandestine, calyptra 'a covering' (bot.), apocalypse 're­
velation, disclosure' (ago- '(away) from'),color, con­
ceal, occult 'hidden' (oc- < ob-) ~ helmet, holster,
hull, hall, Valhalla (ON valholl 'hall of valr the
slain')122
(in-/re-)cline a, heel 'list (of ships)', lean (hi- > 1-;
cf. 0E hlinian; §5.1)
cole(slaw), cauliflower, kohlrabi ~ hole, hollow
column, colonnade 'series of columns', culminate, ex­
cellent) ~ hill(ock)
coma(tose),l2h cemetary, civic(s), civil(ize), city [Sp ciu­
dad, F cite < civitätem], citizen(ry) ~, home [OE ham],
ham-l-et, Bohemia 'home of the Boii', haunt [F/OF han­
ter, a Gmc loan]
cone [κώνος] ~ hone [OE hän] (from ko-(y)- < ke-(y)-
'sharp(en)')
corbie, cormorant 'large -mor- sea bird', corvine 'pert,
to ravens, crows' ~ raven [OE hrœfn, G Rabe], rook
[OE hrdc]i25 (cf. §5.1)
(uni)corn, corn(ea), rhinoceros (rhino- 'nose') ~ horn(y)
(n. 85)
corp(ulent) ~ (mid)riff (hr- > r-: there are no Ε words in
[hr-]; cf. OE -hrif; §5.1)
cox(algia) '(pain in) the hip', cuisses 'armor for thighs',
cushion, quixotic ~ hock 'joint in hind leg of horses',
heel [OE hela < *hohila = dim. of höh 'heel'] 126
-cracy 'rule', med. acratia 'without (a-) strength', (demo)-
crat 'advocate of rule (by the dem- people)' ~ hard
[OE heard, G hart]
cribriform 'sievelike' ~ riddle 'sieve' [OE hriddel\ G rein
orig. meant 'sifted' (crible), cf. Meillet 1950: 129];
if the root meaning is 'sieve, sift', riddle 'pierce
with holes, perforate' means 'make like a sieve'; re­
lated are L words like dis-erEt/-cern, secret(e)3 ex­
crete j (un) con-cem(ed) ; and Gk words like crit-erion/
-ic(al)/~ique¿ diacritic(al)¿ hypocrite—S development
 157 II.1.4

in these words is (roughly) along the path 'sieve, se­

parate by siftingT > 'separate (as if) by sifting1 >
'separate' > 'distinguish' > 'decide' > 'understand'
[cerneré3 cretus has all these meanings]; riddle 'enig­
ma' [OE rœdels], related to read [OE rœdan], does not
belong here
crude 'unrefined', cruel a, raw [OE hreaw] (cf. §5.1)
cup,128 coop, cupola 'small dome' ~ hive [OE hyf, ON hufr
'hull of a ship'], hip
(in)cus 'anvil' (anat. ) [incus, -cudis < oudd < *caudo
'strike, beat'; KOVAT', Lth kâuti 'forge, strike, beat']
~ hew [OHG houwan, G hauen 'strike, hew']
cutis, cuticle ~ hide 'skin' (from kew-t-, cf. OE hyd)
cymbal ~, hump (from kumb- ~end/curve in/out')
equine, equestrian ~ hippo(drome) (both from ekw-; cf. equus3
ίππος; horse is not cognate; see n. 173)
klept(omania) ~ (shop)lift (hi- > 1-; cf. Gth hliftus 'thief';
§5.1)

1.4 ~, .129
Bhaga 'Indie god of wealth' ~, pagoda 'Indian or Chinese
temple'130
boudoir [F, lit. 'place for sulking'] ~ pout(ingly)
bursa 'saclike cavity' (med.), bursar, bursitis, disburse,
(re)imburse ^ purse(r) 30
cymbal ~ hump (from kumb- ~end/curve in/out')
labial, labio (plasty) ~ lip
lambent 'flickering, light, effortless' (orig. 'licking') ' ~
lap (up) (from lab- 'lick'; form, n. 64)
rhapsody131 (from wr-b-s, with -ody as in ode, oom-edy, tra­
gedy &c) °o reverberate 'resound, (cause to) re-echo' ^
warp(ed) 'twist(ed)' [OE weorpan 'throw', G werfen]
sebaceous Or saponify
tabernacle ^ -thorp (in place-names)
vibrate, vibrant, vibrate ~ whip, wipe 132
II.1.5 158

1.5 d ~ t.
ad- 'to(ward)' ~ at
adamant (NEG α-), indomitable ~ tame [OE tarn]
baldric ~ belt [L balteus]
bifid 'split into two parts'~,bite (v. tri fid in §1.8)
boudoir ~j pout
cardiac ~ heart
dental ~ tooth
decimal [decern, δέκα, Skt dasa9 Lth desimt] ~ ten, teen [Gmc
tehun, OHG zehan]
(contra)dict, dedicate, dictate, diction(ary), dictum, edict
Idïcere, diotus Tshow, say1] ~ teach [OE tœcan <
taik-y-an], token [OE täcn 'sign, token']
dome, domicile, despot (from dems-pot- 'master of the
house1), major-domo, demesne, domain, domestic(ate),
dominate [dominäri 'rule, reign1], domineer, dominion
(also Gk adamant above) ~ timber (from dem-r-; cf. G
Zimmer 'room')
dual ~ two (from {dw- 'two'})
(ab)duct (PFX.l), aqua-/via-duct [duoere, ductus 'lead,
draw'], duke [OF due < dux, ducis 'leader'] ' tug, tow
[OE togian], taut [ME toght = PRT of togen 'pull, draw']
found 'melt; cast' ~ ingot (from kPwd- 'pour'; §1.10)
hedonism ~ sweet
(appre)hendî33 predator(y) l 3i+ ~ get (§1.10)
hidrosis (from sweid-)83 ~ sudation (from swoid-) a, sweat
(from swoid-; cf. G Schweiss)
hydro- ' otter [VYDRA] , wet, water135
modify ' meet 'suitable'
mordant ~iting' ' smart 'pain'
pedal, impede ' fetter, fetlock
quid pro quo 'something for something, an equal exchange' a»
what [OE hwœt] (§1.11)
radical % root [OE rot]
sed-entary/-ative/-iment,l36 pre-/re-side, pre-/re-sident,
residue, residual (for e > i , n. 106) % sit, seat,
set(tie(ment)), soot, nest
(in)trude ~ threat (en)
 159 II.1.6

1.6 g ~ .
agr-arian/-iculture [ager, gen. 'field'] ~ acre [OE
œcer, Gth akrs 'field'], perhaps acorn
angle [UGOL] ~ ankle
augment a» eke (from awg- 'grow, increaseT)
ego(tism) (intrusive -t-, cf. egoism) ~ I (derived somewhat
as suggested for F -fy < -fik in n. 190; cf. ME i , ich,
OE ic, ON ek, Gth ik, G ich, ego, εγώ)
erg, 137 energy, metallurgy ~ work, bulwark
fragile, fragment, fracture ~ break (from ρ reg-)
frugal ~ brook 'put up with1 (from pxrwg-; v. §1.8 under
fruit)
gelid138 (suffixal -id 'state, condition', as in acr-/fet~/
frig-/hum-(ity)/lue-/Zur-/morb-/plac-/rig-/sol-/sord-/
splend-/squal-id &c) ~ cold (suffixal -d, cf. cool,
chill; n. 156)
genesis, gene(alogy), genus, (de)generate, congener, pro­
geny, miscegenation, primogeniture, homogenize, in­
digenous ~orn in- in -di- to [the group/tribe/area]'
{-di- here from de 'to', source also of OCS do '(up)
to', Ε to, G zu 'to; closed', Ε -too in tattoo rhyth­
mic tapping, drumbeat signaling the too closing of the
taps at bars/taverns', -du- in industry (III.5.4) &c;
indigenous 'native' is quite different from indigent,
a pres. PRT in -ens, -entis 'wanting, lacking, needy'),
cognate ^ (a)kin, kindred
Glagolitic [GLAGÔL < redup. gol-gol-; cf. GOLOS 'voice' <
gol-s-] ~ call
(hiero)glyph a» cleave [G klieben], clove (of garlic, i.e.,
a separable [split off] section of a bulb)
(a)gnostic (NEG a-), cogn-ition/-izant, (dia-/pro-)gnosis
[(πρδ)γνωσις '(fore)knowledge'], ignore (cf. n. 6), in­
cognito, narrate 'relate', lit. 'make known to' [L nar­
rare < gn-är-], narrative, (ig)noble '(un)known, (in)-
famous', notice [ndtus = PRT of noscere 'get to know' <
OL gnoscere], notify 'make known', notion [notioinis)
'idea, concept' < ndtus], notorious lit. 'widely
known', prognosticate [from L < Gk], recogniz(able),
reconnaissance, reconnoiter [from F < OF reconoistre <
recognöscere 'get to know again'] ~ know(n) [OE cnäwan],
II.1.6 160

( )knowledge, keen [OE cene 'wise, brave1 < kdn-y- by

umlaut], ken 'know', can [OE ounnan 'know how to'],
could [OE ], (un)canny, con 'study' (not con 'swin­
dle', short for confidence), (un)couth (all from {gn-
'know'}; here, as in other examples, anlaut g-/k- drops
before ft, as in gnostic [nástik], know [nO] &c; as men­
tioned earlier, ignore < in-gn-9 where in- is the L
form of NEG ft-, corresponding to Gk a(n)- and Gmc un-)
-gon 'angle' (pentagon &c), genuflect ~ knee(l) [G Knie]
grackle ~ crow (n. 124 s.f.)
grain, granule ^ corn, kernel [ZERNO; perhaps cf. R zrr
'seed']
-gram 'something drawn/written', (-)graph, (calli)-graphy,xk'
graffito ~ carve
hegemony,89 sagacious, presage ~ seek, O-grade (for)sakeli+2
(con)jug-al ~ yoke 'harness for two draft animals'
juggle(r) [ME jogelen < OF ¿ogler < ¿oculari 'jest'] ~ jo­
cund [jucundus 'agreeable'], jocular, jocose, joke
lang-uid/-uish/-uor ~ (s)lack, lax(ative), relax(ation)
(from lag- '(be) loose')
magma (v., e.g., Science 212: 4494, May 1, 1981, p. 528) ~,
make (both from mag- 'knead')
(e)mulgent 'milking out' ~ milk 144
phago-(cyte) ~ baksheesh
phalanges [φάλαγξ, -γγος 'wooden beam, battle array'] ' balk
'hinder(ance)' [OE ~eam, ridge in plowing; put a
beam in the way'], bulk(head), balcony [It < Gmc],
(from pXl-g- ~eam, log', cf. §1.8)
phlog-iston 5 ~ flagrant, f lame (from flag-m-) ~ black
range 'place in rank, arrange in order' ~ rank 'row, line'
(in)stigate146 'urge/goad/Mprickn on' ~ stick(leback) [fish
named for stickles/Mpricksn on its back]
sugent 'sucking' [sugere 'suck'] ~ suck [OE sucan], (honey)-
suckle
(in)tegument 'covering' [tegd 'cover', toga] ~ thatch (from
Qak- < tog-) [OE pœc 'roof', G decken, Dach]
vigil(ant(e)), surveillance ~ (a)wake(n), watch [OE w.œcce
'watch']
 161 II.1.7

1.7 Discussion.
From the preceding lists it should be clear we are
not dealing with a few scattered instances of 0 change,
what Hoenigswald might call "merely the last remnant of
extreme sound change" (1960: 49), but rather that the cited
alternations constitute a reality of Ε phonology. It is
true some of the words offered are not everyday fare
(threpsology ~ draff, eutexia ~ thaw, e.g.), but this has
to be contrasted with words like pedal ~ foot, paternal ~
father, dentist ~ tooth, trio ~ three, cardiac ~ heart,
corn ~ horn, deuce ~ two, fragment ~ break &c, which are.
To now, section headings have been given in PRs (i.e.
ρ ~ f for pedal ~ foot &c), but henceforth they will be in
UPRs. Without proper motivation yet (for this see §2), and
with introduction of a few new symbols, I present here UPRs
of the 12 stops we will ultimately arrive at, together with
the possible PRs for each (by "possible" I mean at a fairly
abstract position; I am obv. not concerned here with Ρ con­
ditioned surface phenomena like b ~ ρ in scribe ~ script,
h ~ 0 in vehicular ~ vehicle, t ~ s in pirate ~ piracy, s ~
h in semi- ~ hemi-, Κ s in Greek ~ Greece, k ~ c In speak
~ speech, K~ S in delicacy ~ delicious, g ~ y in swagger ~
sway, ogle ~ eye, s ~ ζ in profuse ~ profusion &c) :

UPR > PR in § UPR > PR in §

X f or b 1.8
Ρ Ρ or f 1.1
Ρ
t t or θ 1.2 tx θ or f/b or à 1.9
x
k k or h 1.3 k k or h or g 1.10
w w
b b or Ρ 1.4 k p/t or k /k or w 1.11
W w
d d or t 1.5 g b/d or g/v or k 1.12
g g or k 1.6 KXW ph/th or f/v or g /w W
1.13
II.1.8 162

1.8 p x > f or b.
barbate 'bearded' [barba < forensic 'pertaining
*farba by assim.], bar­ to the forum, to public
ber ~ beard(less) (from speaking' ~ bar(-rier/
pxr-tx-) -rage/-rister), disbar,
cephalic ~ gable(d) (from embar-go/-rass(ment)
kx epx-; cf. §1.10) fossil [fodere, fossus 'dig,
farina 'fine meal, as of dug'] ~ bed (presumably
cereal grain' [far(ris) 'dug into the ground'—
' coarse grain, meal'] ~ cf. flower bed, bedrock
barley 'cereal grain1 [G Beet, Bett]; from
[OCS brasino 'food' and {pxtx- 'dig'}; Lth bes-
(with polnoglasie) BO- ti/bedu 'dig', Latv bed-
ROSNO 'rye flour'] re pit'; Meillet 1950
fer-ment/-vent/-vor, fry, gives a ref. for this
fritter, fricasse ~ tentative etym. to R.
barm 'yeast' [ME ber- Merringer, IF, XIX, 488)
me], brew, broil, burn, frag-ile/-ment, fracture ~
broth, brand(y) (from break(fast), breach150
{pxr- 'burn, boil, fraternal ~ brother(hood)
seethe'}) fruit, fructify, frugal ~
ferro- ~ brass, brazen [non- brook 'put upwith'[OE
IE] bruoan 'enjoy'; cf. L
fertile ~ birth 147 (v. para­ fruor 'enjoy' < fruwor <
phernalia below) frûgioor < frûgor—the
(tri)fid'split into three PRT of fruor is fruc-
parts', fission, fis­ tus], from pxrwg-
sure ~ bite 148 fundament (fund- < fud-n-),
flame (from flag-m-) , flam­ profound ~ bottom [OE
beau (from flambl- < botm]
flam-m-l- < flag-m-l-), nepho(logy) 'cloud' ~ nebula
flambé, flamboyant, 'mass of interstellar
flagrant, conflagration, dust or gas' 151
(ef)fulgent, fulgurant, nymph(olepsy) ~ nubile, con­
fulminate (from fulg- nubial, nuptial(s) [νύμφη
-men-) ~ phlogiston ~ 'bride, maiden', nubere,
black145 nuptus 'marry']
flatulent, inflate ~ blow phago-(cyte) ~ baksheesh
[OE blawan] [BOG(AT) ]
forum149 'a public place', phalanx, phalanges ~ balk
 163 II.1.8

'hinder(anee)τ, bole neighbor 'near-farmer'

'tree trunk', bulk(head), (from px ew- 'be, dwell')
debauch [OF, but the pistology 'study of faith'
root is a Gmc loan], (πiστlς < πiθτlς) ~
balcony [It < Gm], (from (in)fidelity, faith, con­
pXl-g- 'beam, log', cf. fide, perfidy ~ abide
§1.6) 'tolerate, bear' (from
phallic152 ~ ball(oon), bel­ pxitx- 'trust'; initial
ly, bull, 153 bulge, p- (for *ph-) in pisto­
bulk, bloat logy by Grassmann's law)
pharynx ~ foramen 'opening, pithos ~ fisc(al), confisc-
perforation' (anat.), -able/-ate/-ation/-ator(y)
perforate ~ bore 'drill ~ besom(er) (from pxeitx-
a hole in/through'154 'bind, twist'; initial p-
(para)phernalia,147 periph­ in Gk pithos by Grassmann'
eral, amphora, metaphor, law)
semaphore (cf. semantics),
phosphorous 'carrying φws
light' ~ trans-fer, ef­
ferent, eircum-ference,
ferret, fertile [ferre
'carry, produce1], fur­
tive [für], fortune, for­
tuitous ~ e-grade bear,
berth, bier [OE bœr,
her < Gmc her-], o-grade
barrow, 0-grade burden,
birth, bring
(am)phi- ~ ambi- °υ both
(meta)physics, physio- 'na­
ture1, (neo)phyte, phyto-
'plant' ~ fiat, future ~
be, Boer (Du 'farmer'),
bond- 'serf' (as in bond­
age~ bondsman), boor,
booth, bower, bound (ME
b(o)un 'ready, prepared'),
build (OE byldan < bold
'a dwelling'), bustle, by­
law [ME bilawe 'village
law',cf. ON byr 'village'],
II.1.9 164

1.9 t x > θ or f/b or d.

barber ~ beard (v. barbate in §1.8)
cribriform ~ riddle (§1.3)
(sur)feit ~ (over)do
(trans)figure(d) ~ dough (from txikx- 'knead'; slang dough
'money' is also from this source; cf. faint after (23)
in I.3.1 for more examples)
funeral ~ dead [OE dead < daud- < tXow-; G tdt],156 dwin­
dle (from tXW-), die
(ob)fuscate Marken, obscure' ~ dusk (from t ws-k-)
infra- 'below', inferior ~ under (from n-i~r-; cf. inter-
dor) , intra-)
pabulum (from pa-tx-l-; cf.§1.1) ~ food
pistology ~ perfidy (§1.8)
(e)ryth-ro-157 'red' ~ rubicund 'reddish', rubify 'redden1,
ruby, rufous ~ red (from row-tx-; cf. 0E read, Gth
raups, G rot), ruddy 'reddish', rust (App.1.9 s.f.)
thalamus Zit. 'inner chamber', oph-thalm-o-(logy) ~ dale
'valley', dell 'small valley'158
(a)the-ism ~ feast159
(endo-/epi-/meso-)thelium ~ fecund 'fertile' (-cund as in
jocund(ity), rubicund, verecund &c), female, feminine
{-min- as in alumnus < al-o-men-os (n. 118 s.f.), cle­
ment, ecumenical,-phenomenon,prolegomenon &c), ef fe-
-min-ate {ex-), filial (assimilated from fe-l-i-al),
fetus &c ~ dug 'udder, breast'155
theme (θέμα, θέματος 'what is placed, proposition' < τl-
θεναι 'put, place'), epithet 'something put epi- on,
an addition', (epen-/hypo- (v. PFX.2)/paren- 'in para-
beside'/syn- 'together')-thetic 'put', thesis (all from
{txX- 'do, make, put, place'}; cf. also nn. 74 s.f.,
240) ~ fac-t(ual)/-tor(y)/-ility/-simile 'make simi-
lar'/-e(t), façade, surface {sur- < super- 'over, a-
bove', cf. superficial), deface, efface 'wipe ex- out,
remove the face', feat(ure), fashion (OF facon < facti­
onem, cf. E faction), feasible 'capable of being done'
[OF faisible < faire < facere], magnificent, somni­
facient 'sleep-producing', affair, artifact 'made by
art', benefactor 'one who does good', difficult 'dis-
not -facit- easy', efficacious 'effect-ive/-ual', manu-
 165 II.1.9

facture [abl. manu 'by hand'], satisfaction, affect 'do

something ad- to', con-/de-/ef-/in-/per-/pre-fect ~
(a)do, deed, deem, doom, (bore-/king-)dom, doff (= do +
off), don (= do + on); radical tx appears as d also in
some L forms, such as ab-domen, abs-con-d, con-diment,
per-dition (unrelated to words like con-dition < con-
dicio(nis) 'agreement, stipulation' <condicere' talk
over together' < dicere 'say, tell' or edition < edere
'give out, publish' < dare 'give')
therapy~ (in)firm(ary)160
thigmotropism 161 ~ dough (from tXoy-kX-; cf. 0E dag, Gth
daigs)
thrasonical, thersitical ~ dare 162
threnetic ~ drone
threpsology ~ draff, drivel
(a)thymy163 'despondency, lack of spirit' (NEG α-), barythy-
mia 'melancholy' (bary- 'grave'), lipothymia 'swoon'
(lipo- 'lacking'), parathymia 'abnormal emotional reply'
(para- 'wrong'), athanasy (NEG a-), euthanasia (eu-
'good'), thanato- 'death', thio- 'containing sulfur',
typhio-164 'blind', typho- 'vapor', typhus ~ feral 'fu­
nereal' (from txW-es-; note S distinction from txs- in
n. 159 and App.1.1), Furies, fury, furor, fumigate (from
txew-m-), (per)fume [fumus, θυμός, OCS dymu, Lth dûmai],
sfumato, obfuscate ~ deaf (from txow-px~; OE dèaf, G
taub), dumb (from txW-m-px-), dull, dolt, dizzy (from
i~W-s-; OE dysig), dusk (from txw-s-k-), dust (from dust
< duns- < t~w-n-s-; OE dust)
thyroid 'like a door/shield' ~ foreclose 'close out, ex­
clude' [cf. foris 'outside'], forfeit [OF forfait < ML
forisfao- 'act outside (the law)'], foreign [ME foreine
< OF forain < forânus 'residing outdoors'] ~ door (from
txw-r-; OE dor, duru)
uberous, exuberant [uber 'fruitful'] ~ udder [OE üder; VYMJA
< ud -men-]
verb(-al/-iage/-ose) ~ word166(b~ d here the same as in
barber ~ beard, pabulum ~ food, ruby ~ red &c)
II.1.11 166
1.10 k x > k or h or g.
brachy- 'short1 (from brakx- < brkx-) , amphibrach ~ brev­
ity, abbreviate (from bre-v- < bre-w- < breh-w- <
brekx-w-)
cephalic ~ gable (se- < ke- < kxepx- by Grassmann's law)
chaos [χάος 'gulf, chasm, abyss' < χαfος], chasm, chela
'claw', med. Chemosis~ hiatus [L hiare, hiatus 'yawn']
~ gum 'tissue teeth are set in', yawn [OE geonian]168
(all from kxy-/kxw- 'gape')
charisma167 ~ exhort(ation), hortatory~ yearn [OE geornan,
G gern]168
(iso)cheime '(same) winter temperature' [χεiμα 'winter',
χιών 'snow'] ~ hibernate 'pass the winter' [hibernus,
hiems 'winter'], hiemal 'wintry', Himalayas [Skt 'home
of himah snow'] (from kxy- 'winter'; cf. ZIMA, Lth
ziemà 'winter')
chlor-ate/-ine/-o-, choler(-a/-ic), melancholy lit. 'black
bile' ~ L helvite 'kind of yellow mineral'~ gall 'bile,
impudence', gild(ed), glare, glass(y), glaze, gleam,
glimmer, glisten, glitter, gloss(y), glow, gold(en),
yellow [OE geolu, G gelb], yolk 168 (from {kxl- 'shine' >
'(be) green/yellow'}; cf. ZELËNYJ)
cord 'string', chord 'string of a musical instrument'
[cf. χορδή 'intestine, string of gut'], clavichord~
hernia, haruspex 'Roman soothsayer' (lit. 'inspector
of entrails'; cf. spectacle( ~ )) ~ yarn [ME yarn < OE
gearn]168
(pre)figur(ative) ~ dough (from txoikx- of n. 161; the L cog­
nate here is figura 'shape, form, figure')
found 'melt; cast' ~ ingot (from kxw-d- 'pour'; for ƒ < kx
before u, n. 186)
(appre)hend, prehensile, predator(y)kxw~get(ter), got(ten),
beget, forget(ful), get-up
horti(culture) [hortus 'garden']~ garden, yard [OE geard]168
host ~ guest (II.5.3)
vehicle,170 vehement,171 vector,172 convection172 ~ wag(gle),
wiggle, wagon, polliwog, weigh(t) (for way, §5.4)

1.11 k w l 7 3 > ρ (t before e) or k w or wh.

epic, epos, orthoepy lit. 'correct speech' [έπος 'word, song'
< wep-os < wekw-os; cf. p-grade oψ, οπός 'voice'] ~ voc-
-able/-abulary/-al(ist)/-ation/-ative/-iferate/-iferous,
 167 II.1.11

ad-/equi-vocate, con-/e-/in-/pro-/re-voke, irrevocable,

provocation [vox, voois 'voice']
hepatitis [ήπαρ, ήπατος 'liver'] ~ jecoral 'pert, to the li­
ver' [L jecur, jecoris]17k
(ec)lipse,175 el-lipse ~ derelict, delinquent, relinquish-
(ment)
(syn)optic,176 biopsy, myopia, ophthalmology (p assimilates
to' th) ~ (bin)ocular, monocle ~ ogle, daisy168 [OE dceges
eage], eye(let) [δψ, οπός 'eye', οπτβς 'seen, visible',
oculus 'eye', GAuge,ÓKO,ΟΚΝΟ;perhapscf.Η'ayin
'eye']
penta(-gon/-meter)111 [πέντε] ~ quinque(valent)177 ~ five,178
fifty
pole 'extremity of an axis of a sphere',179 paleo- 'ancient,
primitive, prehistoric', pulley, tele- 'distant' ~ col­
lar, accolade ~ wheel [OEhwêol](allfrom{kwl-'turn
(round)'})
qua 'as' [qua = abl. of qui 'who'], qual-ify/-ity [qualis 'of
what kind'], quant-ify/-ity/-um [quantus 'how great' <
quam-t-os], quasi [quasi 'as if' < quam-sei], quiddity
'essence' [quid 'what'], quid pro quo, quorum [quorum =
gen. pl. of qui 'who'], quod 'which', quota [quota pars
< quot 'how much/many'], quotient, aliquot [alius '(an)-
other', cf. cog. else, with the vowel umlauted], ubiq­
uitous [ubique 'everywhere' < ubi 'where' < kwu-dhei,
cf. KUDA, GDE 'where'] ~ how [OE hü], what[OEhwœt],
when(ce) [OE hwœnne; orthographic -ce, representing ADV
gen. - ~ , appears also in hence, (n)once, thence, thrice,
twice &c], where [OE hwœr], whether [OE hwœder; COMP
-ther in n. 108], which [OE hwilc, cf. G welch(er)],
whither, who(m) [OE hwwa(m)], whose [OE hwœs = gen. of
hwa], why [OE hwy = instr. of hwa, hwœt] Tall these
words from rel./interrog. pron stem k e-/k o-)
quiet [quies, -etis 'rest'] ~ while 'period of time' [OE
hoit] (from kwey- 'rest, repose')
tetrad180 (loss of W as in n. 86 ~ .f.) ~ quatrain, quadrangle,
quart (dissimilated from kwt-u-r-t-), quarter ~ four [OE
feower, G vier, Gth fidwdr]
II.1.13 168

1.12 g w > b (d before e) or g/v or kw.

amoeba (α- here is the fifth a- in PFX.4) ~ migrate (from
migw- 'change')
bar(o)- 'atmospheric pressure', bary- 'heavy', baritone
'heavy-/low-tone', isobar ~ grave 'weighty', gravity,
gravid 'pregnant', aggravate (ag- < ad-), aggrieve181
bi-o-logy (from gwi-W-, with loss of w as in n. 86 s.f.;
cf. βiος < *ßifOQ), (an)aerobic '(not) living in air',
amphibious 'living both (on land and in water)', mi­
crobe 'small life form', symbiosis 'living syn- togeth­
er' ~ zoo- (from g~ei-; cf. ζωον 'animal' < ζωη 'life'),
azoic 'without life', azote 'nitrogen [a coined word]',
Cenozoic, zodiac(ζώόΐον=dim.ofζώον)~ vita (from
g~i-ω-it-; cf. vita 'life' < viv-ere 'live'), vit-al-
(ity)/-amin [a coined word], viv-acity/-id/-ify/-ipar-
ous, viable, convivial, revive ~ quick (from Gmc k i-
kωaz; OE cωieu)182 [with the stem gwy-w-, perhaps cf.
Ar heywoh 'living being, animal']
bovine, buffalo, butter, sang-de-boeuf 'a deepred'[bos,
3θΰς,Latvgùovs,Slavgovejdo,Sktgáuh<PIEgwow-~ <
Sumerian gu(d) 'bull, ox, cow'] ~ Gautama ~ cow, kine
gynecology, miso-gyn-y, androgynous 'having both male and
female characteristics' ~ queen(liness)
(ad)venture, circumvent, convene, intervention~ (wel)-
184
come

1.13 k x w > ph (th before e) or f/v or gw/w.

nival 'pert, to snow'185 ~ snow [OE snaw, Gmc snaiw-az]
phoenix [φοίνιξ 'purple', cf. related φοίνδς 'bloodred',
φόνος 'murder'], Tisiphone (one of the Furies, the 'av­
enger of murder'), Phoenicia(n), Bellerophon (a Greek
hero, lit. 'killer of Belleros') ~ fend [aphetic for
defend', similarly, fence < defense &c], defendant, of­
fensive [-fendere, -fensus 'strike']~ gonfalon 'war-
banner'186 [cf. OE gud, ON gunnr 'war, battle']
thermal, thermo(dynamics), diathermy, isotherm~ furnace,
forceps (App.1.16) ~warm(th) 1 8 7
 169 II.2.1

2. Grammatical Relationship of Examples in ξ1.

The first question we have to answer is the one rais­

ed at the beginning of Intro.3: (1) are the paired words in
§§1.1-1.13 lexically related in the synchronic grammar of E?
In trying to answer this question we have to realize
there are only two logically possible alternatives: (2) the
paired words are not grammatically related, or else (3) some
of the paired words are grammatically related, others not.
The last possibility (3) is the most complex, and if that
should turn out to be the case, it would raise the question:
which are related, which not?
Let us put (3) aside for the moment: perhaps we can
find a definite, convincing answer to (1) (and therefore al­
so to (2)), in which case (3) would not arise (and we would
consequently not have to struggle with it).
I claim the answer to (1) is "yes". If this could be
shown correct, the synchronic grammar of NE would have to ac­
count (somehow) for the 0 alternations of §1.
An apparent difficulty with this answer is that there
does not seem to be any--in fact, there is no--Ρ conditioning
environment to govern what are obv. Ρ alternations, the 0 al­
ternations. But such a situation need not unduly distress
us: it was shown earlier that some Ρ alternations are govern­
ed by non-P criteria.188 Perhaps that (or smth. like that) is
the situation facing us here. Let us therefore garner some of
the evidence (§§2.1-2.5) in favor of an affirmative answer
to (1).

2.1 Historical Relationship.

In the first place, virtually all the words paired off in
§§1.1-1.13 are historically cognate. With very few exceptions,
they are all of IE origin, and their Os differ because they have
undergone different historical developments. Words to the right
of the alternation sign are (with few exceptions) Gmc, and their
Os have undergone Grimm's law; words to the left are mostly Gk
or L, and their Os have undergone a Gk or L (or F) development.
Thus we can postulate a single stem kxwrm- 'hot' underly­
ing the triad furnace ~ therm(os), athermancy189 ~ warm(th): the
first member is L (kxw - > ƒ-), the second Gk (kxw~ > θ) , and the
II.2.1 170

third Gmc (Κxw> w) . In this way (cf. n. 28), we can ex­

clude words like live, mortal from the pentad biology
'study of life' [βίος < *βlfος] ` hygiene [υγιής 'healthy,
good living'] ~ revive [vivo 'live'] ~ zoology 'study of
(animal) life' [ζώον 'living being, animal'] ~ quick 'alive'
[OE cwicu]: P, life, mortal, human cannot be from the same
root. The family including bio-, hygiene, vivid, zoo,
quick is derived from a root {gwy- '(a)live'}, often with
overt suffix -w- (as in vivify, vivacious, convivial opposed
to viable, victuals, vitamin) .
Given the frame gwy-W- '(a)live' of the last paragraph,
incidentally, it is surprising to find in a non-IE language-
group words like H(li)h~y-ow-Q'tolive',Arhey-w-oh'liv­
ing being, (wild) animal', and so on, from a Semitic stem
hy-ω- '(a)live'.
Putting aside the Semitic data, about which I can say
no more, the historical observations point to a solution for
the env. problem: we can postulate that morphemes may carry
abstract markers which govern their behavior with respect to
certain rules. Rather than use purely classificatory binary
features like ±A, ±B &c, in this Introduction, we will con­
tinue with the more revealing abbreviatory labels IE, L, Gk,
Gmc, E. Doubtless we will require others (like F),190 and a
formal presentation would require a more sophisticated ap­
proach than given here. 191
In the literature there has been some hesitation regard­
ing descriptive adequacy of synchronic analyses which mirror
historical development. This is in part due to a supposition
that historical development is not available to language-
learners and therefore could not possibly (perhaps better,
could only fortuitously) be reflected in a synchronic analy­
sis which represents a native speaker's tacit knowledge of his
language. Synchronic analysis which recapitulates historical
processes, in other words, has sometimes been interpreted as
an unreal, "clever" manoeuvre to reorganize corpus data.
But the critical views of the last paragraph are not en­
tirely germane to the present, informal treatment, in which
our primary reliance is on the corpus data themselves. It is
true that at times I refer to languages other than Ε and to
diachronic development of E. But it is solely the Ε data of
 171 II.2.1

§§1.1-1.13 on which I am basing the claim that synchronic

description of E contains a reflection of Grimm's law.
The outside data, which some linguists argue may not be
used in synchronic analysis, are offered merely for sup­
portive orientation, to help give us the much-needed in­
sight into forms we seem normally to use without con­
scious thought, to help teach us, for example, how to
deal with a word like merganser 'kind of duck' in the
context of what was said about goose in Intro.2.3.192
Moreover, as already pointed out in I.4, the analy­
sis of E proposed here is not simply a restatement of
historical development. Who, for example, on the basis
f the one pair was ~ were could rationally claim that in
JΕ there is generally (= for virtually every strong verb
in E) a distinctive sg. vs pl. opposition in PAST? And
yet not to do so is to depart from historical development.
Again, bat 'flying mammal' is from ME bakke, but I
see no reason to postulate an underlying velar here. Nor
in apricot < Port albricoque < A ?al-barqüq. Similarly,
in a word like havoc (from OF havot), there is no motiva­
tion for a synchronic underlying dental. See also n. 109
above and our comments below on words like path (n. 218),
sputnik, ayatollah, muzhik (III.4.1), nn. 98, 208, and
the treatment of gn- in words like gnash [ME gnasten, ON
gnastan], gnat [OE gnœt(t)], gnaw [OE gnagan] in II.5.1.
To derive the name of the month April from Aphro­
dite (or Friday from Frigg) requires specialized, non-
grammatical information unavailable to most of us; like­
wise with quiz, bugger, sphincter, fiasco, varnish, in­
fluenza, and other words whose etymology includes language-
irrelevant peculiarities.
As a specific example of this, consider a word like
desultory 'progressing aimlessly, random, unmethodical'.
Our goal is to make explicit whatever grammatically signi­
ficant sound-meaning relationships hold between desultory
and every other E word. For most words, the task is trivi­
al because the relationship is empty: about dog, e.g., there
is not much more one can say than they both begin with [d-],
and one would be hard-pressed to argue successfully this re­
lationship is grammatically significant. It seems to me
II.2.1 172

that significant relationships hold between desultory and

(putting proper names aside) words like the following: sa­
lacious, salacity, salience, salient, sally, saltant 'jump­
ing1, saltarello 'kind of It dance', saltation 'jumping',
saltatorial = saltatory 'pert. to dancing', saltigrade
'with feet for jumping', saltimbanco 'one who jumps on a
bench [to address a crowd]', saltus 'break in continuity',
saute lit. 'jumped', somersault, (the next with ad-) as­
sail (ant) , assault, consilience 'a jump together, concur­
rence', consilient, dissilient 'jumping apart, bursting
open' (bot.), exult(ation), halma 'board-game in which
pieces may be "jumped"' (Gk), insult 'jump on/at', resil­
ience '(ability to) jump back', resilient, result(ant),
subsultory 'jumping up(ward)', transilience 'jump across/
over', transilient, tressilate [from F tressaillir lit.
'give a jump'], and perhaps a few others. I suggest all
the words be derived from a root smth. like sal- 'jump'.
Thus Ρ derivation of the first word, salacious, is quite
direct [cf. salax, salads 'fond of jumping' < salire
'jump']. Somersault and saute undergo special derivations,
historically influenced by F. The prefixed forms show
various Ρ characteristics, only two of which I mention
here: in an open syllable, a > i by n. 106 {resi"lient
e.g.); in a closed syllable, a > u by n. 118 s.f. (de­
sul"torye.g.). The real meaning of desultory is 'jump­
ing from one thing to another'; one can see how well this
correlates with the "dictionary"-definition in the first
sentence of this paragraph. It seems to me that only an
analysis along these lines stands even a chance of reaching
the stated goals--of making explicit all the grammatically
significant sound-meaning relationships among the cited
forms (and virtually no others). Let us assume, at least
for the following paragraph, this is correct.
The analysis we are supporting makes no mention of the
performers--the desultores--whohad to jump from one horse
to another in the Roman circus and whose name underlies our
word desultory. The story of these "desultory jumpers" and
the etymology of the Ε word make fascinating reading. But
the high quality of that reading does not serve as an en­
trance visa to the synchronic grammar of NE. Grammar deals
only with linguistic data and cannot incorporate historical
 173 II.2.1

anecdotes no matter how pleasantly written they may be.

Our remarks on sal- 'jump' ought to give an indication of
the extent to which our proposed analysis of E duplicates
diachronic studies.
Again, our use of prefixes in E is a departure from
the PIE situation, in which there were none (Meillet:
"L'indo-européen ignore la préfixation," Introduction).
Citation of prefixed E words is often necessary to show
the different shapes an underlying, lexical root may as­
sume. One cannot quietly disregard the words in PFX by
virtue of circumstances in PIE.
For another example, it is well-known that several E
nouns (common in legal usage) have their source in OF in­
finitives: attainder [ataindre], demurrer [demorer], dis­
claimer [disclamer], (re)joinder [(re)joindre], misnomer
[mesnommer], ouster [oster], remainder [remaindre], re­
tainer [retenir], tender (as in legal tender) [tendre],
waiver [weyver] &c. Despite the historical source, there
seems no reason for the synchronic derivation of these
nouns to have to pass through an "infinitive" stage: we
can add -r directly to the stems of the verbs in question
{attain-, demur-, disclaim- &c). Thus this analysis also
deviates from historical tradition.
Specific problems, which we do not consider too se­
rious, may arise within (perhaps because of) our interpre­
tation. I mention one here:—
Historically, stark in (1) stark naked is not iden­
tical with stark in (2) stark raving mad 'utterly raving
mad'; (1) is from ME stert naked 'naked to the tail' (cf.
redstart 'kind of bird', lit. 'red-tail', G Sterz), where­
as (2) is from A stark 'utter, extreme' (ME stark 'hard,
strong', G stark). Proper synchronic analysis of stark in
(1) will depend at least partially on its meaning, whether
'completely naked' or 'tail-naked'. (1) may well constitute
an example of real (ongoing?) linguistic change, with the
relatively rare syntactic structure N-A being replaced by
the more usual structure ADV-A.
The presence of an A stark phonetically and semantic-
ally similar to Ν -start in redstart is not entirely acci­
dental: -k is suffixal in stark, -t suffixal in -start; in
II.2.1 174

both stark and -start, the star- (from ster-) is the same,
from a root str- 'stiff', which also underlies words like
starch 'make stiff', starve 'die (= become stiff) from hun­
ger' (G sterben 'die'), stern 'stiff, unyielding, severe'
(G starr 'stiff'), strut 'walk stiffly, stiff walk; stiff
rod/bar/beam', stork (derived from its stiff posture; cf.
crane in n. 35 s.f.), stare at 'look stiffly/fixedly at'
(G starren 'look stiffly at, stiffen'), start 'become stiff
suddenly, spring up' > 'set in(to) motion' > 'begin',
whence startle 'cause to start', with -le the suffix in
jiggle, fondle 'cause to fond' (from an old V fond 'be fond
o f ) , grumble, gamble, rumble, ramble, tremble, crumble,
crumple &c.
Thus from the point of view of DM, change from ME
stert naked to NE stark naked may involve merely change of
suffix; note how unlikely would be supposition of a P rule
t > k applying here. Cause of the suffix-change may have
been (at least partially) motivated by the archaic syntac­
tic structure of stert naked; this N-A structure in turn
may have become unusual because (at least to some extent)
of loss in noun-inflection, where today we have only gen.
-s, otherwise -0, pl. in -s, sg. in -0 (plus a small num­
ber of highly specific, irregular sg./pl. formations like
die/dice, stapesIstepedes 'bone in the middle ear', and so
on). On the other hand, F retains post-nominal modifiers
with not much (if any) more inflection in its Ns than E.
The question is puzzling, and our suggestion may be errone­
ous; luckily it is not needed here: simple As--for whatever
reason--obviously precede their Ns today in NE.
Although we have examined (1) stark naked with some
care, referring to a range of data, it does not seem to
pose a difficult problem for synchronic analysis. If one
sees a woman wearing only knee-high boots, one cannot pro­
perly call her "stark naked"; thus the meaning seems to be
'completely naked'. Stark here is therefore an ADV from A
stark. Synchronically, the only unusual feature seems to
be why one uses ADV stark instead of starkly in (1). This
may be (at least partially) the result of an attempt to
keep phonetically as close as possible to stert naked while
nevertheless changing the stert/start somehow: not too many
 175 II.2.2

realistic possibilities exist here for minimal phonetic

change, but E seems to have found one (perhaps the only
one) in ADV stark. We note in closing these remarks that
NE has all but lost ME stert 'tail': only redstart re­
mains .
Thus the grammar of E being proposed here is not a
copy of E history, although it in some ways resembles
that history (how could it not?). We must be very firm
in this undertaking: it is only by comparing descriptive­
ly adequate grammars of different time periods for the
"same" language that we can inquire into what constitutes
linguistic change; it is only by comparing different de­
scriptively adequate grammars that we can inquire into
what constitutes explanatory adequacy; it is only in this
way that we can inquire into the primary goal of linguis­
tics, understanding the nature of man's mind.

2.2 Possibility of Similarity by Chance.

One way to motivate the reality of 0 alternations in
§§1.1-1.13 is to ask what is the probability a language--
any language--might contain S similar, unrelated words
with such consistent 0 alternations. The answer to that
question must be "very close to zero".
Russian has a pair of S similar words with ρ ~ ƒ,
SKAP 'cupboard' . SKAF 'cupboard'. There may be others,
but this is the only pair I am aware of. True, R has bor­
rowed FUTBOL 'soccer', but the R word for "foot" begins
with n-, not p-, NOGA---obv. unrelated. The situation in
R is clearly different from that in E, where we have not
only numerous S similar pairs with ρ ~ ƒ, but also numer­
ous S similar pairs in which other Os alternate.
Arabic, which essentially has no [p] because Proto-
Semitic ρ shifted to ƒ, might conceivably have one or two
pairs of the kind we are looking for (if e.g. there was a
marginal form which had failed to undergo the shift ρ > ƒ,
or if there was a peculiarly related loan [if Mish.H yom
kippur 'day of atonement' (from kpr- 'cover') e.g. were
borrowed and lay beside A kafara 'he covered/hid', kafir
'infidel'], or if some other bizarre linguistic situation
II.2.3 176

had arisen), but this is unlikely, and even if true, the

resulting state of affairs would be like that in R--not
like what we have outlined above for E.
It seems, therefore, there is essentially no chance
for a language to contain unrelated pairs of the type list­
ed in §§1.1-1.13. Consequently the pairs must be gram­
matically related. It is not as if we were arguing for a
basic rule motivated by the unique pair cough ~ hiccough
or as if we were arguing for lexical relationship between
perforate and pore (or perforate and drill) instead of be­
tween perforate and bore 'make a hole in'. What Meillet
wrote in 1908 for historical argument still nevertheless
holds true for synchronic analysis of a language like E:
"Si certaines langues présentent un passage de ρ à ƒ, ou
de g à γ, ces changements propres à tel ou tel phonème
isolé qui était particulièrement exposé a des altérations
sont essentiellement distincts de la mutation totale qui
caractérise 1'arménien comme le germanique" (1950: 138).

2.3 Consistency in Obstruent Alternations.

There is a distributional peculiarity in the pairs
of §§1.1-1.13 that makes it even less likely they are not
related, that they are simply randomly chosen words placed
on either side of an alternation sign (dog ~ phoneme,
build ~ pig, sentence ~ love &c, or the list of words with
ƒ ~ ν in (12) above). This peculiarity is that when a
pair contains two susceptible Os, both Os undergo the
shift. With pedal ~ foot e.g. we have not only ρ ~ f, but
d ~ t as well. The distribution is as would be expected
if all the pairs of §§1.1-1.13 were grammatically related;
that is to say, we have (p--d ~ f--t) , not *(p--d ~ ρ--t)
or *(p--d ~ ƒ--d) &c. If a pair shows ρ ~ ƒ, then a d/g
in the leftmost word appears as t/k in the rightmost. A
few other examples of this consistency in alternation:
dental ~ tooth, paternal ~ father, fraternal ~ brother,
pipe ~ fife, intrude ~ threat(en), tabernacle ~ thorp,
cardiac ~ heart, fragment ~ break, kleptomania(c) ~ shop-
hlift, corporeal ~ midhriff, (appre)hend ~ get &c.193
The E counterpart of Gk klept-, with three Os , shows
 177 II.2.4

even greater consistency: h- < k- (dropped before l. there

are no NE words in [hl-]), ƒ < ρ (like fire ~ pyre, five ~
pent-, fear ~ perils foot ~ pedal, fish ~ pisc-, father ~
paternal &c) , and t intact after continuant ƒ (just as af­
ter s, nn. 113, 204): *(h)lifB- is not a possible deriva­
tive from klept-.
If the probability is low that a language could con­
tain S similar pairs of unrelated words with single 0 al­
ternations like ρ ~ ƒ, d ~ t, f ~ b &c, then the probabil­
ity a language could also contain S similar pairs of unre­
lated words with consistent, double 0 alternations like
p--d ~ f--t, f--g ~ b--k &c must be minuscule. The pos­
sibility a language could in addition contain an unrelated
pair like klept- 'steal' and lift 'steal' [Gth hlift-]
must be infinitesimal.
We have no option but to say the pairs of words in
§§1.1-1.13 are grammatically related. Not to do so would
be to fail in the task of making explicit relationships be­
tween sound and meaning. There are very few difficult pairs
with ρ ~ ƒ like application, appliqué, com-/du-/ex-/re­
plicate, triplicate, com-/du-/multi-/per-/quadru-/tri-plex,
plexus, plecto- ~ flexi-ible/-or), (de) flection, circum-/
de-/in-/re(tro)-fleet ; in fact, both members of this pair
are L: plectere, plexus and flectere, flexus (Ernout & Meil-
let suggest that "Si ƒ peut représenter ph, comme on l'a
suppose sous fallo, on pourait envisager que la forme flec-
supposerait une forme populaireàcôtédeplecto; un
*phlek- aurait existe à côté de *plek-. Mais il n'y a
aucun témoignage à ce sujet" (p. 240).

2.4 Verner's Law.

A distributional occurrence perhaps even more convinc­
ing than that of §2.3 is the appearance of a few exceptions:
not all related pairs show consistent 0 alternations. Be­
side Gk he-kat-omb 'Sacrifice of one hundred oxen' and L
cent(ury), for example, we expect E *hunQred; the received
form, however, is hundred (Gth hund), with expected h- from
k- (§1.3), but unexpected voiced -d- from -t- (§1.2).
This is not the first time we have pointed to a form
II.2.4 178

with d instead of Θ: the ordinals (aside from 1st and 2nd)

all end in θ--except 3rd, which ends in -d. If (de)capit-
(ate) is related to head(OE heafod)--how could it not be?--
the bothersome feature is not so much loss of an internal
syllable (cf. poverty ~ poor &c) as that head ends in -d
instead of -θ. In n. 127 we mentioned Gk -crat 'govern,
rule' (from kr-t-, cf. η. 229) but Gmc hard with -d [G
hart].
Outside the dental, we have L ocular, Gk optic(s),
but Gmc ogle [G Auge], with unexpected voiced g from k.
If the suggestion of I.3.2.6 (p. 102) is correct--
that finger is from the root in five--we have another exam­
ple with "unexpected" voiced g. The derivation would be
roughly pnkw-r > penkw-r (by e-ablaut and S-syllab.) >
(by C-assims.) > (by anaptyxis and stress-
assignment) > ' (by Grimm's law) > (by
Verner's law) > (by γ > g and Gmc initial stress) >
(by e > i before Ν) > . I t must be that
suffixal -r prevents assim. of radical kw to ρ (nn. 111,
178), so that we do not have *fimber, *fimver; this is
Common Gmc: ON fingr, Gth figgrs, G Finger &c. Apparently
γ > g occurs early enough so that VN cannot apply here
(contrast five < fimfe, from the same root).
Historically, the labial in seven, while not orig. "in
voiced surroundings", belongs here (cf. Skt saptá,
Gth sibun, G sieben, all from because of the skel­
etal Ρ framework we have been presenting here, this fact may
not be apparent synchronically. But when the Ρ of Ε is ex­
amined carefully, one will have to account strictly for
hepta(gonal) ~ septem (partite) ~ seven.
The labial in (be)have is also a product of Verner's
law, but in an Introduction like this, it is not easy to
form convincing arguments relating (be)have to Gmc words
with ƒ (behoof) or to L words with ρ (from capere 'take1)
--arguments, that is to say, which would motivate synchronic
derivation of V in (be)have from underlying p. Indeed, it
is difficult to argue even for synchronic relation between
hœve and behAve: not only is the S correlation hard to
justify, but the two Vs have quite different PRs in their
conjugations, there is no *havior parallel to behavior, no
 179 II.2.4

Ν *behaves {*behave-nots) parallel to de-V haves (have-

nots) , and so on.
Despite the temporary, unsatisfactory result of the
last paragraph, the earlier examples remain convincing.
Because of them, it seems we cannot say "it is an accident
100 contains -d-"; we are obliged to postulate some sub-
regularity here beyond Grimm's law, namely Verner's law.
But such a position need not be embarrassing. By
accepting it, we may at last be able to formulate a co­
herent analysis of ordinals. We disregard second, which
is suppletive (lexically unrelated) to two. The UPR of
the ordinal-suffix is -t, which appears as [-t] only after
s In first (n. 113; for fifth* sixth, and twelfth, n. 217).
In all other ordinals, -t > -Θ by Grimm's law. Addition­
ally, intermediary -Θ in third shifts to -δ to -d by Ver-
ner's law (if this is the right way to view these shifts;
cf. G dritte).
Similarly also for hundred, whose derivation is now
(roughly) knt- > the last two
steps invoking use of suggested in I.4.
Another example is from {sk- 'cut'}: L (vivi)section*
(inter)sect* sickle [L secula]* segment (with L k voiced
before N, as_also perhaps in sign(al)), but Gmc scythe [ME
sithe < OE side* sigde] and saw [ME sawe < OE sagu* sage];
notice the development of E g to y/w, mentioned in nn. 152,
168. Saxon may belong here, meaning 'armed with knives,
swords', its Gmc g devoiced before s [G Sachse].
One can point within the Gmc component alone to very
few alternations engendered by Verner's law. Without de­
tailed investigation--and perhaps even then--extant forms
(outside ordinals) carry little probative value. Beside
seethe--with its θ now voiced to [d]--one used to refer to
d in sodden, but present lack of S correlation makes this
pair questionable; with d we do find, however, related
suds(y). Next to frost, freeze, froze(n) remains now only
archaic frore to evidence both the earlier shifts s > ζ >
r and the later s > ζ (similar to θ >din seethe). We
could mention everyday was ~ were, but its value depends
on how one analyzes this unique pair synchronically. In OE
one could quote pl. past and PRT of ceosan to attest the
II.2.5 180

law (curon, coren), but those forms are now lost; today the
best one can do with choose, chose(η), choice is chuckle at
the scarcely convincing r of Valkyrie 'chooser of the
slain', with Val- as in Valhalla--even the L forms are
worthless here: either their s is gone (F gout, ragout,
the latter with ra- as in ravigote), or else it lies before
t as in (dis)gust, gustatory.
Although it may not be immediately obvious how best
to analyze Verner's law synchronically in NE, simply the
fact we are required to include such a rule in the analysis
gives support to the contention the analysis must also in­
clude a statement of Grimm's law. And we are required to
include a variant of Verner's law if only for ordinals:
think what a price we would be paying if we had to require
that third (as well as second) be suppletive! While
[θrE] may seem to pose a problem, there is no escaping the
fact thir- in third is homophonous with thir-'s in thirteen,
thirty. The derivation is roughly smth. like tr-t- > ΘR-Θ-
> θr-θ- > θr-d- > θur-d- > [θrd]* where the third and
fourth steps are analagous to the corresponding steps in
the derivation of hundred, and the last step involves V-
shift before P . 1 9 5

2.5 Realizations and Distribution ofn:Overlapping.

To now we have discussed realization of syllabicη(as
an < un) only in morphemes labeled Ε (I.4). 196 But in L,
the realization is in (sometimes en), and in Gk, it is
a(n).197 Thus, for example, the NEG prefix n- 1 9 8 in words
like un-couth, i-gnoramus (< in-gn-}, and α-gnostic, with
the following derivations:

(85) E L Gk
199 199
UPR: n-gn-t n-gn- n-gn-199
Gl: k θ - -
Ν:
anaptyxis : un un in an
VN: -- û - -
an- > a- / -C: - - 0
in- > i- / -gn: - 0 -
PR: AnkuG ign- aegn-
 181 II.2.5

Notice VN inapplicable before a stop. L behavior of

in- is not general here--it occurs only before -gn (cf.
in-sane, in-audible &c). Examples of the Gk prefix show
(1) an- before h and V200--this is one place in Ε that h
does not act like an 0, cf. η. 206--and (2) a- elsewhere
(= before all Cs other than h),201
These data on n202 corroborate the hypothesis the
grammar of Ε contains Grimm's law and uses labels like L,
Gk, Ε (nn. 190-1) to govern Ρ behavior of morphemes, because
the two Ρ processes overlap and complement each other: a
morpheme with Ε behavior of Ν will also have Ε (not L or Gk)
behavior of Grimm's law. From a string like knt-, there­
fore, we have concordant derivations like Gk hecatomb 'sac­
rifice of one hundred oxen', L cent(ury), and Ε hundred:

(86) Gk L Ε
UPR: knt- knt- knt-
Gl: ---- -- hθ (for d, §2.4)
anaptyxis : a en un
PR: kat- cent- hand-

If our next example of overlapping is not so persuas­

ive as the above, that is because some of the words are not
everyday fare. Gk names for certain animals are derived
from φ-grade of dnk- 'bite'. Thus, Dacus 'kind of fly'
{lit. 'the biter'), Carpodacus 'kind of bird' (lit. 'fruit-
biter'), Tridacna 'kind of mollusk' (lit. '[eaten in] three
bites') &c. An o-grade Gmc derivative from this stem is
tongs [0E tange, G Zange], lit. 'the biters' (S development
here is not so far-fetched; cf. F mordache 'tongs' < mordre,
ult. from L mordere 'bite'). Tongs (with t by Grimm's law,
g by Verner's law), incidentally, is not in φ-grade: a Gmc
derivative of dnk- would surely show a high vowel in E,
doubtless homophonous with tongues [tAnz]AnkuGandprobably
spelled tungs. As matters stand, o in tongs is simply un­
rounded by (81) of I.4 to [tarnz]. Another Gmc derivative,
from dônk-, is tough [OE tdh]; the Ρ in 0E is straightfor­
ward, involving Grimm's law and VN, but NE requires the ap­
plication of special rules not discussed in this book (also
cough, draft, enough, laugh, rough, slough &c). The point
II.2.5 182

relevant here is that words with a non-Gmc reflex of n

cannot have their obstruents shifted either by Grimms
law or by Verner's law.
Similarly, Ε under ~ L infra- 'under' < η-thr-
(n. 25).
Clear examples are found with the numerals hepta- ~
septem- 'seven', both from septm- (for Gk s- > h-, n. 89
and App.1.2) and deca- ~ decern- 'ten', both from de-fog-.
Some numbers in some IE languages may have undergone ana­
logical changes in the course of their historical develop­
ment, but this does not weaken the corroborative value of
the forms just cited. Examples of such analogical devel­
opment might include d- in Balto-Slavic 'nine' under in­
fluence from d- in 'ten' (Lth devyni, OCS devetï vs L
novem, Gk έννεα (< ennewa), Gth, OHG niun &c--or is this
perhaps dissimilationη--η>d--η?);-minLnovemby ana­
logy to -m in septem, decern; -a in πεντα-, έξα-, όκτα- by
analogy to -a (< -N) in έρτα-, έννεα-, oεkα-.
To the side for a moment on numerals, I mention the
similarity between PIE *sk(s)-, *spt(m)- and H ss 'six',
sb' 'seven', and between PIE *tr(y)- (cf. OCS triye 'three',
and perhaps Meillet's remark in n. 253), *dfon(t)- (cf. L
decern, Lthdesimt'ten')andAr try- 'two', H ts ' 'nine'.
If such similarities (others cited elsewhere; they are from
Levin 1971, sometimes slightly modified) are not merely
fortuitous or perhaps the result of early borrowing, we may
have to revise somewhat our notion of Ε history, which may
in turn lead to revision--more inner understanding--of the
synchronic analysis proposed here.
Among affixes, we find Gk (charis)ma~L (cogno)men,
(assignment, both from -mn-.
In addition, among Gk forms alone there are curious
alternations which can be explained with the help of this
analysis of n. For example, nepenthe[napenÖE]'(drugfor)
ne- no penth grief' is from e-grade -pentx-, whereas re­
lated pathos, pathetic, -path(y) , empathy &c are from 0-
grade pntx-. Similarly, the unusual vowels in ganglion,
tantalize are accounted for if from redup. glgl-, tltl-
(n. 91 s.f.), and in III.5.2 we will examine another root
with sonorant Z.
 183 II.2.5

There are other overlapping characteristics as well.

In hedonism ~ sweet, e.g., it is the form with d (not the
shifted t) in which s > h and w > 0; the same overlapping
appears also in hidrosis ~ sweat. Again, in vigil· ~ (a)-
wake , the ν occurs with g, but w with shifted k (n. 131
s.f.); vehicle ~ wagon, from wkw-, is a similar example.
Generally speaking, whenever a P process depends on a
category label (L vs Gk vs Gmc), there will be overlapping
with other processes dependent on category labels.
Of course, the situation is not quite so simple as I
have seemed to suggest. I give one example to illustrate
some of the complexity found when one looks more closely
at the data:—
Historically, a number of Ε words are derived from
Gk forms with χ, what we have hypothecated as underlying
k . The Ε reflexes usually show [k] and orthographic oh.
For example, Archimedes [ark-] echo, cate­
chize [-k-] 'sound'), stochastic [-k-]
'aim, target'), ichthyo- [ikθ-] ,
ochev [Okr] '(pale) yellow'), chameleon [k-]
+ 'ground lion', the first member related to L hum­
us), chaos, chasm [k-] (χαίνειν 'yawn, gape'), choir,
chorus, carol· [k-] 'dance'), (syn)chronic
'time'), and so on, with some regularity. But this is not
always true. Words like A al·-chemy, chemist [k-], It
chiaroscuro [k-], F arch(ery) (both from L arcus 'bow,
arc') have a different source, and are not pertinent here.
To show the nature of the problem, it will suffice to con­
sider Gk words in arch-, words like archaeo-, archaic,
archangel·, archetype, archimandrite, architect(ure), ar­
chitrave, archive, archon, (olig)archCy) &c. Here, arch-
can be traced to smth. like 'beginning', 'chief,
ruler', αρχείν 'begin, rule'; these Ε words all exhibit
[-k-], as expected. The problem is with related words
like archbishop, archdeacon, archduke, archenemy, arch­
fiend, in which arch- may be traced back to the same Gk
source; these words, however, all display . Roughly,
what seems to distinguish the words is this: those with
[k] are fairly recent loans (directly from Gk, or through
F or L); those with are older loans and have been in
the language since OE--the older loans have undergone Ε
II.3.1 184

palatalization. Synchronic analysis probably requires more

sophisticated use of features like Gk, E than we have thus
far adopted. Finally, AHD lists archipelago with only [k],
but in my idiolect it has [c].
To end this brief diversion on overlapping, it has to
be pointed out somewhere in this book that there may be an­
other--important--type of overlap, one we have not studied:
it may be that Gk morphemes tend to cluster with Gk mor­
phemes, L morphemes with L morphemes &c. For example, hemi-
(not semi-) is used before Gk stems. The tendency cannot be
absolute, however, for we find hybrids like hexavalent (Gk +
L) instead of *sexivalent (L + L). We have no numerical
figures on the extent of this clustering tendency; indeed,
its existence is merely an assumption on our part. If the
tendency turns out to be real, however, it will offer ad­
ditional support for the type of analysis proposed here and
will raise further problems in DM analysis; for example, it
may be that Gk (or L) use of morphemes colors them S in a
way yet to be defined.

3. Toward Formalization.

I therefore take it as established that the pairs of

§§1.1-1.13 (and others like them) are grammatically related
in the way suggested (i.e. that both members of each pair
are derived from the same lexical representation of a root).
The immediate questions now (with which we cannot deal very
carefully because it is too early--we do not yet know enough
about linguistics to deal with such questions carefully) are
(1) what are the UPRs of the Os in question and (2) what are
the rules to derive the PRs from the UPRs? Summary discus­
sion follows:--

3.1 The Underlying Segments of English.

It is well-known that many languages have a character­
istic spread of segments and/or features which may appear in
their PRs. A (and some other Semitic languages), for exam­
ple--even though lacking phonetic [g] (it shifted to g in
 185 II.3.1

early Semitic)--is clearly characterized by many "back"-Cs

(in n. 53, we observed that under conditions of ?itbäq
even vowels and fundamentally "mid"- or "front"-consonants
in A may acquire a "back"-feature of pharyngealization);
E, with only [k, g, h] and no pharyngealization at all to
speak of is not so characterized; nor is E characterized
by the pervasive feature of palatalization which appears
in some languages (in R (and some other Slavic languages),
for example, palatalization diffuses through consonant
clusters (from right to left) and carries over to preced­
ing vowels by fronting and raising them--contrast EST'
'there is' with its closed mid-vowel [yes't'] to EST 'eats'
with its open mid-vowel [y£st], CAST' 'part' with its front
low-vowel [c'aes't'] to CAST 'frequent' with its back low-
vowel [c'ast]; if palatalization begins inside a C-cluster,
the C(s) to the right are in sharp distinction from those
to the left, as in SED'MOJ'seventh' e.g., where there is a
clearly audible break in palatalization between d' and m,
[s'id'moy]); E is not in any way characterized by palataliza­
tion; nor by the "clicks" which are characteristic of cer­
tain South African languages (one has to hear these to real­
ize how foreign they are to E ) ; nor by the voiced aspirates
which characterize Indic languages; nor by tonal features
(characteristic of languages like the Chinese languages),
which often impart a peculiar (for us) resonance to vowels;
and so on.
UPRs of segments may show a similar distributional
spread. The distinctive traits of UPRs in E seem to be that
--barring segments in non-IE words (boomerang, igloo, ¿ag­
uar, (jin)riksha, jujitsu, kibbutz, kimono, mongoose, Ná­
huatl, powwow, sequoia, squaw, tepee, tomahawk, tsetse,
zombie &c),203 as we have been doing all along--(1) they
contain only consonants, (2) obstruents are mellow stops
(one exception), and (3) sonorants are the usual W, y, l, r,
m, n.
Except the one continuant (let us spell this s), there­
fore, Ε presents rather symmetrical distribution of its un­
derlying segments (less symmetrical for sonorants than for
obstruents), as shown in (87) on the next page.
II. 3.2 186

(87) The Underlying Segments of English:

LAB VEL
voiceless: Ρ t,s k,kw
voiced: b d g,gW obstruent
?: h h h hw
P t k ,k }
m n,l, r
sonorant:
{
w y

Eq. (87) is self-explanatory, except the third row,

segments often written b , ,dh gh, ghw in IE studies. I do
not know how correctly to characterize synchronically the
Ε segments pX, tx, kx, kxw, but they may be voiceless
stops. Superscript x , which distinguishes these segments
from the pure voiceless stops of the first row, could well
indicate aspiration: there are not many realistic possibil­
ities available, and since aspiration occurs in PRs (except
after s ) , 2 0 4 we decided to symbolize these segments with
superscript . Motivation for labialized velars is equally
weak. Closer examination of the Ρ than presented here may
offer a more realistic interpretation of these segments,
and typological study will surely contribute to our under­
standing of this underlying C-framework.

3.2 Sonorants.
There is not much to say about sonorants,205 except
that in certain Ρ envs. (primarily between non-syllabics),
they are syllabified: y > i, n > n &c. 206
The palatal glide y, however, regularly appears in Ε
as strident affricate [g] in PRs of L forms: from {yw-
'young'} we have Gmc young(er), youth(fulness &c, but L ju­
venile, juvenescent, rejuvenate, junior (cf. continuant [z]
in F jeune, juvenile—the regular F reflex of L y); from
 187 II.3.3

{yw- 'unite'} we have Gmc yoke and many L derivatives, like

(con)join(t) , (re)join(der) , (in) junction, (dis) juncture ,
subjunctive, jugular, conjugal·, subjugate, juxtapose (III.
5.4); cf. [z] in F joindre); from o-grade of {yw- 'law'}
are derived L words like judge(ment), judic-ature/-ial·/
-iary/-ious, jur-idicall/-isdietion/-isprudence/-ist/-or/-y,
just(-ice/-ifiabl·y),ab-/ad-/con-/in-/per-jure,adjudicate,
ad-/pre-judge, inju-ry/-vious/-stice, objurgate, prejudi­
cial·, all with [g] (cf. [ζ] in F juge(v), judicieux, juriste,
justifier); the last example we give is from a root meaning
'throw' and displays an interesting a ~ e alternation (cf.
: ab-/de-/e-/in(ter)-/ob-/pvo-/re-/
sub-ject(ion), adjective 'what is thrown ad- to [nouns]',
ad-/sub-jacent, conjecture, ejaculate, trajectory, jet(-sam/
-ty/-tison), jut (cf. [ζ] in F jeter, dejection). These
forms, incidentally, provide another example of overlapping:
with a pair like conjugal· ~ yoke, e.g., L [g] must appear
with g, Gmc [y] with shifted k.

3.3 The English (Germanic) Stop Shift.

This has already been discussed several times (al­
though not in the present context), and I am hesitant to sug­
gest anything different from what others, more knowledgeable
than I, have already proposed (see e.g. Meillet 1964: Chap­
ter III, esp. sect. 1.1, 1950: 89-96 (and refs. there)).
Still, it seems to me that Jacob Grimm, although he may not
have stated it in the most persuasive manner, made a linguis­
tically significant contribution. The strongest argument yet
offered against a single statement for this shift, it seems
to me, is that in HG dialects we find what looks like repeti­
tion of the development of PIE stops in Gmc (the following is
a purposely oversimplified account of the situation), but not
all stops were affected in this "second" shift. Thus we find
t/d in E/G pairs like door/Tür,207 p/ (ρ)f in weapon/Waffe208
and path/Pfad,203 t/z (ss) in the decade-suffix -ty/-zig210
th/d in three/drei211 &c, but b in both bakelbacken (cf. φώ-
γειν), 212 g in both garden/Garten,213 k in both bakelback­
en214 &c. If the PG obstruent-shift took place in a block,
as suggested by the Kreislauf, and if the development in HG
II.3.3 188

is a reiteration of the PG development, then we could not

have the situation outlined, with only some of the Os shift­
ed the second time in HG. This seems to be a strong argu­
ment against Grimm's interpretation, and it is not immedi­
ately obvious how to counter it.
Meillet apparently gives a succinct argument against
this interpretation, which seems to eliminate the possibil­
ity it could be correct: "Le germanique et le celtique, de-
murés dans des régions voisines, se sont développés en par­
tie d'une manière parallèle. Un accent d'intensité net
s'y est développé, et en gaélique à la même place qu'en
germanique: sur l'initiale. Les occlusives ont pris un
caractère semblable: les sourdes sont devenues des sourdes
aspirées, et les sonores ont tendu a s'assourdir en quelque
mesure; en celtique, les choses sont allées beaucoup moins
loin qu'en germanique, où il s'est produit une mutation
complète (lautverschiebung); mais le point de départ est le
même sur les deux domaines" (1950: 5-6). The argument here
is the same as that of the preceding paragraph, with a wid­
er range of data.
But nowhere in the "argument" does Meillet mention
the circular model of Grimm's law, and to take what he ac­
tually says as an argument against this proposal is a lib­
eral interpretation, one Meillet may not have intended.
We have various developments of Cs in different languages;
it may be partial developments in some were tending toward
a complete development as found in Gmc and in Armenian (cf.
1950: 89 and the refs. there). Such details as the failure
of HG or some of the Bantu dialects (cf. Meinhof 1906) to
attain a complete circular shift (with perhaps some seg­
ments excluded for quite different reasons) 2 1 5 may thus
have no bearing on the proper analysis of the first Gmc
sound shift. It would seem to be in this sense that Meillet
wrote "Tous les détails facile a expliquer par des tendances
universelles du langage humain sont à écarter" (1950: 10).
Another argument sometimes put forth against this in­
terpretation is that the features do not work properly. But
this objection is weak: it is well known how frequently fea­
tures have been changed just in the last twenty years or so;
indeed, Foley, in a somewhat premature gesture (1977), pro-
 189 II.3.4

poses almost complete revamping of the earlier system

based on Jakobson's apperceptive contributions. The fea­
tures, however, might also be modified to permit a uni­
fied statement of the O-shift, rather than vice versa. I
might add that one cannot realistically hope to arrive at
a satisfactory feature-inventory without more demanding
examination of so-called "exotic" languages.
One can raise a third objection to the circular mod­
el for the first sound-shift: there are no other examples
which require such a device. But the shift was an unusual
event in any interpretation: with no Ρ conditioning whatever
(that we know of, but see the restriction in η. 204), every
PIE stop without exception underwent modification. Small
wonder further need for the circular device is not immedi­
ately forthcoming, given the unusualness of the type of
shift requiring it. But this objection too may be weak:
indeed, Meillet has written "Le germanique et 1'arménien
présentent des mutations consonantiques de tout point sem­
blables" (1950: 89), and in the next chapter we will mention
another shift that might be described with the same device.

3.4 Grimm's Law.

The only persuasive argument in §3.3 against a circu­
lar view of Gmc stop shifts, taken together with the argu­
ment of §2.1 that data outside Ε may not be used in synchron­
ic analysis of E, pose an almost paradoxical problem. If
the argument in §2.1 is valid, then the objection in §3.3
to circular interpretation of the stop-shift is irrevelant
to the synchronic analysis of Ε because there are so few G
loans for which we would want to use a second turn round
the familiar circle in (88). One scarcely wants, after all,
to base one's inter­
pretation of the
central-to-E stop-
shift on a G loan like
zwieback (lit. 'twice
baked'), itself a loan
translation of It bis­
cotto or F biscuit, in
II.3.5 190

which t > ζ but b, k of bake remain intact. Yet it seems

to be the HG data which permit us to judge the linguistic
validity of the interpretation in (88).
What is required to decide on the linguistic correct­
ness of the device in (88) is "an account of the notion
'linguistically significant generalization' independent of
the notion 'descriptively adequate grammar™ (Love, 206).
A reasonable way to contend with this problem is through a
typological approach (for discussion, see e.g. recent pub­
lications by Lehmann, Li and Thompson 1976, my 1979c, and
refs. in all of these).
We give a somewhat more explicit formulation of (88)
in §4, and return to the problem again in III.4.3.

3.5 The Non-Germanic Obstruents.

PRs of Os in morphemes labeled L or Gk are generally
speaking closer to UPRs.
Aspirates are opened (if this is the proper way to
view the process): ph > ƒ, th > θ, kh > x, as in L frater-
nal, Gk phratry < p h ra- (cf. E brother, G Bruder, BRÄT) &C.
In L, θ > ƒ, as in L infirmary~Gk therapy (from
{t r- 'support'}), L infra- 'below' ~ Ε under (from n-thr-)
&c FOMA &c for another ex­
ample of θ > ƒ). Word-internally in L, however, f > b, as
in L verb(iage) ~ E word (from wr-th-for V ~ W, n. 131)
and Gk amphi- 'on both sides' ~ L ambi 'both' < am-phi-
(cf. E both, ÓBA &c).
With the velar, Gk x is stopped in E to k (as in
echo, cf. §2.5 s.f.), L x weakened to h (as in horror), cf.
Gk o(h)ord ~ L hernia ~ E yarn, all from {k r- 'gut, en­
trails'} (Gmc yarn [OE gearn] in o-grade with o > a by
(81); thus, roughly, krr-n- > krer-n- > kror-n- > gor-n- >
gar-n- > [yarn]; for E g > y, n. 168).
Essentially, the pure stops of the more conservative
Gk and L components remain intact (although there are some
minor, subsidiary, P-conditioned events): L pedal < ped-
(cf. Ε fetter); L fragment < phreg- (cf. Ε break); Gk
cardio- < krd- (cf. Ε heart [hart], G Hertz from e-grade;
the Gk anaptyctic V in - is a, just as for of &c.
 191 II.4

Latin obstruents which enter E through F may undergo more

extensive modifications.

4. The Obstruent Shifts.

The Gk and L treatments of Os seem divorced from the

E Kreislauf. But not entirely: everywhere aspirates are
opened; in E, opening is after the circular obstruent shift,
We can diagram these shifts as follows:

Thus for L ped(al) < ped-, e.g., there are no O-shifts;

for fetter we have ped- > phet- > fet-, the first shift by
Grimm's law, the second by opening aspirated stops--the same
shift that occurs in the first segment of L fraternal < phra-
-tr-, of Gk (a)theism < (n-)thes-ism- (for radical -s-, cf. L
feast, festive, and n. 159), &c.
In Homeric and Attic Gk, letters for the stops π, τ, Κ
correspond to tense, non-aspirated [p, t, k ] , β, δ, γ to
voiced [b, d, g], and φ, θ, χ usually to lax, aspirated [ρ ,
th, kh] (somewhat like E pre-stress [ph-, th-, k h -]). In
post-Classical Gk, not only are the aspirates opened (to [f,
Θ, x]), but the voiced stops as well (to [v, 3, γ]).
From the above can be seen the (slight) advantage ac­
cruing to analysis in which marked Os are assumed voiceless
(as opposed, say, to voicedbh,dh,gh,ghw): 'e have to men­
tion voicing twice, in the shift of Gmc ph to b (phreg- >
break) and in the shift of Gmc d to t (sed- > sit) . But voic­
ing plays no role in the shift of Tenues to Aspiratae or in
the opening of Aspiratae. This is another departure from
historical tradition.
II.5.1 192

Hoenigswald, in historical context, gives a fuller

statement for the well-known development of most Os from
PIE into L (95-6).

5. Five Examples.

5.1 Initial gn-: Analogy.

Word-initial, phonetic C-clusters are restricted by
rules to the well-known sequences: Gdansk [das-], psyche
[sI-], chthonian [Θ0-] (cf. autochthonous), pneumatic [nU-]
(cf. med. apnea with NEG α-), ctenoid 'comblike1 [te-] from
pkt- (cf. pectinate 'with teeth like a comb') &c. Inter­
esting remarks on reduction of gn-/kn- to [n-] in Kökeritz
1945 (cf. also my 1972: 330, fn. 6). Rules governing the
distribution I am discussing are not "morpheme-structure",
but phonological. We occasionally made use of this notion
in §1 to relate pairs of words synchronically; for example,
klept- to lift 'steal' by means of a rule which drops h-
before l, corpus (from krp-) to (mid)hriff, clamor to hlow
'moo', incline to lean, corvine to hraven, cribriform (from
kry-th-) to riddle, crude (from krw-) to raw, genu(flect)
to kneel, and so on. The rules we envisage do not always
involve deletion; thus from {sr- 'flow'} are derived L e-
grade ser(um), Gk o-grade hor(mone), Gmc 0-grade str(eam),
the last form by a rule which inserts t into sr-; in this
way we not only derive all three words from the same root,
but also explain the absence of words with [sr-] in E--the
same rule applies in the derivation of maelstrom (by chance
this root also exemplifies deletion, in 0-grade forms like
rheostat, rheumatism, rhythm, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, and so
on, along the path sr- > hr- > r-). Our primary goal here
(as elsewhere) is to outline a component of DM which per­
mits us to make explicit the various kinds of sound-meaning
relationships that exist among words in E. Sometimes the re­
lationships are obscure and may require different techniques
than those just mentioned. Thus Ptolemy, for example, is
pronounced [ta-], whether it refers to the Greek astronomer
or to one of the kings of Egypt. The PRs here might suggest
 193 II.5.1

an UPR in ta-; but a collateral form of the root--without

t--appears in words like polemic, polemize [πβλεμος 'war'],
and one might want to relate the two without recourse to
an unusual, highly specific Ρ rule ρ > t or t > p. An­
other example like the last is (auto)ohthonous [-kθ-] ~
chthonian [Θ-]~chameleon [k-], chamae- [χαμαί 'on the
ground', L humus; cf. perhaps H ?dmh 'ground',?dm'man-
(kind)', with IE velar aspirate corresponding to H glottal
stop and similar S correspondence].
Rules of the type envisaged are not restricted to an-
laut position. I give an example from inlaut. In E, there
is a root tag- 'touch', which underlies L words like con-
tact, contingent, contagion. In contact (roughly from kon-
tag-t-), the velar undergoes voice-assimilation; similarly,
intact 'untouched', with NEG η-. In contingent {on) 'touch­
ing closely con- together (with)'--from kon-tag-ent--a na­
sal is inserted into the root in accordance with n. 64 (=
-tang-), and a is raised to i as mentioned in n. 55 (= kon-
-ting-ent-); the nasal of n. 64 is also inserted in pres.
PRT tangent 'touching' and A tangible 'discernible by
touch'. The root-vowel in contagious is lengthened by a
rule discussed in III.2 (= kon-tAg-y-us). The problem that
concerns us here is with a related word like contaminate
'make impure by contact'. The UPR cannot be *-tag-min-,
for that would result in *[-taegman-], cf. words like
agmatology, dogma(tism), enigma(tic), pigment('ary')_, smegma
[cf. Cz smetana 'cream'] &c, in which g remains intact be­
fore m. Our proposal, which raises a question we cannot
yet answer concerning the status of morphemes, derives
contaminate from a UPR roughly like kon-tag-s-men-At. Just
as there are rules governing possible anlaut C-clusters, so
too there are rules for inlaut C-clusters. First, g drops
before sm. Then, s before m assimilates completely to the
preceding vowel (= -taam-). A familiar rule of vowel-
shortening in this position leads to the PR [-taem-]. An­
other example of these same rules is given for words like
fIn-al/-ite ~ infinity from fig-s-n- in III.3.3. Beside
(pel)lucid (the prefix is per- 'through') from -luk-
'shine', the Ν luminary (from luk-s-men-) shows similar be­
havior of its C-cluster, but underlying -s- here appears
phonetically in lustrous (from lük-s-t-r-, with ü shortened
II.5.1 194

before all the intact consonants.

I assume that the rules governing clusters all have
the same theoretical status, regardless of whether they
apply to anlaut, inlaut, or auslaut consonants. I have
discussed this matter in earlier works, and see no reason
to pursue the topic here. I might point out, however,
that constraints of the type we have in mind are not re­
stricted to E; thus, κτεΐς 'comb' from pkt- (cf. Att πεκ-
τειλλ, L peetere 'comb'), L tisana (F (ρ)tisane) < πτισάνη.,
SEM' 'seven' perhaps from sebâm-i (cf. SED'MÓJ 'seventh',
επτά, L septem), and so on.
In this section, what interests us is a problem con­
cerning root-initial gn- that arises within our framework.
Orthography is as helpful here as elsewhere in the
study of E. Without recourse to a more sophisticated no­
tion of "root" than used here, for example, there seems no
reason to postulate underlying g- in any of gnarl 'snar',
gnarled 'knotted', gnash, gnat, gnaw, gnome 'dwarf', or
gnu 'kind of antelope', all in [n-]. The rarer words gna-
thal {gnathic) 'pert. to the jaw', gneiss 'kind of rock'
pair with genial 'pert. to the chin', ganister 'kind of
rock', resp., and therefore contain underlying g-.
In addition to the above words in gn- are four more
worth mentioning. Igneous 'fiery' presents no problem be­
cause i- is radical (cf. Agni 'Vedic god of fire', gelig­
nite 'kind of explosive' [from gel(atin) + L ign(is) 'fire'
+ -ite], ignite, OGON'/OGNJÁ 'fire' &c): the root here does
not begin with gn-.
The homographic roots {gn- 'beget, bear'} and {gn-
'know'} likewise cause little problem: anlaut g- is dropped
in 0-grade (§1.6). Thus, natal, noble 'well-known', nar­
rate 'make known to', gnostic, know(ledge) &c, all in [n-],
opposed to co-gn-ate 'born together', pre-gn-ant 'before
bearing', impre-gn-ate 'make pregnant',216 i-gn-oble 'un­
known', i-gn-ore "not to know", ignorant 'not knowing'
(§2.5), prognosis 'knowledge pro- before, prediction', co­
gnizant, physio-gn-omy &c, all with [gn-]. In some forms,
root-initial g is dropped even after prefixes: innate <
in-gn-ate 'in-born', connate 'born with' (cf. cognate), re­
nascence 'rebirth', connoisseur 'one who knows', reconnais-
 195 II.5.1

sance, reconnoiter &c.

The last form that seems to belong here--the form that
raises the problem--is nom-en(clature) 'name', which shows
[g] in cognomen 'family name', ignominy 'without a name' (i­
here from NEG η-), and ignominious. But the pattern gener­
ated from this root is peculiar. We list most of the rele­
vant words in (90), subdivided by letter for later reference:

(90) A: cognomen, ignominious, ignominy

Β: name(sake), binomial, binominal, denominate, mis­
nomer, nomen(clature), nominal, nominate, nomina­
tive, noun [OF non, nom], polynomial, praenomen,
renown [OF renon < renomer], trinominal
C: acronym, allonym, autonym(-ous/-y), cryptonym, hom­
onym, metronymic [μητρο- 'mother'], patronymic,
pseudonym, toponym
D: anonymous, antonomasia, antonym, eponym, metonymy,
onomastic, onomato-(poetic), paronomasia, paronym-
ous, polyonymous, synonym(ous)

From (90) we find that a problem more important (at

least more frequently represented) than g is the pattern of
o before n. Such o does not occur at all in B, but that only
serves to complicate analysis. Let us look at o's in C, un­
der hypothesis UPR of the root begins with g to account for
forms in A: --
Words in Β drop initial g-; thus misnomer, e.g., is
parallel to innate from in-gn- 'in-born'. Forms in C also
drop this g- and apparently use the connecting vowel -o-
(thus, patr-o-nymic, parallel to electr-o-magnet, Sin-o-
-Tibetan &c).
Such analysis does not explain any o's in D, where pre­
fixes are (in the same order): NEG an-, anti-, epi-, meta-,
para-, syn-. Onomastic, onomato-, and poly-onymous (cf.
poly-gam-ous) seem to have no prefix. Under this analysis,
there is also an unexplained minimal contrast: poly-o-nymous
vs poly-nomial. Thus it seems we should look for some dif­
ferent analysis.
If we hypothesize the root begins with o-, then forms
in D are immediately explained. Words of C are ambiguous
II.5.1 196

(o could be either connecting vowel or radical); but at

least the forms are explicable. Forms of Β under this
analysis require further comment (why do we not have *oname-
(sake); *misonomer &c?). To retain the hypothesis the
root begins witho--,we would have to drop o- in both Β
and A. Then g In A forms is inexplicable unless we say
it appears by analogy; that is, we would have to assume
nomen Ι cοgnomen because of (by analogy with) surface pairs
like natal/cognate--similarly, nominal/ignominy by ana­
logy with noble/ignoble.
The "name"-root poses a real problem in linguistic
analysis. If we postulate the root begins with g, thus ex­
plaining the A forms as we explained the parallel forms
from gn- 'know' and 'beget', we cannot explain o's in Ό and
are forced to drop the putative underlying g in B,C,D.
On the other hand, if we postulate the root begins with o-,
we are forced to drop this o- in many words and cannot ex­
plain g in A except at the price of introducing a new kind
of "analogy"-rule.217 I mentioned analogy explicitly in
1979a: n. 5; it is what I had in mind when discussing "para­
digm pressure" in 1976: 188.
The decision whether or not to permit rules of analogy
in synchronic analysis will depend to some degree on how one
formulates linguistic theory, on what goals are ult. set for
linguistic theory. It will not do to announce a verdict
simply by referring to authors who may have used analogy im­
properly (Foley 1979), esp. when one considers that for
nearly a century it has played such an important role in
historical linguistics (father < ME fader < OE fœder &c;
cf. Lehmann 1962: 177-92). Also influencing our decision
will be the number of bona fide examples we find which re­
quire the application of such a rule, and to close this sec­
tion I notice opportunity to use analogy in synchronic analy­
sis arises more frequently than may be apparent to linguists
not familiar with historical studies:--
There is a probative example from Homeric Greek, in
which one characteristic of aorists is the vowel -a- before
"endings"; compare in (91) the aor. mid. indic, of λύω 're­
lease' with impf. mid. indic., where in the latter forms
endings appear after a theme vowel -e-/-o- (o before nasal,
 197 II.5.1

e elsewhere, a frequent--but thus far unexplained--dis­

tribution) :

(91) aorist imperfect

έλυσ-ά-μην έλυ-6-μην
Sg. 1:
2: -αο -εο
3: -ατο -ετο
-ασθον -εσθον
Du. 2:
3: -άσθην -εσθην
-άμε(σ)θα -όμε(σ)θα
Pl. 1:
-ασθε -εσθε
2:
-αντο -οντο
3:

There is naturally a good deal more that can be said

about these forms, but our point should be clear even from
the present superficial view of the situation, when we
consider in (92) the corresponding act. aor. indic., also
characterized (one exception) by -α- ("endings" are some­
what different here):

(92) sg. 1: έλυσ-α

2: -ας
3: see below
Du. 2: -ατον
3: -ατην
Pl. 1: -αμεν
2: -ατε
3: -αν

3 sg. έλυσε is distinctive in not displaying a, and

even at the present level of analysis it seems unlikely
(closer analysis shows it highly unlikely) a P rule shifts
a to e here; -e in 3 sg. aor. έλυσε (as against a in the
other fifteen aor. forms) is thus liable to be by analogy
with -e in 3 sg. impf έλυε or perhaps 3 sg. pf. λελυvε.
The L verb gvadi 'walk, go' provides another example.
Its PRT should be *grassus (from grad-t-os). The received
form, gressus, is apparently by analogy to prefixed PRTs in
II.5.1 198

-gressus, with a > e in a closed syllable {ag-/.../trans -

gressus; cf. η. 118; v. transgress in PFX.l). In addition
to prefixed words in -gress(-ion(al)I-tveI-or) , Ε also has
a few (more or less technical) compounds in -grade Tway of
walking1 {digiti-/planti-/retro-/'salti-grade) from this
verb stem. Although we may have to resort to a sophistic­
ated Ρ technique to derive a initially in gradi, once we
have obtained that result, it is difficult to visualize de­
rivation of e in gressus without recourse to the principle
of analogy (cf. nonprefixed verbs like the following, with
a throughout: capid, eaptus 'take', f acid, f actus fdo,
makeT, f allere, falsus 'deceive', habere, habitus 'have',
¿acid, ¿actus 'throw*, pango, pactus 'join', rapere, raptus
'seize1, saliere, salsus 'salt', spargere, sparsus 'scatter,
strew1, trahd, tractus 'pull, draw' &c). A similar example
is spicere (alongside expected specere), apparently formed
by analogy to -spicere in prefixed verbs like con-/de-/τη-/
pro-/'...-spicere (the PRT is always spectus); cf. nonprefix­
ed verbs like the following, with e throughout: gerere/ges-
tus 'carry', sedere/sessus 'sit' (but sidere 'sit down'),
vehere/vectus 'transport', venZre/ventus 'come' &c.
R nouns with Ë in nom. sg. seem to present a more com­
plex problem. These are forms with underlying e which has
been shifted to o (spelled Ë) after palatalizing the pre­
ceding consonant: BERËZA, BRËX, CERËVO, CET, ËLKA, GNËT ,
GRËZA, KLËN, MED, NËBO 'palate' (cf. NEBO 'sky', perhaps
best treated as a loan, cf. pl. NEB-ES-), POCËT, RAZZËVA,
SCET , TËRN, TES, UPRËK &c (a complete list would be fairly
long). The stem-final consonant of these nouns remains non-
palatalized throughout most of the declension, and the vowel
E therefore appears regularly in these forms (e.g. nom. sg.
CERT 'devil', gen. CERTA, dat. CËRTU, instr. CËRTOM). But
the ending of the prepositional case is a front vowel, which
palatalizes stem-final consonants; consequently, we might
expect the stem vowel here to remain intact (= C'er't'e &c)·
The received forms of all these nouns show E in prep, sg.,
presumably by analogy to E throughout the rest of the declen­
sion (thus, prep. sg. CËRTE). The situation, however, is
not quite so straightforward: in the plural, the noun CERT
(as opposed to all the other nouns) changes its declension
 199 II.5.2

class, and in nom. pl. of this noun the stem vowel does re­
main intact (i.e. CERTI [cer't'i])--in remainingpl.forms,
stress is on the endings {CERTEJ &c), so that we cannot tell
whether the stem vowel remains intact or shifts to o (un­
stressed E and S represent homophones in R; hence gen. pl.
CERTEJ [c'ir't'êj], regardless of whether the first vowel-
letter is E or E). That there are so few nouns with all the
relevant features of CËRT (viz., radical e, with stem-final
C non-palatalized in sg., palatalized inpl.)compounds the
problem: in the final analysis it may be best simply to
specify this root as exceptional in its response to rule e >
o. Thus CËRT 'devil' provides another example of our pre­
sent inability to analyze for lack of data. Availability of
derivation by analogy would at least offer a potential solu­
tion: we should put CËRT aside as insoluble for the moment;
perhaps when we have gained deeper understanding of the con­
straints that must be placed on use of analogy in synchronic
analyses we can return to deal more successfully with this
problem. But that will not be until we have examined in
some detail the DM of many languages; it is only through study
of DM that we can begin to understand P.

5.2 On "ot-Verbs".
These verbs are bring, buy, catch, fight, seeky beseechy
teachy and think. Their Ρ is treated very superficially here.
The PASTs and PRTs of all these Vs are from o-grade ve­
lar stems. We postulate k/g before t opens to χ and that VN
takes place before continuant x (in bvoughty thought; from 0-
grade{p"r-'carry1},for example, cf. Gmc *branxtay OE broh-
te, G brachte &c). To simplify discussion somewhat, we as­
sume here that back vowel and following χ are realized as
short [o] before t in E. Thus the derivation of bought [OE
bycgari, bohte, with g in other Gmc languages as well: Gth
bugyan], for example, is: bog-t- > bok-t- > box-t- > [bot]
(for buy, v. III.4.2 s.f.)· The derivation of brought is:
brong-t- > bronx-t- > bronx-t- > bröx-t- > [brot].
Similar derivations result from doik- (cf. OE takte
'taught1 and discussion of 0 in III.4.3), kok- [cf. ONF ca-
II.5.2 200

chier < capere 'take, catch1], pok- [OE feáht ffoughtf],

sog- [OE sdhte 'sought'], tong- [OE pöhte 'thought'; NE
thank, incidentally, is also from this root, lit. 'thought­
ful (ness)']. Notice that—except possibly for the loan
catch [kaec]—these are the C-frames we would have proposed
in any event; that is to say, they are not being specially
formulated to account for the PASTs and PRTs in [-ot]. ^
Daughter [OE dohtor, G Tochter, OCS dustï, Lth dukte3
Av duyda, Arm dustr, but θυγατηρ, Skt duhitä; there are no
Italo-Celtic cognates; see e.g. Meillet 1950: 63] can be
analyzed synchronically from c-grade suffixal t re­
mains untouched by Grimm's law here because it follows a
continuant (nn. 113, 114, 204). Thus daughter, with the
following approximate derivation, shows a striking similar­
ity to the verb-forms above: t^ok-tr- > dok-tr- (by Gl) >
doh-tr- (by Gl) > doh-tur- > [dotar].
Treatment of the vowel before kt in night (alongside
noctum(al) , noctambulism &c) is slightly different; but we
need that treatment also for fight < pek-t- [ME fehten]; no­
tice, however, that if both fight [OE feohtan¿ G fechten]
and fly [OE fleogan, G fliegen, Gth -flaugyan] are derived
from velar stems, care must be taken to distinguish the vow­
els in fought and flight). We mentioned sly, sleight in
n. 113; high, height are doubtless similar. Also slightly
different in its vowel is eight (alongside L and Gk words
like octa-(gon)y octane^ octant3 octave^ octets octo-(pus) ,
octoroon &c); the vowel of eight also appears in weigh(t).
Some of the forms postulated three paragraphs above
occur in non-Gmc words as well. For example, dik- 'show',
which we need in £-grade for teach and o-grade for taught^
token, appears also in L and Gk words like (bene)diction¿
contradict, deictic^ dictate^ indexy indicate^ predict^ par-
adigm(atic), and perhaps also digit. For the S shift of
'show' to 'say' (as in diction), see Meillet 1950: 32.
In §3.2 we mentioned Gmc young(er) ^ L juvenile^ re­
juvenate ¿ junior. But in view of the above analysis of ot-
verbs, the derivations of youngster and youth pose a pro­
blem I cannot resolve; the problem becomes more difficult
when one considers pairs like long <\> length in §5.5 (pre­
sumably -th is morphemically identical in youth, length).
 201 II.5.3

Draft (from ME draughty draht < 0E dragan) also poses a

problem because of its relationship with drag and draw.

5.3 Hotel: Vowel Deletion.

We have occasionally mentioned that weak vowels in
weak positions may drop (cf. courtesy ~ curtsy, fantasy ~
fancy, masculine ~ male, phrenetic ~ frantic, frenzy, n.
70, &c), but we give here no specific rule(s) for such de­
letions. The compound hotel, however, may help us to un­
derstand better the nature of some of these deletions.
First we have to motivate the two formative members
of the compound, khst- 'stranger' and pt- 'able, might(y)':
The first stem has bifurcated S, from 'stranger' to
either 'enemy' or 'guest'. In host 'army, large number'
[L hostis] and its derivatives, hostile [hostilis], hos­
tility [hostilitas], the meaning is 'enemy', whereas in
guest [ON gestr] 'guest'. As can be seen, L words are in
(9-grade, the only Gmc word in e-grade. Thus there is no­
thing unusual about the first stem. Nor about the second,
which occurs always in o-grade and mostly in L (or F) forms,
sometimes with s < t (other examples in App.1.10) or (in F)
with s dropped: potent, potency, potentate~ potential~ des­
pot (a Gk form, from dem-s-pot-, with dem- as in demesne,
domestic ; dominate, domineer, indomitable &c), posse, pos-
sess(ive)y possible, power [cf. pouvoir] puissant &c.
Hospit- in hospitable~ hospital(ize), hospitality (L
forms with 'guest'-meaning, although hospital has undergone
further meaning change of specificity) is from host-i-pot-
'able [to treat] guests', with loss of ti and weakening of
vowel in -pot-. Also from host-i-pot- are host(ess) 'one
who is hospitable', hostel(ry), with the same weakenings
just seen in hospit-, and in addition, loss of pi. From
hostel is derived hotel with F loss of s [cf. hotel]. Thus
the derivation of hotel shows a steady sequence of Ρ losses,
with extant words corroborating at least some of the puta­
tive intermediary representations (see (93) on the next page).
The compound hotel, with potentially antonymous inter­
mediary representations, is reminiscent of egregious (n.6).
An alternative analysis lists hotel or (more radically) hot-
II.5.4 202

(93) UPR: host-i-pot- (cf. L -i- in agr-i-culture,

loss of i: host-pot- art-i-fact, manicure, munic-
loss of t: hos-pot- ipal, ossifrage, pesticide,
weakening of o: i (in hospitable) solicit &c)
loss of i: hos-pt-
loss of p: hos-t- (in hostel)
loss of s: ho-t- (in hotel)

in the lexicon as an isolated, unanalyzed word (root), thus

failing to see the morpheme-boundary between h- and -t, and
consequently failing to make explicit the conjoined sound-
meaning relationships between hotel and any of the other
words mentioned earlier, like guest and despot. That analy­
sis will also have difficulty explaining why host is ambigu­
ous between 'army' and 'entertainer of guests'.

5.4 Norway
We already remarked (n. 113) that the final segment of
the four directions is the same, -t. That this -t is mor­
phemic is particularly clear for nor-th, because we also have
Nor-dic, Norse, Norman, Norwegian. The last is from nor-
weg-ian '(wo)man from the north way', derived from Norway: in
Norwe"gian,e is lengthened in open syllable to ee, which is
then raised and diphthongized to [iy] by GVS; in Norway, from
nor-weg-, the g shifts to y (η. 168) , whence [norwèy].
Simplex way 'road, path' is the same as -way in Norway,
both from {wkr- 'move, carry'} [cf. 0E weg, ON wegr, Gth
G
Weg]j the source also of Ε wag(gle), wagon, wain 'kind of
wagon' (a doublet of wagon9 cf. OE wœgen, wœgn) , weigh(t)
'balance in a scale', wee 'very small' (a doublet of wey
'unit of weight', cf. OE wœg(e) 'balance weight'; notice the
S development in the wee hours 'very early')., walleye(d) ,
wiggle, L vehicle, vehement, vector, vex(atious), convective,
evection (nn. 170-2), and conceivably also via(-duct/-ticum),
devi-ate/-ous, (im)pervious, obvi-ate/-ous , previous, convey,
 203 II.5.5

voyage~ con-/-en-voy &c, although the latter family seems un­

related according to the observation in Walde-Hofmann, s.v.
via: ".... Herleitung aus *vehia zu vehd (Curtius 193,
Vanicek zu nhd. Weg usw.; ähnlich Ernout-Meillet 1101, der
*ueghÍ0- für got. wigs „Weg" ansetzt und lit. vèzê ver­
gleicht, und Hirt Urgerm. Gr. II, 17, der gar ein idg.
*ueghos für beide Wörter ansetzt) ist unmöglich, da dies
lat. osk. umbr. veia ergeben hätte...."; indeed, in Ernout-
Meillet4, s.v. uia: ".... Le mot est italique: osq. vi ú,
ombr. via, uia et, à en juger par got. wigs «chemin»,
doit représenter *weghye , cf. lit. veze «ornière de voi­
ture». V. uehô; toutefois, l'osq. veia «plaustrum»,
P.F. 506, 3 est embarrassant...."

5.5 Long ~ lengthy slow ~ sloth &c.

Let us review the situation briefly, in hopes of mak­
ing our approach not only clear, but desirable as well.
In 1979a we gave summary discussion of de-Α, abstract
Ns in -th.218 If warm and warmth are synchronically unre­
lated '(= not derived from the same lexical representation),
the lexical entry for warmth will have to repeat the entire
Ρ and S representations in the entry for warm; that repeti­
tion in itself suggests warmth is not a separate lexical en­
try but is derived from warm. A pair like true, truth con­
firms this view not only because a separate lexical entry
truth would repeat the entire Ρ and S representations of
the entry true, but also because derivation of truth from
true looks similar to derivation of warmth from warm.
Clearly a grammar with four separate (= unrelated) lexical
entries true, truths warm, warmth is missing a number of
linguistically significant generalizations.
The derivational view of the last paragraph is sup­
ported by pairs like deep/depth, wide/width, even though
deep/dep- and wide/wid- do not "sound" the same, because we
know--independently from this question of abstracts in -th
--that vowels are shortened before C-clusters like ρθ and
do: we have E ~ e in keep ~ kept (parallel to deep ~ depth)
and I ~ i in five ~ fifth (parallel to wide ~ width). A-
II.5.5 204

gain, a pair like slow/sloth supports the derivational view

of the last paragraph, because we know--independently from
this question of abstracts in -th--that vowels are length­
ened in auslaut: we have 0 ~ o in go ~ gone (parallel to
stow ~ sloth). The sound-alternations in deep ~ depth,
wide ~ width, slow ~ sloth should not be accounted for by
separate lexical entries, but by application of previously
motivated Ρ rules; then M derivation of depth, width, and
sloth from deep, wide, slow will parallel derivation of
truth, warmth from true, warm. This seems the only way to
capture the maximum number of generalizations, to minimize
unnecessary repetition in lexical entries.
Consider now the lexical entries. Should we have an
entry (roughly) like "worm, 'moderately hot', ADJ"? Clearly
not, for such an entry does not permit us to make explicit
the sound-meaning relationships among warm, furnace, ther­
mal (§1.13) : neither furnace nor thermal can be derived
from warm. Thus warm (and similarly, true, deep, wide,
slow) must be derived forms, not Simplexes.
Reasoning like that above for the derivation of warm-/
tru-/dep-/wid-/slo-th argues for similar derivations of
length from long-, strength from strong-, breadth from
broad-, except that in these cases, the reason for the vowel-
alternation e ~ ο is not evident. One might suppose the As
and Ns represent different ablaut-grades:

(94) strong strength

UPR: strng strng-θ
e-Abl: e e
o-Abl: o -

But this analysis does not seem likely because these Ns

are derived from the As, and one would consequently suppose
both to show the same ablaut-grade. Otherwise, we would ex­
pect slO ~ *slEth/*sleth (like (e)lOpe ~ lEp or hold ~ held)
and worm ~ *wermth (like lore ~ learn). A more reasonable
analysis postulates that the A is from o-grade (as in (94) a-
 205 XI.5.5

bove), but that the Ν is derived from the o-grade A-stem

and that the N-affix -th causes fronting of o once again
to e. Under this postulate, it is natural to assume the
UPR of -th contains a front vowel which causes umlaut and
is then lost:

(95) broad breadth

UPR: brd-
e-Abl: e
o-Abl: o -*· brod-ίθ (from Α-stem by a rule of DM)
Uml: e
loss of i: 0
PR: brod bret0

Although the derivation in (95) may look slightly more

complex than in (94), it agrees better with our intuitive no­
tion of DM and is for this reason alone to be preferred. The
derivation of length, in fact, has to be even more complex
than suggested above because dolich- in words like dolioho-
cephalic 'long-headed1 is related to long; this relationship,
when examined more closely, might be used to support the in­
direct analysis of (95):
The root in question is {dl- 'long'}: the Gk variant
shows tf-grade suffixed with -ykJ1-- (= dol-yVr-) ; the Gmc var
ant is in 0-grade with a nasalized suffix -rik/1- (= dl-rík/1-
Gmc forms appear with o-grade of suffix (= dl-orikr-):

(96) dolioh- long

UPR: dl-yk - dl-nkh-
h

e-Abl: e e
o-Abl: o o
S-syllab: i
loss of ά / # 1: 0 [there are no words in #dl-]
Gl: g [cf. Gth tulgus ffirmT]
PR: dolik- long- [OE lang, long]

Derivation of length [OE lengdu] is from the o-grade of

II.5.5 206

Zong in (96), i.e., from dZ-onkhkh the i of suffixal -it-

umlauts o front to e.
Let us suppose for a moment no umlaut is involved in
the derivation of these Ns in -th (i.e. that the N-suffix
is simply -t), under the assumption of 1979a that "when
there is no root-vowel-insertion in nominal forms, the vow­
el is inserted into the following affix; if two affixes
follow, insertion is into the final affix" (288). From a
representation of Zength like *dl-nkh-t-, we would incor­
rectly derive *dl-nkh-ot-, ult. *[1ΛΜΘΘ], The represen­
tation of -th. we are proposing contains y (i.e. the vowel
ί), which apparently blocks vowel-insertion into the final
affix; clearly, this is but a vague possibility suggested
here, and perhaps I should mention that l in όολίχος is
problematic in diachronic studies (cf. DOLOG &c)· In III.
4.1 below, however, we examine the pair fouZ ~ fiZth, which
providesverystrongsupportforthesynchronicanalysis
suggested here.
Putting aside forms like doZich-, about which some
readers may feel hesitant, and waiting for foul ~ filth un­
til it can be treated properly, we may at least now note
that analysis of Zong, Zength as separate lexical entries
is not a rational possibility: even the most primitive
evaluation criterion ought to mark unwanted repetition--
failure to grasp linguistically significant generalizations
--when faced with entries like /Zong 'of relatively great
length'/and/Zenk0'themeasure of smth. along its great­
est dimension'/, particularly when those two are linked
with highly similar entries for strong/strength and broad/
breadth, and with an independently motivated N-suffix -Θ.
That is to say, if Zength were the only E noun in -th, the
two entries above would be suspicious; given the facts as
they are, the two entries are totally unacceptable for lin­
guistic analysis.
Once again we see that it is not "sound" (PR) which
determines analysis of DM; rather, DM determines the char­
acter of the Ρ component--how PRs are to be derived. That
DM has to deal not with sound alone, but with representa­
tions--often rather abstract--of both sound and meaning,
indissolubly bound together, is an indication of the com­
plexity of language, of how difficult it will be finally to
 207 nn. 110-113

understand the way in which elements of language are ar­

ranged into an orderly, structured whole.
In §5.2 s.f. we mentioned the problematic forms
young(er)j youngster, youth beside long(itude), linger,
length. Nothing we have said here helps with the deriva­
tion of youth; that form is now (if anything) more dif­
ficult to manage.

NOTES

110
This is a more or less typical entry: it must be
understood to include words like pedals, sesquipedalian,
antipode, octopus, polyp [F polype < OF < L polypus < Gk
πολΰπους 'multi-foot'], fetter, fetlock (cf. "lock of
hair"), fetch [OE feccan < fet-y-an] &c. Except possibly
by chance, no lists in this book are exhaustive. [151]
111
From e-grade of pnkw- 'five'. In Gmc, final -kw
assimilates to initial p- (hence, penp-e); the derivation
is (roughly) pemp-e > femf-e > fimf-e (nn. 178, 251) >
fIf-e > fIv-e > fIv- > [fayv]. For -t in Gk pent-, §1.11;
for L quinque-, n. 177. [152]
112
Frompe£- 'spread' [v. Meillet 1950: 64 for loss
of*einGmc,81-2forpossiblet<*th].[152]

113
This alternation does not occur after continuant
Os. Thus there are Ns with -Θ < -t like depth, health,
warmth, width &c, but suffixal -t remains in sleight (of
hand) < sly < slig- [cf. ON slœgr 'crafty'], in drought <
dry < drug- [cf. OE drugod, dryge, G trocken 'dry'], as
well as L variants like (san)ity, (liber)ty, (vis)ta &c.
In n. 57, -Θ in the derivation of south is from -t (also
north), but the same underlying -t remains intact after s
in east, west. Cf. n. 204. [153]
nn. 114-118 208

Historically, there has been some difficulty

with these familial terms; for relevant forms of 'father',
e.g., see pater- in §1.1; cf. Lehmann 1967: 138. We have
-ther in all these words today due to analogical leveling,
parallel to Persian xt (instead of the phonologically
"correct11 reflex by Bartholomae's law) in duxt(ar) 'daugh­
ter' by analogy to t in pitar-, matar-, bratar- &c. For
-t- in daughter, II.5.2; for sister, App.1.1 s.v. sis.
115
From {tr(s)- 'dry'}. [154]
116
Historically, acoustic < F acoustique < ακουστι­
κός, with the same prefix a- mentioned in n. 91 for Atlas ;
the root is {kw- 'perceive'} in o-grade (= kow-). Hear is
from e-grade kew-, with Ε < ew, as in freeze, speak of I.4,
fleece (beside plume) of §1.1 &c. The root in both acous­
tic and hear is followed by suffixal -s-, but in hear, this
s undergoes rhotacism (nn. 22, 33, App.1.1). The vowel in
heard is shortened before the C-cluster and then shifted to
e before r; thus (roughly), kw-s-d- > kew-s-d- > hew-s-d- >
hew-z-d- > hew-r-d- > hE-r-d > he-r-d- > [hard]; cf. (43)
in I.3.2.4. Gk kudos 'acclaim' and Gmc show (cf. App.1.19)
are also from this root (for e-grade CUDO 'wonder', v. n.
49). [155]
117
From {kw- '(be) con-vex/-cave'}. [155]

118
From kap- 'seize, hold'. Many other words, most
of L origin, are from this root: capable 'able to grasp/
hold', capacious 'holding a lot', capacity 'ability to hold',
Ν and A captive, captivate, captor &c. In n. 106 we men­
tioned L ~e > i in open syllables after prefixes: parti-
-ci"p-ate, anti-ci"p-ation, A and Ν prin-cip-al 'held prim-
first', muni-cipal, emancipate &c. In closed syllables af­
ter prefixes, however, L a is not weakened all the way to i,
but only to e, as in accept(ance) (ac- < ad- '(in)to'),
except 'hold ex- out of', excep"tion, Ν and V intercept,
perceptible, precept, recep"tacle, re-cep-t-ive, susceptible
&c. The same weakening a > e occurs in closed syllables of
other prefixed roots: annals, annual ~ cent-en"-nial, mil-
-en-nium; apt(itude) ~ inept; candle, chandelier, chandler ~
 209 n. 118

in-cend-iary (k > s), incense; oant(o) ~ ac-cen-t(ual), in-

-cen-tive; capital~ decapitate ~ bi-/tri-ceps 'a two-/
three-headed (muscle)1 [caput, capitis 'head']; chaste ~
incest (NEG in-); damn(ation) ~ condemn(atory), indemn-
-ify/-ity (NEG in- 'not'); e-jac-ulate 'throw out' ~
in(ter)-,ec-t(ion), tra-jec-tory; sacred ~ execrate (from
ex-sacr-), execrable; scan(sion) 'climb(ing)1 ~ descend
'climb de- down', descent, transcend 'climb trans- through,
across, over, beyond', transcendental (n. 37) &c. Cf. nn.
55, 202.
A slightly more complex example (because in E, some
a's are lengthened to A) is grade [gradus 'step, degree,
stage', gradi 'step, walk, go'], gradation~ gradient,
gradual~ graduate ~ con-/di-/e-/pro-/re(tro)-/trans-gress
and some forms in -gression, -gressive. Ag- in agress­
ion/-ive/ -or is from ad-. Sometimes derived e is length­
ened to E, as in ingrEdient < in-gred-ient 'thing going
in'. For d 'Vi s in these examples, App. 1.9.
Although the rules given here and in n. 106 for weak­
ening of α,e in compounds cover the majority of cases,
there are various specifics which have not been discussed.
To mention one, a before Ζ in a closed syllable of prefixed
roots shifts to u. From sal- 'jump', for example, are de­
rived words like sally, saltigrade 'with feet for jumping'
{-grade as in the last paragraph), salient, saltant, salta-
tion, saltatory,salacious~ resilient 'jumping re- back'
(with a > i of n. 106) &c. In a closed syllable, we find
not *-sel-C- but -sul-C-, as in result(ant), insult 'jump
on', exult &c. Again, from kal-k- as in L calx, calcis
'heel', are derived calcaneum (anat.), caulk (also spelled
calk), the mythical serpent cockatrice [L calcatrix 'the
tracker'], and inculcate 'to "heel" in'. Similarly, from
al- 'grow' are derived words like aliment 'food' [alimen-
tum < alere 'nourish'], alimentary (canal), alimony [ali-
mdnia 'nourishment, support']., alma mater 'nourishing/fos­
tering mother', altitude [altitüdö < altus 'high' < altus
'nourished, grown up' = PRT of alere], coalesce 'grow to­
gether', and adult 'grown-up' < ad-al-t-. From the same
root, al- 'grow', incidentally, Ε has other L words, with
an unexpected vowel, adolescent [from PRT adolescent- <
nn. 118-123 210

adolescere 'begin to grow up'; cf. inch. alescere 'begin

to grow'; could *ad-alescere > adolescere by dissimilation?
Additionally, we notice l has a tendency to raise and round
contiguous vowels, cf. η. 61, F faux, fausse [fo(s)] < OF
fais(e) < PRT of fall ere 'deceive' &c] and obsolete~
solescent [cf. obsoVêtuSy obsolescense PRTs of obsolescere
'grow old']; Gmc derivatives are alder(man)~ aulds old3
elderΛ eldest. ]155]
119
From {kr- 'burn'}. [155]
120
From kar- 'desire' (Latv kars 'greedy'); cf. n.
167.. [155]
121
From {kr- 'cut'}. Here also belong words like
car-nivorous/-nal/-rion/-nation 'flesh-color', charnel
(house), acharné 'blood-thirsty', incar-nadine/-nate, rein-
carnation, shears &c; cf. n. 83. From kr-p- 'pluck' comes
carpel [καρπός 'fruit, what is plucked']. [155]
122
From {kl- 'cover, hide, conceal'}. [156]
123
From {kl- 'rise'}; cf. CELO 'forehead'. Geminate
11 in hill (and obsolete colline) from l-n [Lth kâlnas
'mountain']; thus hill < 0-grade kl-n-9 with umlaut [0E
hyll]+ Similarly, In > 11 in words like full [POLNYJ, Lth
pïlnas] ana pall 'cover' [OE pœll 'cloak', L pallium id.,
pellis < pel-nis 'skin, F peau'], pell(icle) 'a (thin)
skin', pellagra , surplice [OF < Med.L superpellicium], tar­
paulin [tarpelin, tarpolen] (from tar 'dark, viscid liq­
uid'), fell 'hide, skin' [G Fell] &c vs pelt, film; see
wool in III.4.2. This assimilation is like that in ballast
< bar-last 'bare load' (cf. last 'unit of weight'), but in
the opposite direction. The question of the proper syn­
chronic analysis of these Ε words withll< ln arises. For
example, the diachronically well-founded η in hill does not
appear as [n] in any NE words related to hill; thus an un­
derlying η seems synchronically unmotivated in E. Before
deciding the matter, however, a straightforward task needs
to be completed: a search through the Gmc and L components
 211 nn. 123-129

of E for words with [ln] (a time-consuming task by hand,

but not by computer). If there is an absence of [ln] in
these components, the grammar will somehow have to make
that fact explicit, presumably by an assimilation rule of
the type η > Ζ / Ζ - (two clear examples which might be
used to argue against this--won't and the somewhat outdated
shan't--are doubtless governed by boundary phenomena; sim­
ilarly, examples like malnutrition) . If subsequent M-
research were to show that the morpheme -n- of Lth káZnas,
Latv kaZns is used in some Ε words (and appears as [n] in
these words), we might find M-motivation for use of this
n-morpheme in hill. Similarly, a general absence of [ln]
would cause us to hesitate in analysis of Ε words like uZna
[L < oZ-en-a, cf. ώλενη, Gth aZeina, OE eZnboga 'elbow'];
for kiZn, n. 244 s.f. It should be clear from this example
that we have scarcely begun proper investigation of distri­
butional constraints in E. [156]
124
From {ky- 'lie/settle down'}; cf. G Eeim(at),
Heirat, Gth heims 'village', civis, κώμη, SEM'JA 'family1
&c. More on home, III.4.3. [156]
125
From o- and 0-grade of {kr- 'harsh sound'}; words
like ving '(cause to) sound' [OE hringan], retch [OE hrœ-
can] probably belong here as well [cf. KRIK 'shout']. Note
also gvackZe [gräcuZus] °Ü creaky croak, avow. [156]
126
From k(n)k- (cf. Lth kenkZe 'knee joint'). When
theΡofE is examined more carefully, we may want to say
long δ in OE höh results from VN. [156]
127
From {kr- 'hard, strong'}; Ε hard from <?-grade
kor-, with -d < -t by Verner's law. [156]
128
From kew-p- 'bend/arch/ in-/out-ward' (n. 117).
Cup < OE cuppe [cf. G Kopf] < Late L cuppa 'cup' (whence F
coupe) < L cüpa 'tub, vat'-. [157]
129
Because of the essentially random method of col­
lecting examples for this book, their number may not corre­
late correctly with frequency; it is known on independent
grounds e.g. that *b is uncommon in PIE. [157]
nn. 130-136 212

Historically, the b ~ ρ alternation here is not

the same as the others. [157]
131
From wr-b- 'turn, twist1. Closely related are
words like worm, vermin, vermicide 'worm-killer', writhe
[τ-], wrench, wry, wriggle, wrist, wring, and a number from
wr-t- like (east)ward(s), as well as vertebra, vertex,
a-/di-/extro-/in(tro)-/per-/re-/sub-vert, a-/'con-/in-/per-/
re-/trans-/uni-verse, controversy &c; cf. n. 82. This root
shows clear examples of L V ~ Ε W, as also in volition,
voluntary, volunteer, benevolent~will, would, wel('come);
vine(gar), vint-age/-ner ~ wine(ry) [cf. A wayn; ooo] &c.
[157]
132
From wib- 'move back and forth'; note V ~ W of n.
131. [157]
133
From {kh d- 'grasp, seize, hold'}. Also prehen­
sile, ap-/com-/re-prehensive, reprehensible, comprehension,
and (through F) apprentice, apprise, reprisal, prey. Cf.
η. 134 and §1.10. For S development 'seize, grasp' > 'un­
derstand' in examples like comprehend, see my 1978c and
refs. there. [158]
131+
From contraction of pre-hed-, as also depredate.
For η % 0, η. 64; for (im)pregnability, n. 216. [158]
135
From {wd- 'water'}; Gk hydr-a/-ant/-ate/-aulic(s)/
-ide/-o-(electric)/-ous/-oxyl and Gmc otter from 0-grade ud-
(prothetic h before Gk U-; cf. prothetic W- in Slavic vydra)
wet from £-grade, and water from ö-grade (as also the R loan
vodka, a dim. of VODA 'water') belong here. [158]

136
From {sd- 'sit'}; cf. SOSED 'neighbor'. Soot [OE
sot] from M-lengthened o-grade by GVS (= sut) and idiosyn­
cratic shortening (= sut > [sut], like foot &c; cf. (105) of
III.4.2). Diachronically, words like assiduous, dissident,
insidious, preside(nt), reside, residue are from prefixed
forms of sedere 'sit', with e > i of n. 106; subside, sub­
sidiary, subsidy, however, are from sidere 'sit down'; syn-
 213 nn. 136-144

chronically, the difference between these two groups will

not be understood until the S of E has been studied more
carefully. We can notice, however, that subside permits
prepositional phrases with a directional feature: The riv­
er water subsided to (*at) its former level, vs She re­
sided at (*to) her former estate. [158]
137
From wrg- 'work'; W drops in Gk forms (n. 86
s.f,). Argon, one of the "inert gasses", belongs here:
NEG a- + -rg-> lit. 'non-worker, inactive one'--a coined
word; similarly, leth-arg-y> a compound whose first mem­
berisrelatedtoLethe.[159]
138
From {gl- 'cold'}; here also belong jelly, gel­
atin (ous) , congeal, regelate 'refreeze', and 0-grade gla­
cier, glacial&c[gelâre'freeze',glacies'ice', OE cald,
col, G kalt, kühlj OCS zledlca 'ice, frost']. [159]

From glewpx- 'split'. Hier- means 'sacred' (as

139

in hieratic, hierarch &c); hence hier-o-glyph 'sacred

carving' and--with extension of n. 35--hieroglyphics 'any
undecipherable symbols'. Eier- in G Hei-rat 'marriage' of
n. 124 is unrelated. [159]

l40
°With cal- from {kl- 'beauty'}; cf. κάλλος., kalei­
doscope 'beauty-observer', Calliope &c. [160]
141
From {gr- 'scratch'}; cf. Ε kerf, OE ceorfan
'cut'., G kerben, ZREB-, and also n. 98. [160]
142
From {sg- 'track down, trace'}. [160]
143
From yu-g- 'join'; cf. III.5.4. [160]
144
Cf. L mulgêre, Gth miluks, άμελγειν &c from PIE
*mlg-9 beside γάλα, L lac. The last two are from PIE gig
the former by idiosyncratic insertion of a into glag-t-
(cf. γάλακτος = gen. of γάλα), the latter by idiosyncratic
dissimilatorylossofg-inglag-t-(cf.lactis-gen.of
lac). From this stem, Ε has words like Galaxy 'the Milky
nn. 144-152 214

Way', (inter)galactic, lactate, lacteal &c. Detail on his­

torical development, see Meillet 1950: 64 and refs. there.
[160]
145
From pxlg- 'burn'; cf. flame in §1.8. [160]
146
From (s)ti(-g-) 'prick1, source also of dis-/ex-
stinguish (n. 64) and sti-m-(ulate). Stylus is from o-
grade stoi-l-; orthographic y is irrelevant: cf. stiletto
with -*£-. Without s- we have thistle < Qi-s-t-l < Qi-h-stl-
< ti-k-stl- < ti-g-stl-, in which both radical t- and suf­
fixal -g- are shifted, but g before s is devoiced and fol­
lows the path of k; for PR [Oisal], t is.dropped between
s--1, (cf. grist(le), pestle, whistle &c; similarly with
k in muscle, corpuscle: cf. As in [-kyalar] with U [ys],
parallel to miracle ~ miraculous &c). Of course t after s
(as in stick, grist &c) does not shift to Θ. [160]
147
From {pxr- 'carry'}; cf. φερειν fcarry', -φόρος
'carrying', φώρ 'thief'; f ero 'carry', fors, fortis 'luck',
fur'thief';OEheran-,BERUT 'take', BREMJA 'burden'. [162]

148
From pxid- 'split'; cf. n. 93. [162]
149
From {pXr- 'cut'}; nn. 84, 154. [162]
150
From pxrg- 'break'; cf. infraction &c in n. 64.
[162]

From {npx- 'cloud, mist'}; cf. G Nebel, NEBO (is

151

¿Ζ- in Lth debesis from dangus 'sky'?). [162]

From {pxl- 'swell'}; with suffixal kX, this root

152

offers an example of Ε g alternating with glides: bulge ~

bellow(s) ~ belly. I cannot demonstrate this here, but sor­
row/sorry does not parallel bellows/belly despite the g in
G Sorge, OE sorg; our guess is that closer investigation
will show sorry (but not sorrow) derived from the N-stem un­
derlying sore [OE sar, Gth sair 'pain']. [163]
 215 nn. 153-158

153
Lehrer uses bull in a strange pair of examples,
claiming bull-cow and duke-duchess "would seem best treat­
ed as related meanings of different lexical units" (287);
it is hard to see how these suggestions correlate with her
earlier claim that "ultimately decisions should be made in
terms of explanatory adequacy and total consistency" (286) :
if one lists duke-duchess as separate, unrelated lexical
entries (with similarity in meaning by chance, like anger-
wrath, happy-pleased),one fails to make explicit both the
conjoined sound-meaning relationship between -ess in duch­
ess and in editress, laundress, tigress, princess &c and the
conjoined sound-meaning relationship between duke and duch-
(where U~u and k ~ c are relatively frequent); on the
other hand, if one derives bull from cow (or vice versa),
all the conjoined sound-meaning relationships proposed a-
bove for bull are missed as well as those for cow with
words like kine 'cows', bovine~ boustrophedon¿ bucolic,
buffalo, butter, hecatomb [L bos, bovis, 3ους, βοος, OE cü9
Slavic govedo] &c. Such observational inadequacy is in
large measure due to the peculiar view that entries in the
lexicon of Ε are representations of "words" rather than ab­
stract morphemes (roots). [163]

From {pxr- 'point, pierce'}; doubtless this root

154

and the root in n. 149 are the same. [163]

155
From {txy- 'suck(le)'}. [164]
156
The -d is a PRT-suffix appearing also in words
like cold (cf. cool, chill), old (cf. al-iment(ation)¿ ad-
-ul-t, ad-ol-escent, al-ma (mater)), sad (cf. sa-turate,
sa-tis(fy) &c), loud &c. [164]
157
From rw-t - 'red'; cf. Lth raudas &c. Anlaut e-
in erythro- is prothetic (no Gk words begin with r-); cf.
erysipelas lit. 'red skin', mentioned under pelt in §1.1.
[164]
158
From {t l- 'hollow, cavity, con-cave/-vex'}.
[164]
nn. 159-168 216

159
From {t s- 'holy'}. In profane, S development of
pro- (PFX.l) is 'forward' > 'before1 > 'in front of' > 'out­
side'; hence, pro-fane Outside the -fan- temple', with fan
< fas-η- 'holy place' [L fanum 'temple' < fas~n-om]. See
under festival in App.1.1. [164]
160
From tXr-m- 'support'. [165]
161
From t y-k - 'knead'; v. figure above and dough
in (107) of III.4.3. A L cognate is fingere, fiotus 'form
shape'. [165]
162
From tXr-s- '(be) bold'; cf. 0E durran. [165]
163
From {tXW- 'fly about like/fill with/rise like a
cloud of dust', whence 'darken, confuse perceptions'}. [165]
64
This and the next two words with t- < th- by
Grassmann'slaw;wealready saw this under pistology in
§1.8 s.f. [165]

From tXw-r- 'door'; cf. OVER' (but Lth dury s ; v.

165

Meillet 1950: 47). [165]

166
FromWP-t x - 'speak'; cf. Lth vardas 'name' &c. The
alternation ν ~ w in verb ~ word was mentioned in n. 131 s.f.
167
From {kxr- 'desire'}; n. 120. [166]
168
Examples of g > y, Another instance is L hester-
nal 'of yesterday', whose first segment must originate from
kx-; the E cognate should therefore be *gester(day), but it
is not because g > y (forms like OE geostran-, G gestern sup­
port this analysis). Other examples include saga 'heroic
narrative' ~ say [OE secgan, G sagen; an E variant with w,
incidentally, is saw 'maxim, saying' {an old saw)]; swagger
~ sway [ON sveigja]; ogle 'stare at' ~ eye [OE êage, G Auge;
possibly cf. H 'ayin 'eye']; drag ~ dray 'cart for heavy
loads' [OE drœge ; draw is a variant with w]; flog, flagel­
late ~ flail; wagon ~ wain 'kind of wagon'; garden ~ yard
 217 nn. 168-177

[OE geard]; irrigate ~ rain [OE regn, G Regen]; sprig, 'small

twig' ~ spray 'small branch'; gall, gold ~ yellow, yolk (all
from {kxl- 'shine'}; cf. ZËLTYJ, and with polnoglasie ZOLO-
T09 Lth geltônas 'yellow' &c); in n. 152 we mentioned bulg
~ belly. [166]
169
From {kxr- 'gut, entrails'}. [166]
170
From {wkx- 'carry, move'}; cf. venere 'carry, con­
vey % OE wegan 'carry, move, weigh', G Weg, bewegen, wägen,
wiegen, VEZTI, VOZIT', δχος < *ίεχος. See nn. 171-2 and
§5.4. The examples show V α> w of η. 131. [166]
171
MF vehement < vehemens 'rushing' < venere. [166]

172
With deaspiration before t; cf. vectus = PRT of
vehere. Similarly, vex(ation) [vexare] belong here. [166]
173
The next three sections deal with labiovelars; as
can be seen from the alternations, these segments must be
distinguished from plain velars of §§1.3, 1.6, 1.10. Labio­
velars must also be distinguished from sequences of velar
followed by w. In a different framework (but not totally
unrelated to ours), Meillet summarized the situation as fol­
lows : "Les postpalatales labio-vélaires sont des phonèmes
uns et non pas des groupes de consonnes; *kw est autre chose
que *klw: le *klw, atteste par skr.cv,lit.sv,dans skr.
acvah 'cheval', lit. asva 'jument', est représente en grec
par ΠΠ dans ίππος, et non par un simple π comme le *kw de
έπομαι, cf. lat. sequor et lit. sekù 'je suis'." [166]
174
From {ykW- 'liver'}. [167]
175
From likW- 'leave (out)'; n. 92. [167]

From okw - 'see'; for -oc- in atrocity, ferocity,

176

velocity &c, n. 243. [167]

Initial p- assimilates to -k w , whence kwink - <

177
w
pnk -. [167]
nn. 178-185 218

178
The reverse assimilation from η. 177: pimp- >
fimf- > fIv- by VN; cf. OE fif, G fünf, Gth fimf. [167]
179
From {kWl- 'move about, turnT}; cf. (O)KOLO. For
(bi)cycle, cyclic [κύκλος] from redup. kwe-kwl- > ku-kl-,
cf. Meillet, 1950:"52, and refs. there to Saussure and Ost-
hoff. [167]
80
From k t-W-r-; details are not given for Ρ devel­
opmentofallformscited[Lthketuri,, ZETYRE, CETVËRTYJ].

181
From {gwr- 'heavy'}. [168]
182
From {gwy- 'live'}. Gk hygiene (with hy- < su-
'well'; υγιής 'living well') belongs here, as well as ZIV,
Lth gyvas, Skt jivah, Oir beo 'living', bethu 'life' (cf.
uisce 'water' bethad 'of life' [aqua vitae, F eau-de-vie],
Ir/Gael uiscebeathadh, whence archaic E usquebaugh; whis­
key < uisce-). [168]
183
From {gWn- 'woman'}. Queen (also quean) are from
M-lengthened e-grade k en-\ cf. ZËNY 'women'. [168]
184
From {gwm- 'come, go'}: venid < g m-id; for come
[kAm], cf. OE cuman. Here belong—in addition to all the L
prefixed forms like invent 'come upon' (cf. NAJTI 'find',
lit. 'come on')—Gk words like Ν base [cf. βάσις 'a step­
ping)' < βαίνω 'go' < *βαν-ιω < *βαμ-ιω, like venid, <
çj~m-id], basis, basic, anabasis [άναβασις 'a going ana- up,
expedition up (from the coast)'], acrobat, aerobatics, adi-
abatic 'impassable < a- not to be bm-t gone dia- through',
diabetes 'disease characterized by excessive urination'
[διαβήτης lit. 'a going through'], ecbatic [έκβατδς 'coming
ex- out, coming to pass, resulting'], hyperbaton 'a going
hyper- over, transposition, inversion (in word-order)' &c.
[168]

185
From snyk~- 'snow' [nix, nivis; nivit, ninguit
with loss of s-y the last with inserted -ft-; SNEG]. [168]
 219 nn. 186-188

186
From {k~n- 'strike, kill'}. For d ~ s in -fend
~ fence, -fense, -fensible, -fensive, App.1.9. We are
pressed fat examples of kxw, and this is not a particu­
larly good one. Still, since there is no underlying ƒ, the
question of the source of [f] in all these words arises.
In a historical setting (which has nevertheless left its
imprint on NE), Meillet wrote (my additions in square
brackets):
"L'etymologie des mots commencant par ƒ est obscurcie par
le fait que lat. ƒ admet des origines multiples, à savoir,
pour n'envisager que des exemples surs:
bh : fero ['carry'; cf. -fer in §1.8]
dh : v. fecundus ['fertile'; cf. fecund in §1.9]
gwh : v. formus ['hot'; cf. thermal in next entry of text
and forceps under except in App.1.16]
ghw : v. ferus ['wild'; cf. feral in n. 189]
dhw : v. fores ['door'; cf. thyroid in §1.9]
s dans sr- : frigus ['cold'; cf. E (f)rigid, L frigidus~
rigidus~ all cognate with£)ϊγος<*σρΐγος
'cold']
m par dissimilation : v. formica ['ant', cf, III.5.3], et
peut-être dans *mr- : fremd (et cf. hibernas) ; *ml-
: v. flaccus.
gh- devant u : ν. fundo ['pour, melt'; cf. found in §1.10]
Dans ces conditions, les rapprochements ne peuvent passer
pour établis que là où les éléments communs autres que l'ini­
tiale sont nets. L'initiale n'enseigne presque rien." (E &
M, 208).
It is significant the L examples Meillet chose are also
Ε examples we chose: even without Meillet's instructive cau­
tion, we would perhaps have been led to the same conclusion
through consideration of Ε alone. But where there are few
examples, as for the present instance of kxw, analysis—"in­
ternal reconstruction"—is perforce inferential; its persua­
sive weight (if it has any) relies to some extent on a
plethora of examples elsewhere in §§1.1-1.13. [168]
187
From Kxwrm- 'heat'. [168]
188
It was shown in SPE e.g. that stress can be applied
nn. 188-190 220

differently to Vs than to Ns. In my 1972 it was shown the

rules of I.2.3 governing 0-1 clusters in R apply only to
Vs--such 0-1 clusters in As remain intact; here the cate­
gory V controls deletion--cf. As like DRJABL 'withered',
XRIPL 'hoarse', PODL 'vile', ODUTL 'swollen', ZAKORUZL
'shrivelled', KRUGL 'round', BLÈKL 'faded' &c. Again,
word-final Os are opened in (Tiberias) Masoretic Hebrew
(as in bitow 'his daughter' ~ bad 'daughter' [cf. masc.
ben 'son, child', A fem, bint] , ney~diy 'before me' ~
neyed 'before', mal~kiy 'my king' ~ melex 'king' [A malik]
&c),butnotinverbs(wayes~t'andhe drank', wateb~k 'and
she wept',W~yer~d'andlethim rule' &c; that the final
Os in verbs here are stops is likely because of the dagesh-
point in the (orthographic) letters; of course an underly­
ing continuant remains open: lexeQ 'to go', lex 'go (im­
perative) '; saß~to 'you returned', so$ 'he returned' &c);
this remark, incidentally, is not intended to solve any of
the difficult problems concerning stop ~ continuant in Se­
mitic. [169]
189
distinguished (if only on S grounds) from therio-
'beast, animal' < kxwr- 'wild (animal)', which also under­
lies L-based words like feral 'wild, savage', ferocious,
fierce &c (cf. ZVER' 'wild animal'). [169]
190
To give but one example, we have already mentioned
(n. 45) the -J ~ -ik- alternation in forms like speci-fy ,
multi-ply ~ -fik-ation, -piik-ation &c. Since often k > 0
in F (cf. de-spite 'looking down on' in PFX.l, ami < amicus,
OF fait (whence E feat) < factum 'smth. done, deed', frayer
'fray' < fricare 'rub', OF deliter < delectare 'delight'
&c), analysis can be made straightforward by marking the
forms "+F": -fak- > -fik- (η. 106) > -fi- > -fI (cf. OF
(speci)fier, (multi)plier) . Before -ity we have speci-fis-
-itys multi-plis-ity because k > s / i. Under this,
analysis, forms like honori-/terri-fik are marked "-F" and
therefore keep their velar (and preceding short vowel) in­
tact; fact, -fie, -ficate, -fication are L forms {feat is
the F variant of L fact, both ult. from L factum). The read­
er will find other motivations for introducing a feature " F"
scattered throughout the text and notes. I might point out
 221 nn. 190-193

also that native speakers of E usually find it easier to

learn F than G, even though G is a Gmc language· [170]
191
This is not a new formalism: Chomsky used it e.g.
in his MS study of Hebrew; the most recent work on E to use
the device is Guierre 1979. See also my work on R. [170]
192
Forms like OE gds, G Gans, GUS', LthZqsîs,Skt
hamsâh &c suggest we are dealing with a form spelled (rough­
ly) kxans-, in which case the L word ought to be anser <
hans er * Thus division mer-ganser is wrong; it should be
merg-anser, a compound for which we need only find relatives
in merg-, i.e. words like (e-/im-/sub-) merge, e-/im-/'sub­
mersion, demersal 'sunk de- down to the bottom' &c. For
support is L merg-ere 'plunge, dip, immerse'. A merganser
is thus a 'kind of diving goose', one that "merges". There
are many problems like this, some not yet soluble within
our framework: for example, arachn-oid means 'cobweblike'
(cf. araohn-id 'member of a class of invertebrates includ­
ing spiders'); the problem is how to derive the more speci­
fic, metaphorically extended meaning in arachnoid membrane
'thin (cobweblike) membrane enclosing the brain and spinal
cord'. For -old see my 1978c. [171]
193
0ne might think words like girdle/kirtie 'man or
woman's tunic' (archaic) belong here: in addition to the ap­
parent double application of Grimm's law, the two are reason­
ably close S, and both end in -le [-1]. But further inves­
tigation suggests such a connection suspect because both
words appear to be Gmc. Girdle and gird 'enclose (as with a
belt/band)' display the following Gmc characteristics: 1)
strong verb {girt alongside girded), 2) Gmc prefix in be­
gird, 3) Gmc instrument-suffix (cf. handde), lad(le), shoot/
shuttle, shove(l), spin (dle) , thimble, tool, tread(le) &c),
4) Gmc N-suffix -th in related girth (cf. breadth, depths
length, width &c of n. 218), and 5) apparently related yard
'enclosed area' (cf. courtyard, shipyard) with E g > y (cf.
arch, garth, OE geard, n. 168). The root here is {kxr- 'en­
close'}, whence girdÇle) directly from kxr-tx(-l), and yard
from α-grade with o > a by (81) of p. 113: J^r-tx- > krer-
nn. 193-194 222

-t - > kx or-tx - > gor-d- > gar-d- > [yard]. Kirtle is also
Gmc, from a root {(s)kr- '(cut) short'}, underlying words
like skirt, shirt (E sk > s, App. 1.19), short [cf. KRATKIJ,
KOROTKIJ], curt (ail) [G kvœz] &c. The pair girdle/kirtle
is instructive, however, in showing how widely spread and
deeply hidden are the processes of DM: they have little to
do with surface phenomena like PRs or spelling. An aside
on orthography:—
Sometimes it reflects a past historical stage (as W-
in write, wrist&c), sometimes not (as in whole, whore &c);
since there is no way to tell in advance if it does (not),
it is unreliable for serious linguistic analysis. Ortho­
graphic geminate oo, representing more than three different
vowel sounds (as in food, foot, blood, coordinate, oospore
&c), provides another good example (see III.4.2). [176]

The analysis may refer to accentual distribution,

of which we know little. Accent may also play a role in de­
termining envs. of the ablaut-rules discussed in 1.5, of
sonorant-syllabificatibn (1.6), and elsewhere. Early supra­
segmental configurations have doubtless left more than a
vestige behind them and are worthy of closer investigation;
cf. also n. 202 s.f. This inner accent is more important
for understanding the nature of DM in E than surface stress,
about which Guierre writes: "Contrairement à SPE, nous pen­
sons que l'analyse morphologique ne devient nécessaire, pour
résoudre le problème de l'accentuation, que dans les mots
relativement longs où la connaissance de ce que nous ap­
pelons le dérivant le plus "proche" fournit le complément
d'information nécessaire à l'affectation de l'accent ou des
accents /2/" (337). Knowledge of surface stress (alongside
other factors such as style of delivery, syntactic context,
degree of familiarity with the word in question &c) seems re­
quired to know when certain vowels may be reduced to 3, as
in agile [seg^l] ^agility [agilatE] vs servile [sárvll] ^
servility[ssrvilatE]—thatistosay, knowledge of surface
stress seems required for the production task (cf. n. 13) of
knowing how to "sound" some abstract representations (at
least in isolation). It is unfortunately the "sound" of
words which sometimes leads authors into mistaken claims
 223 nn. 194-198

like "les dissylabes ne peuvent etre que des radicaux, des

préfixes non-suffixes, des suffixes non-préfixes, ou des
composes de deux composants monosyllabiques" (op. cit.,
338)--or Hoenigswald's conditionally softened but neverthe­
less false proposition that "-meat in sweetmeats (if at all
identifiable as a morph) is in a sense merely homonymous
at the later stage with meat elsewhere" (66) [cf. nutmeat
&c]. [180]
195
The "derivation" given seems to suggest a solu­
tion, which is not what I intended. There are other forms
with sporadic metathesis around r (as in crowd ~ curd (n.
249), cruller ~ curl, firth a, frith^ granary ^ garner^
skirmish 'b scrimmage¿ turbulent ^ trouble &c), and serious
analysis of three ^ third would at least require consider­
ation of forms like these. Notice also metathesis in L
tertius 'third', whence Ε tertiary (not *tritiary). An ex­
ampleofmetathesisaround liquid Z, incidentally, may be
Lth obalas, ôbuolas, Latv abols ~ OCS abluko, JABLOKO 'ap­
ple' (the clearly trisyllabic R form posed a problem in my
1972; cf. Pol jabiko). [180]
196
Appearance of u is not restricted to n. For exam­
ple, from {dm- 'dark, obscure'} we have e-grade dim (with e
raised before N ) , O-grade damp (with o > a), and 0-grade
(in the) dumps. [180]
197
Vowel change of this type before Ν is well attest­
ed and not restricted to IE. Thus e.g. fem, of Η ben 'son'
(mentioned in n. 188) is bath (as in Bathsheba, lit. 'daugh­
ter of seven'), cf. A ibn 'son' ~ bint 'daughter'. [180]
198
Morphemic {n- 'NEG'} is not restricted to this
prefix: it appears also in naughty nay, ne(farious)3 neuter
(L uter 'either of two', cf. whether) , nihil, slang nix,
non-, none (App.2.4), no(t), nothing(ness), null(ify), an­
nul (ad- 'to(ward)') &c. Close analysis provides an inter­
esting problem in determining source of -g- in words like
(ab)negate, renegade, renege [rEnig], neglect¿ negotiate
&c, all of which contain the morpheme in question, η-i if we
postulate (incorrectly) the morpheme is spelled ng-9 why
nn. 198-201 224

does no reflex of g appear in no(t) , non(e), null &c? In

deny, the g is dropped in F dénier from L denegare ; [k
nix 'no(thing)' is historically apparently not from this g
(cf. not only G nicht(s), but also OEnäwiht,lit. fno
whit'). For n-either, cf. n. 108. [180]

"UPRs are slightly simplified: because η >nbe­

fore V (un-American, in-edible, an-archy &c), the prefix
apparently must be bounded both left and right by #; S-syl-
labification of I.3.2.6 will then apply properly to the
strings #n#V.... [180]
200
As in an-hydrous (cf. hydro, n. 135), an-omalous
(cf. homogeneous), an-emio (cf. hemal), an-aerobic 'cap­
able of living [-b- < -bio-] an- without air', an-esthetic
'producing an- lack of perception/sensation/"esthesia"',
an-algesia 'absence of pain [-alg- as in nevcr-alg-ia] ', an
alphabetic, anaphrodisiao (cf. Aphrodite, goddess of love),
anarchy,anisotropic'notisotropic'(physics),anonym (cf.
syn-onym), anechoic &c—opposed to arw:- 'up(ward), again'
in ana-baptist, ana-chronism, anagram, ana-lects, analogy,
ana-lysis, anaphylaxis (cf. prophylaxis), ana-plasty, ana-
strophe (cf. catastrophe), ana-thema, Ana-tolia 'rising
above (the horizon)', anatomical (cf. a-tom 'not cut')
[181]
201
As in a-bio-, a-byss, acardiac, achromatic, a-
critical, adiabatic 'not passable' (cf. diabetes), agnostic,
agonic 'without angles' (cf. hexa-gon(al), dia-/ortho-gonal,
genuflect, knee(l) &c), alexia, amoral, apathy (III.5.2,
s.f.), aphasia, a-pnea, apterous 'without wings',80 asexual
(a Gk-L hybrid) , asocial (another hybrid) , asphyxiate, a-
static, astigmatism, asymmetric, asymptote,80 athanasy (cf.
eu-thanasia),atheist, 1 5 9 athermancy,187 atom (cf. ana-tomy,
en-tom-ology, epi-tome, append-ec-tom-y, tmesis &c, I.5.
s.f.), atonic, α-trophy, azonic, α-zote 'nitrogen, a- with­
out -zo- life' (F; coined by Lavoisier), a-zygous 'not form­
ing a pair' (cf. con-jug-al, yoke < yw-g-), &c. It is dif­
ficult to understand how Guierre can call this a(n)- form
of the NEG prefix "le préfixe le moins transparent et, en
 225 nn. 201-203

outre, semantiquemeiit polyvalent11 (361) ; the examples here

seem to show the opposite· Disregarding the infrequent L
form i- (it occurs also in ignoble and ignominy), the same
can be said of the transparent, monoguous in- (im-, il-,
ir-) and un- forms of NEG η-. Incidentally, the chem. term
anion (coined by Faraday), which Guierre finds exceptional
(514), uses the prefix ana- (not n-) and means (roughly, as
always) 'that which goes up' (cf. chem. cation). [181]
202
As we have seen, there are a number of subsidiary
traits, depending on the particular morpheme that follows
(medial -n-, as in phil-a-tely, nyct-a-/hemer-a-lopia
'night-/day-blindness', neur-a-sthenia &c is not frequent),
characterizing this prefix. The overall generality is that
n- is realized as 7n-, where V is high in L-E, low in Gk.
Both L and Ε are characterized elsewhere by "weak" vowels
except in root-initial position. See, e.g., Hoenigswald
(117-8) and cf. Meillet (1950: 3-4). The proper descrip­
tion seems to be V-weakening increases as one approaches
the end of the word: raising in certain prefixes and often
medially (cf. η. 106), dropping in final syllables--this is
a general view, with several particular restrictions: it
may be related to accentual conditions of which we know
little in L, but in Gmc there was a strong word-initial
stress. [181]
203
Notice how these words are "isolated", in the
sense that they generally do not belong to "families" yet
--the most highly valued grammar of Ε does not relate
mongoose (pl. -gooses) 'kind of weasellike mammal' to
goose beyond specifying the fortuitously shared PR [gUs].
Other examples of non-IE words include adobe (A ?at-toba
'the brick'; for??αΙ-,cf. η. 53), algebra (A), Alhambra
(another loan from A [through Sp]: ?al-hamra 'the red
[castle]'--intrusive -b-, as in gamble &c), aloha, alpaca,
Armageddon, axolotl, bamboo, bayou, bey, caoutchouc, cash­
ew, Cathay, caucus (not L, but Algonq), cayenne, chiffon,
chimp(anzee), China, chow mein, coati, cooee, cossack (not
Slav, but Trk), cot 'bed', cotton, Dalai (Mongol dalai 'o-
cean'), dingo, geisha, ghoul, harem, hooch, hookah, horde,
nn. 203-207 226

howdah, iguana, junk 'Chinese flat-bottomed sailing ves­

sel', kangaroo, kayak, ketchup, kismet, kosher, koto, kow­
tow, Kremlin (not R, but Trk), lama, moose, piranha,
(ra)eoon, tsunami, wampum, xebec, zouave &c. The reader
may be interested in looking at a work like Maxim Newmark's
Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases (Philosophical Li­
brary: N.Y.; 1950). [185]
204
Grimm's law does not affect the second 0 in cer­
tain O-clusters: sp9 st> sk9 skw, kt 9 pt (n. 113). If the
"law" applies from left to right (cf. my 1972), we can
characterize the restriction as "inapplicable to voiceless
0 after continuant 0". To kt9 e.g., Grimm's law first
shifts the leftmost 0 (kt > xt), but not the rightmost 0,
which now lies after a continuant 0, x; hence the ult0 re­
sult of applying Grimm's law to kt is ht. Similarly, pt >
ft and the sequences s0 remain intact. For t in daughter,
night, sleight &c, II.5.2. [186]
05
As Grimm put it, "Die vier liquidae sind unwandel­
bar, ihr flüssiges element erhält sie gerade aufrecht in al­
ler gewaltsamen erschütterung; mit ihnen tragen sich bloss
einzelne vertauschungen, Versetzungen, ausstossungen, ge-
minationen zu, deren ungeachtet ihre wesentliche bedeutung
dieselbe bleibt" (1893: I, 581). [186]
06
E h9 sometimes called a sonorant glide, is mostly
from underlying k (§1.3) or from Gk s- (n. 89). E h does
not syllabify, 0 after h does not shift (n. 204), and in
general h is usually voiceless (but not always: Skt h9 e.g.,
was apparently voiced [Wackernagel I: 242-4], and E h is
sometimes voiced [aned] &c)· These are characteristics of
0, not S; but note the behavior of NEG an- before h (§2.5).
207
Other examples include: beard/Bart, bread/Brot,
bride/Braut, cold/halt, day/Tag, dale/Tal, dance/tanzen,
daughter/Tochter, dead/tot, death/Tod, dew/Tau, dish/Tisch,
do/tun, -dorn/'-tum, dough/Teig, dove/Taube, drop/trop fen,
dream/Traum, dreary/traurig, drive/treiben, garden/Garten,
girdle/Öurtel, hold/halten, mid (in midwife)/mit, need/Not,
 227 nn. 207-211

red/rot, thread/Draht, tide [OE tid 'season, time'], time/

Zeit 'time' &c. [187]
208
historically, the vowel is long here (cf. OE woê-
pen,ONväpn,Gthpi.wepna&c),shortenedbeforethepn-
cluster. But synchronically, there seems no reason not to
start with an underlying short vowel. [187]
209
Other examples include: apple/Apfel [0CS abluko,
Lthóbñlas,Oíraball],carp/Karpfen,oheap/kaufen(cf. the
Gmc loan in KUPIT' 'to buy ' ), drop/trop fen, drip/tr
gape/gaffen, harp/Ear f e, help/helfen, hop/hüpfen, pan/Pfan-
ne, penny/Pfennig, pepper/Pfeffer, pipe/Pfeife, plant/Fflan-
ze, plow/Pflug, pool/Pfuhl (cf. BOLOTO), pray/fragen (cf. F
prier, L precari, PROSIT') , ripe/reif, sharp/'scharf, sheep/
Schaf, ship/Schiff, tap/Zapfen, thorp/Oorf, tip/Zipfel &c.
[187]
210
Other examples include: better/besser, cat/Katze,
eat/essen, holt/Holz, hot/heiss, kite/Kauz, nut/Nuss, plant/
Pflanze, rattle/rassein, smart/Schmerz(en) 'pain', tail/Za-
gel, tarne/zahm, tap/Zapfen, teach/zeigen, tear/Zähre (cf.
OL dacruma), ted/verzetteln, ten/zehn, throat/Drossel, tick/
Zecke, tide [OE tid 'season, time'], time/Zeit 'time', (un)-
till/Ziel, timber/Zimmer, tin/Zinn, tinder/Zunder, tip/Zipf­
el, tithe (cf. tenth /Zehnte, to(o)/zu, toe/Zehe, toll/Zoll,
tongs/Zange, tongue/Zunge (cf. OL dingua), tooth/Zahn, tuft/
Zopf, tug, tuck/zucken, twelve/zwolf, twenty/zwanzig, twig/
Zweig, twine/zwirnen, twinkle/zwinkern, twist/Zwist (with t
intact after s; other examples are ghost/Geist, steal/steh-
len, thirst/Durst, thistle/Distel &c), twitch/zwicken, twit­
ter/ zwitschern &c.
211
0ther examples include: bath/Bad, both/beide,
cloth(e)/Kleid, death/Tod, earth/Erde, feather/Feder, hearth/
Herd, mouth/Mund, thank/danken, that/das(s), thatch/decken,
thaw (cf. §1.2)/verdauen (lit. 'to liquefy'; cf. TAJAT'
'melt'), the/der, then/dann, thick/dick, thief/Dieb, thin/
dünn (cf. L tenuis), thine/dein, thing/Ding, think/denken,
thirst(y)/Durst(ig), thirteen/dreizehn, thorn/Dorn, thorp/
nn. 211-217 228

Dorfj thou/du (cf. F tu, TY9 and possibly A ti-), thrash/

dreschen, thread/Draht, threat(en)/verdriessen, throat/
Drossel, throng/Drang, through/durch, thumb/Daumen, thun­
der/Donner &c. [187]
212
0ther examples include: ban/Bann, bare/bar, bath/
Bad, beam/Baum, bear/Bar, beard/Bart, beaver/Biber, beer/
Bier, book/Buch, both/beide, bread/Brot, break/brechen,
bride/Braut, crab/Krebs, ebb/Ebbe &c. Medial b is not fre­
quent in E; it seems to occur primarily in compounds (de­
bris, micro-be, neigh-bor &c) and in words of non-IE ori­
gin (molybdenum, plumbic &c). [187]
213
0ther examples include: gallows/Galgen, gang/
Gang, gape/gaff en, ghost/Geist, girdle/Gürtel, give/geben,
glass/Glass, gleam/glimmen, grave/Grab, twig/Zweig &c.
214
0ther examples include: cake (and cooky, but not
cook of n. 244)/Kuchen, cat/Katze, calf/Kalb, can/konnen,
carve/kerben (cf. γράφειν), claw/Klaue, cow/Kuh, crab/
Krebs, keel/Kiel, keen/kuhn, ken/kennen, kettle/Kessel, key/
Keil, kid/Kitze, kin/Kind, king/König, kiss/küssen, kite/
Kauz, knee/Knie, lick/(seh)lecken, lock/Locke, thick/dick,
think/denken, tick/Zecke, zinc/Zinc & c But notice: book/
Buch, break/brechen, brook/Bruch, cake/Kuchen, crack/krach-
en, like/gleich, make/machen, ox/Ochse, seek/suchen, speak/
sprechen, stroke/streichen, weak/weich, week/Woche, wick/
Wieche &c. [187]
215
Meillet correctly points out (1950: 79) that there
are various general tendencies--such as development of ve­
lars to continuants (as in Czech, Ukr, and A ) , for example
--which are not germane to the question of how stops develop­
ed in Gmc. [188]
216
Impregnable 'able to resist capture' does not be­
long here, as can be seen from the meaning; its -g-, however,
is spurious (could it be due to -g- in impregnate?). Cf.
nn. 134, 217. [194]
217
In 1978a we gave the solution to the o-problem for
 229 η. 217

the "name"- and "tooth"-roots. To analyze the "name"-root

fully, we need both that solution and the rule of analogy
suggested here. Adoption of such a rule-type, however,
would permit us also to account for the g of impregnable
(n. 216). Derivation from L e-grade of {k d- 'grasp,
seize'} is then roughly -pre-hed- > -pre-hend- > -prend- >
-pren- > -pregn- [loss of d is F, cf. prendre, prenable;
insertion of g is thus specific to E]. Without recourse
to a "rule of analogy", we still have to insert g (since
it cannot be underlying), but can give no rationale for
the insertion because *-prenable is Ρ well-formed in E.
Analysis of (im)pregnable (like that of the "name"-
root) is a real linguistic problem. We feel the two solu­
tions offered here (arbitrary insertion of g or insertion
of g by analogy to PR of impregnate) are the only viable
solutions. For contrast, let us consider two incorrect
possibilities : --
If we derive pregnable from {gn- 'beget'}, the cost
is unmotivated erasure of this S representation and unmo­
tivated insertion of the S representation of khd-· Clearly
this analysis is wrong. If allowed, we might as well de­
rive manatee from main (or mane) by similar arbitrary, S
erasure and insertion rules. Notice, incidentally, the two
im-*s of impregnable and impregnate are also morphemically
different.
The second incorrect possibility we consider derives
impregnable from a nonexistent root *{(pre)gn- 'grasp,
seize'}. This analysis is also unacceptable, because it
fails to make explicit conjoined sound-meaning relation­
ships between impregnable and words derived from {khd-
'grasp, seize1}: prey, predator(y), prehensile, apprehend,
get, and so on (n. 133)·
Consideration of these incorrect possibilities brings
out more clearly the correctness of the g-insertion solu­
tions. It is now a matter of deciding whether or not we
will permit the theory of (morpho)phonology to incorporate
rules of analogy.
One might begin argument against rules of analogy by
noting the forms to undergo the rules (*imprenable, *eono-
men &c) must refer to PRs of unrelated words {impregnate,
n. 217 230

cognoscible &c). But in the case of ignominy,ignominious,

insertion of g (by analogy to ignore, ignorance &c) must oc­
cur before application of the rule(s) governing L prefixai
in- 'not' in front of gn, Thus this example may lead to an
ordering paradox. One does not want, however, to base one's
abstract, theoretical structure on one or two unique in­
stances of this type. And we will see below that occurrence
of ordering paradoxes is not restricted to analogical deriva­
tions,
I cite one more example from E: for now, this will be
our last look at ordinals. In 1st, the underlying ordinal-
suffix -t apparently fails to undergo Grimm's law because of
the preceding continuant (n. 204). But this interpretation
raises a problem with three other ordinals: 5th (for expected
*fift [cf. OE flfta]), 6th (for expected *sixt [cf. 0E six-
ta]), 12th (for expected *twelft [cf. OE twelfta]). We can­
not assume a special M-boundary here (deriving 6th from
siks#t- &c), because such a boundary would block shortening
(and probably also voice-assimilation) in 5th from fiv#t--we
used this boundary to block shortening in PAST/PRT of "regu­
lar11 verbs like leaped [lEpt] from lEp#d (opposed to leapt
[lept] from lEp-t), and so on (v. the derivations in n. 63).
Apparently we have to explain why Grimm's law applies
to 5th, 6th, 12th, but not to 1st. If we use a rule of a-
nalogy to solve this problem, therefore, it looks as if the
rule will specifically have to mention the ordinals 5th, 6th,
and 12th: a costly rule.
But the problem may not be so severe: we may have mis-
posed it in the last paragraph. Historically, e.g., it is
known that t in first is not the ordinal-suffix, but a seg­
ment of the SUP-suffix (v. PFX.3, s.v. fore- s.f.). We may
well want to use (roughly) that analysis synchronically:
without it, we would have to explain why an s appears at all
in first, and we may run into difficulty making explicit the
sound-meaning relationships between first and words like
fore(most)3 for(ward), furth-er/-est3 pro-to-/-tero-, reci-
-pro-c-al/-ate &c; the seemingly aberrant behavior of ordi­
nal -t adds another, supporting motive. With a SUP-interpre-
tation of first, the rule of analogy is simply "ordinal -
-B by analogy to -Θ in all the other ordinals". In addition,
 231 nn. 217-218

we have to specify--no great price--that fir- is like bet-,

lœt- &c in not undergoing V-insertion of (47') on p· 102:
we have first, best, last &c, not *firest, *bettest, flat­
test.
218
The examples (some with shortening before C-clus-
ters and some with umlaut) are: breadth < broad, dearth <
dears depth < deep, drouth (a variant spelling of "drought")
< dry (OE drügod < dryge 'dry', cf. II·5.2), filth < foul
(cf. (94) in III.4.1), greenth (not *grenth, *greeth) <
green, length < long, mirth (OE myrigd, mirigd < myrig(e),
mirig 'pleasing, delightful', the source of NE merry), sloth
< slow, strength < strong, truth (and its doublet, troth) <
true, warmth < warm, width < wide, wrath < wroth 'angry' (OE
wrœppu < wrap; v. wreath at end of this note), youth < young
(§5.2 s.f.).
There are also Ns in -th for which the presumably basic
As do not appear; the following alphabetical list includes
all common Ns in -th (except those above and numbers like
fifth &c) in boldface, with perfunctory comments on some:
aftermath (clearly not related to mathematics, which is
from Gk mn-th- 'have one's mind aroused' (n. 81); aftermath
means '(grass which springs up) after the (first) mowing',
cf. OE mœp 'crop, harvest', G Mahd 'a mowing', Gmc *mäp-
'what is mown', from {mX- 'mow'}, which also underlies mow
[OE mäwan], meadow [OE mœdwe]) ; azimuth [F < A ?as-sumüt
'the ways', n. 53; see zenith below]; behemoth [H behe­
moth 'huge beast'; cf. BEGEMOT, a synonym for GIPPOPOTAM--on
R names for animals (and other things), incidentally, one
will enjoy reading Genevra Gerhart's The Russian's World:
Life and Language (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc; 1974)];
berth and birth (both from {phr- 'carry'}); bismuth 'a me­
tallic element' [ooo; apparently not A]; booth [from ODan
both]; breath (OE brœp, brep, cf. E breathe); broth;
cloth (from gly- 'stick to(gether)', cf. clothe, clay, glue,
gluten); colocynth 'the bitter-apple'; crith 'a unit of
h
weight for gases' (coined); death(from {t w)- 'die'}, cf.
dead, funeral [fünus, füneris; cf. also E funebrial < fü-
nebris < *funesris], funereal); earth (from er-t-, cf.
aardvark; OE eor'èe, G Erde, δρα 'earth', εραζε 'to the
n. 218 232

ground1, and possibly A ^ard 'earth, ground1); faith (ME

feith < OF feid < fidem; from phyt^1- 'persuade; trust',
the source of other Ε words like bid, (a)bide, affidavit
(ad-) j bona fide, confederacy, confederat(ion), confeder-
ative, confidant^ confide (nt) , defy [F défier < OF des fier
< VL dis-fid-äre], defiant, diffidence 'distrust' (dif- <
dis-), fealty 'fidelity', federal(ist), federate, fiance(e),
(in) fidelity, fiducial, fiduciary, perfidious, perfidy &c) ;
firth 'narrow arm of the sea' (ON fjördr; here belong words
like fjord^ ford, ferry, (wel)fare, opportune 'leading ob-
to the port', importunate yin- without a port' (whence
1
troublesomely urgent', whence 'unreasonably persistent1),
porch, port(-ico/-ly) &c); froth ; garth, girth (cf. gird,
girt, girdle, yard of n. 193); Goth; growth; hadith
'body of traditions relating to Muhammad' [A haa%th 'tra­
dition']; health (cf. heal, hale, whole &c); heath (cf.
heathen 'living on the heath', heather); (platy)helminth
'(flat)worm' (n. 266); hyacinth and related jacinth; kith
'acquaintance, one who is known' (v. Wreath below); laby­
rinth; lath (related to lattice); -lith [λίθος 'stone'];
month [OE monad, related tomona 'moon']; moth (perhaps
related to maggot, mawkish 'maggoty'); mouth [OE müd <
mnQ- 'chew'; G Mund]; myth [μύθος 'word, speech, tale,
legend, myth']; north; oath (OE ap, Gth aiths, G Eid; cf.
III.4.3); (war)path (OE pœp, G Pfad, not of Gmc origin,
and related to find, punt 'river-boat; propel with a pole',
lit. '(floating) bridge', pontoon, pontifex lit. 'bridge-
maker', pontiff, peripatetic, sputnik; synchronically, path
is probably to be treated as a Gk derivative, from pn-iy1-,
although this is historically inaccurate); (psycho)-path
'one -path suffering (in the psych- mind)' (related to pa­
thos, pathetic, patho-, (em)-pathy, nepenthe &c); peri­
anth (bot.; cf. peri-, anther); philomath 'lover of learn­
ing' (n. 81); pith [OE pipa < Gmc pith-an]; plinth [πλίν­
θος 'brick']; polymath 'very learned man' (n. 81); pyra-
canth 'fire-thorn'; rath 'prehistoric Irish earthwork';
ruth (from V rue; for the meaning, v. WEB, s.v. "sympathy");
sheath (OE scead, G Scheide, probably from skei- 'cut, se­
parate' and related to abscise in PFX.l); shibboleth [H] ;
sleuth; smith [Gth (aiza)smipa '(copper)smith']; snath
 233 n. 218

'handle of a scythe' [G schneiden 'cut']; south; spilth

'what is spilt'; stealth (cf. steal); strath [ult. from
strata]; swath [OE swœd, G Schwad]; tallith 'Jewish
praying-scarf' [H]; terebinth 'tree exuding turpentine'
[τερεβινθος, perhaps non-IE]; tilth 'tillage'; tooth;
turpeth 'root of an Asiatic vine' [F < A < Pers]; ver­
mouth [F vermout]; wealth (cf. (common)weal); worth
(if not from A worth); wraith 'an apparition'; wreath
'ring of flowers' (from {wr- 'turn'} of nn. 82, 131, the
source of words like wrench, wrest, wring, wrinkle, writhe,
arch, wroth 'twisted, angry' (from OE wrap 'angry'; cf.
wrœppu 'anger, wrath' < wrap--not, incidentally, the only
word with geminate th, cf. kith < ME cuththe < OE cythth
'knowledge', apparently from cud 'known' = PRT of cunnan
'know'), wry, (north)ward, weird, worm, and probably wor­
ry); zenith [F < Sp < A samt-(?ar-ra?s) 'way/road (over
the head)'; cfo azimuth above]. Although there are quite
a few words here, the reader can easily excise most which
do not belong in this discussion of the E N-suffix -th.
We may say these Ns in -th are de-V as well as de-Α, but
this permissiveness will not accommodate all the examples.
 Alle phonologischen Oppositionen,
die in einer bestimmten Sprache mit
satzunterscheidender Funktion auftreten,
kommen in einer anderen Sprache mit wort­
unterscheidender Funktion vor.
Trubetzkoy, Grundzüge.

III. AN ENGLISH VOWEL SHIFT

1. Introduction.

It will not do to devote too great attention to vow­

els, because at their essence IE (like Semitic) are conso­
nantal languages without vowels (n. 53 s.f.). But vowels
are used in an ancillary capacity, like fluids to keep
solid consonants afloat, and despite their essential mar-
ginality, fluid vowels are the segments that tend to shift,
to cause change in surrounding phones, to carry stress and
pitch--in short, to do the things that keep the contempo­
rary phonologist in business.
In E, vowel-alternations are as frequent (but not as
well understood) as obstruent-alternations. Here is an ex­
ample with six alternants: pain ~ (re)pine ~ penal, subpoe­
na [sepEne] ~ penalty ~ punitive, impunity ~ punish (ment) .
The root {rg- 'lead, straight(en)'} shows even more: regime,
reign, rait(road) ~ rEgal ~ rIght(eous-ness), Reich ~ to
prorogue, abrogate (but intêrregate) ~ interrogative, de­
rogatory ~ rUle [ME, OF reule; cf. F règle ~ OF regle--all

234
 235 III.2

from regula] ~ royal(ty), viceroy ~ rich [OE rice, OF

riche 'powerful'] ~ regi(cide), insurrection ~ insurgent,
surge 'rise straight up from under' (n. 56), perhaps ergo
(but see Ernout & Meillet, who disagree).
Not only is ablaut at play here, but also what we
will call (following others) the "Great Vowel Shift", GVS.

2. Length Alternations.
Very briefly, and speaking roughly, Vs are short be­
fore most C-clusters and two (or more) syllables before the
ultima; they are long in open syllables. Using " for syl­
lable-boundary, we have (to choose an instance which has
already been discussed more than once in the literature)
alternations like Iran ~ IrA"nian, gentle (man) ~ gE"nial
(from {gn- 'beget, bear'}), tripod ~ pO"dium, Etruscan ~
EtrUnria (but not when V is t: ignite ~ ignintion) , oppos
to Christian (cf. Christ), Corinnthian, differentiate~
mœnnsion3 Rusnsia, Byzœn"tium3 (cent)en"nial &c. Notice
that in (mill)ennnium e.g. there is independent motivation
for geminate -nn-i we must have -C"C- here to raise a (in
annual~ annals3 anniversary &c) only to e by η. 118 (i0e.
not to i by n. 106).
There are occasional subsidiary regularities, such as
the one mentioned above about ~ in forms like bVZious (cf.
bile) 9 callipy"gian, circumcinsion (cf. -else), sufficient
(cf. -fice, both from sub- + -faceré), forsythia [-i"6Ea]
(cf. Forsyth [-10]), Litrbia (cf. LIbEria) , opiunion (cf.
opine), Palestinian (cf. Palestine), Scy,rthia(n) , tibi­
ad) , tri/Tvium (cf. tri11'syllabic), contrintion (cf. -trite),
supervision (cf. -vise) &c219--regularly opposed to words
like AkkA"dia(n), AmazO"nian (cf. Amazon), AthE"nian,
BabylOnnia (cf. Babylon), BahAnmian (cf. Bahamas), BulgArrr-
ia(n) (cf. Bulgàr),220 CaucA"sian, cO"pious (cf. copy),
cornucO"piate> crU"cial (cf. crux), detE"riorate (cf. eso-
-ter-ic), dE"viate (cf. de-s"titute), EstO"nia(n) , fantA"sia
(cf. fantœstic), lA"bia(l) (cf. lœbret), LaO"tian, melO"-
dious (cf. melodic), mystE"rious, obsE"quious (cf. consecu-
tive, second 'following', non sequitur), ParE"sian (cf.
Paris and n. 219), PolynE"sia(n), ScandinA"via(n), SibE"ri-
III.2 236

a(n)* solU"tion (cf. solve; hence, so-lw-t- > so-lu-t- >

so-lü-t-)* stA"tion(ary) (cf. stœtic)* stU"dious (cf.
study) , supE"rior (cf. superb)* theolO"gian (cf. theolog­
ical), trA"ehea(l)* VesU"vius &c.
Another subsidiary regularity is that the sequence
*[0r] does not appear in E; instead we find or, as in Do"r-
ian, empo"rium, histo"rian, janito"rial, labo"riousy mora-
to"riwn, sarto"rial, tuto"rial &c221--contrast EtrU"ria,
LibE"ria(n) , solA"rium &c, where the V is regularly long
before "r. It must be that 0 is lengthened here too (cf,
I0nian, melodious~ theologian &c) and then later shortened
by rule 0 > o / r. The rule must apply in the poetic
contraction of Over, i.e. o'er [or]. This rule (or smth.
like it) might possibly play a role in explaining VV- ~ V-
of aorta ~ artery.
In addition, we find the usual spread of exceptions:
battœ"lion (cf. battle), discretion (cf. discrEt)* nœ"tion-
al(ity) (cf. not only nA"tion, but also sensA"tion(al), oc-
cupation(al) &c), pre"cious (cf. ap-/de-prEnciate from the
same root), rœ"tional (cf. rA"tio* but rA"tion ~ rœ"tion)*
stœ"lion (or is it stœl"lionl Cf. stall, stAle &c, from a
suffixed root meaning 'stand'), ma"fia (It, ooo), vœ"liant
&c. Also, there are quite a few adjectives with V before
-Cic.223
Just as the question arose in I.,.1 s.f. concerning the
proper interpretation of V-shortening before C-clusters, so
here a similar question arises concerning interpretation of
V-lengthening. Our suggestion, which will require a good
deal more work than we have devoted to it here, is that the
two questions are interrelated. Specifically, we suggest
that Vs be lengthened in open syllables, shortened in closed
syllables.
Vs in word-final syllables seem to present a deficiency
in this interpretation. While the suggestion works properly
to shorten Vs in words like bred [OE bredde* ME bredde] *
cleanse [OE clœnsian* ME clensen] * fifth [OE fifta* ME fifte*
fifthe]* health [OE hœld*m helthe] * slept [OE slœpte* ME
slepte] * sped [OE spedde* ME spedde] * and so on, short
ought also to apply (incorrectly) to forms like breeds clean3
five>healysleep,speed &c, for the Vs here are also in
 237 III.2

closed syllables. One remedy for this defect is to postu­

late that in the UPR of such words, a V (later dropped) fol­
lows the C [cf. ME brede(n)~ clene, hele(n), slepe(n),
spede]; in these representations, the root-V lies in an
open syllable and therefore remains long. We already sug­
gested such a word-final-V for five in n. Ill (v. also n.
251). Four paragraphs above, we gave a sketchy derivation
for solution from so-lw-"t-yon; under this analysis, solve
is from smth. like so-lw-e--the final -V (later dropped) is
what prevents application of S-syllab. to w in a representa­
tion like *#so-lw#, which would result in *[salU]. In our
analysis, L w > V (n. 131), hence so-lw-e > so-lv-e > [salv].
Such an analysis, apparently obligatory for solve (also
(re)volve~-volution), may be applicable to similar words
{curve [L curvus], nerve [L nervus], serve [L servus] &c);
in some words, however, there is no possibility of syllabi­
fication because ν represents an obstruent (carve < gerph-
[G kerben], delve < thelph [OE del fan], shelve (cf. shelf),
starve < sterph- [OE steorfan, G sterben 'die'], swerve <
swerph- [OE sweorfan], e.g.).
The related pair ovi- [L ovis 'sheep'] ~ ewe [U] 'fe­
male sheep' [Gmc; cf. OE eowu, OHG ouwi, ou 'sheep1], ap
parently from 0-grade ow-, seems to pose a difficulty because
earlier (1.4) we proposed monophthongization of ow > 0 in o-
grade forms like frOze < f rows-, spOke < spowk-, stole <
stowl- &c. It is interesting, however, to contrast these
PAST-/PRT-forms with the e-grade PRES-/lNF-forms freeze <
frews-, speak < spewk-, steal < stewl-; for the latter forms
we had naturally proposed ew > E. But there is a significant
difference between the results of the two monophthongizations
--a difference we were unprepared to discuss in 1.4: E in
these forms undergoes GVS (roughly, ee > iy), but 0 does not
(thus, oo merely diphthongizes to ow, without undergoing oo
> *uw, parallel to ee > iy). The vowel in ewe, however un­
dergoes both monophthongization (ow- > oo-) and GVS (oo- >
uw-). Just as δ in OE words like brom, cöl, gös, hop, hröf,
mod, non, rôt, stol, to, top, tdl &c underwent GVS to [uw
present-day broom, cool, goose, hoop, roof, mood, noon, root,
stool, too, tool, tooth? so too o in ewe [juw] < oo- < ow-.
We will come back to 0, its UPR and its PRs in §4.,
III.2 238

Returning now to the suggestion that the UPR of some

E words might contain a final -V which is dropped by Ρ rule,
we should add that if this suggestion (or smth. very similar
to it) is not accepted, the grammar of Ε will have difficul­
ty making explicit the Ρ relationships between words like
hang and hinge (for S, cf. hang/hinge on &c). Indeed, deri­
vation of hinge (even disregarding relation with hang) will
be troublesome in any event because Ε g is frequently de­
rived from g before V (see App.1.12 for examples). From a
UPR *hing, however, would be derived *[hicn, parallel to
wing [win] in (28) of I.,.2.1. Our proposal is to derive
both from hng-: thus, hang from o-grade hong- and hinge from
e-grade heng-e (with e > i before Ν, g > g before -e (prior
to N-assimilation), and loss of final -e). Other pairs too
seem to suggest such an analysis: impact ~ impinge [imping-
ere, impaotus 'strike against'], long(er) ~ lunge [OF al­
longer ' lengthen'], rank ~ Car-/de-)range (from {rg-
'straight(en)'}), syrinx ~ syringe [συριγξ, σuριγγος '(shep­
herd's) pipe'], tincture ~ tinge [tingere, tinctus 'moisten,
dye'] &c.
Some words in -g require a following -e or (more like­
ly) -i because they are (through F) from L roots with non-
velar consonants: a-/re-venge [vindicare], change [cambiare],
fringe [by metath. from fimbria 'border, edge'], mange [OF
mangier 'eat' < mandere 'chew'], plunge [VL plumbicäre 'sound
with a plumb'] &c (v. App.1.13).
There are other words as well, for which the proposed
analysis seems suitable: binge, cringe, flange (perhaps cf.
flank), orange [cf. Sp naranja &c, all ult. from Skt narangah
'orange (tree)', ooo; v. Bloch-Wartburg, Dict. etym. de la
langue française, s.v. orange], scrounge [ooo], sponge [L
spongia < σπογγια, ooo] &c.
Before -ng there seem to be few words with V: change,
mange, range, strange (q.v.); these words came into Ε via OF
(this can be verified if one has access to an a tergo dic­
tionary and a reliable guide to Ε etymology; cf. also I.,.1).
Naturally, there is no reason to restrict investigation
to words in -ng. Here are a few other examples: age [OF eage
< VL aetaticum < aetas, aetätis 'age'; cf. n. 237], badge
[ooo], barge [OF < L barca 'barque'], bilge (v. bulge),
 239 III.2

bridge [ME brigge < OE brycg], budge [OF bouger < VL bul-
licare < bullire 'bubble'], bulge [OF boulge < bulga 'leath­
er bag'], cage (App.1.13; cavea 'enclosure'), charge [OF
chargier < L carricare 'load'< carrus 'cart'], dirge (cf.
direct ; both from dirigere, directus < {rg- 'straight(en)'}),
dodge [ooo], dredge '(machine to) scoop out dirt' [OE dragan
'draw', probably cognate with trahere, tractus 'draw'],
dredge 'coat food with flour' [ooo], drudge(ry) [ooo], (in­
dulge (from indulgere 'grant as a favor; be long-suffering',
probably cognate with δολιχoς 'dolich-, long'), fledge(ling)
,related to fly < fleogan [G fliegen]; cf. both -t (not -th)
in flight and also related fowl < OE fugol 'bird' by dissimi­
lation [G Vogel]), forge (App.1.13; from OF < L fabrica by
metath. and bi > z), fudge 'kind of candy; nonsense; fake'
[ooo], (en)gage, gauge, George, gorge, gouge [L gubia 'round­
ed chisel'; App.1.13), hedge, homage [OF < L hominaticum <
homo, hominis], judge [OF < judex, ,udicis 'judge' < jous-
-dik-s 'one who shows right'], (en)large (cf. mus. largo,
both from largus 'abundant, generous', ooo), (ob)lige (cf.
obligate), lodge, loge, Madge, (e-/im-/sub-)merge (n. 192),
nudge, page (cf. compaginate, compact), pledge [OF plege < L
plebium; App.1.13], purge (q.v.), rage (cf. rabid, App.1.13),
ridge [ME rigge < OE hrycg], sage (q.v.), scourge, (be)siege
[OF sege < VL sedicum < sedere], sledge [ME slegge < OE
slecg], sludge, splurge [ooo], stage [OF estage < VL staticum
< stare, status 'stand'], surge (n. 56), trudge [ooo], urge,
(con-/di-)verge (cf.~wrench, from wr-g- 'turn, twist'; ver­
gere), (di-)vulge (divulgare 'spread among the people; cf.
vulg-ar/-ate), wage (related to gage above), wedge (ME wegge
< OE wecg) &c. The above words were collected randomly, but
a full list is readily available in an a tergo dictionary.
From the examples given, we can see that not all, but proba­
bly most, of these g's were originally from g. In the NE
words which have no clear etymology or no easily related
forms with [g], derivation of ĝ < g seems the most reason­
able analysis. It is pretty hard to believe in an underlying
segment ĝ which appears phonetically only as [g] and only in
word-final position.
Although we do not pursue details of this interpreta­
tion for a word-final -V here, it is worth noting such pur-
III.3.1 240

suit might lead to a more sophisticated use of categorial

features like L, Gmc, E (whence, perhaps, resolution to the
question of why there are so many exceptions to the earlier
interpretation that Vs are shortened before C-clusters) and
also, perhaps, to a (much-needed) revision of PAST- and
PRT-representations. If the interpretation suggested here
proves unworkable, naturally we can always return to a more
concrete proposal in which Vs are shortened before C-clus­
ters, lengthened beforei followed by a V, and so on. In
any event, it will be seen from some of the examples in §,
that more work than we have devoted to it here needs to be
done to specify properly length of Vs in Ε words.

3. Vowel Alternations.
Vowel-length alternations are useful to us because
with them we can find pairs of morphemically related words,
one with V, the other with V, and these pairs will help us
to postulate more appropriate Ρ representations for Vs.
Given below are a few examples of the most frequent V ~ V
alternations for each of the Vs: 224

,.1 A ~ œ . 2 2 5
A-(theist) ~ œ-(gnostic)
Abrahams~aebbess, aebbey,
œbbot, aebigail, œbner,
œbsalom [non-IE, cf.
A ?ab, Ar ?abh, H ?obh
'father'; ooo]
(aud-/ten-/viv-)Acious ~
-œcity
Acre ~ aegri(culture)
Alerón 'little w i n g ' 2 2 6
~ œli-(ped) 'wing-
footed' [L ala]
(margin)-Alia ~ (punc-
tu)-œlity
Alias, Alien ~ aelibi,
asllo (phone)
Amiable ~ œm-icable/-ity/
-orous/-ateur/-ative,
enœmor
Ancient [F ancien] ~ sen-
tiqu-ary/-ate/-ity,
œncest-or/-ral/-ry,
œnte- 'before'
(hum-/urb-)Ane ~ -œnity
Angel ~ œngelic [Semitic]
Apex ~ aepices, (peri)œpical
[ap-ex, -ids]
Apiary ~ œpiculture [apis
' b e e ' , ooo]
Aqueous ~ œque-(duct) , œqua-
(marine)
29 7
ArAbian ~ Arœbicization
 241
(hil)Arious ~ -aerity
audAcious ~ -aecity
auto-mAte/-mAtion ~
-maet(ic)228
bAbe, bAby ~ baebble
bacchanAlia(n) ~ -anæl
bAcon ~ bæck [Gmc]
bAke (from pha-g-, cf. 0E
bacan; same root as
in bath) ~ zwiebæck,
bætch [ME bacche],
bæxter
bAle (of hay) ~ (base)ball
barbArian ~ -aaric
bAse ~ bæss(o) [ooo ; unre­
lated to g w m- of n.
184]
bAsin ~ bassinet
(de)bAte ~ combaat, bættle,
bætter(y) (cf. beat)
bAthe ~ baæth (from pha-
'warm' )
to bear ~ (wheel)-bærrow
(from {phr- 'carry'})
brAzen 'made of brass1 ~
braESS [non-IE]
cAmbric ~ chaambray
CAmbridge ~ Cæntabrigian
cAne ^ caanister, caan-
non, caanyon
capAcious Or -aecity
cAper ~ caapric 'pert._to
goats1 [caper¿ -pri]
capillAry 'hairlike' ^
-aarity
(oc) cAsion(al) r\j cassual
loado 'fall']
(con)cAve ^ -caavity, caev-
ern [cavus 'hollow']
chAste(n) ~ chæst-ise/-ity,
III.3.1
cæstigate [castus 'mor­
ally pure'] (for -igate
in castigate 'drive to
purity', v. nAvy below)
(ac-/de-/dis-/ex-/pro-/re-)-
clAm(able) ~ -claamatory,
claamor [clamare 'shout']
(de)clAre a> -claarative [cZar-
us 'clear, bright', related
to cZâmàre above]
(auto-/con-/en-)clAve, subclA-
vian 'below the clavicle' <\,
claavichord, claevicle
[cZävis 'key', cZavus
'nail', cZaudere 'shut']
crAnium 229 ~ cræspedon 'velum
of coelenterates' (zooZ.)
crAyfish [OF crevice] ~ cræb
[G Krebs]
dAle ~ thaelamus (n. 158)
dAme ~ daem(sel) , madaeme [do­
mina < domus 'house']
dAta ^ daata [do3 dare¿ dedi,
datum]
dAze(d) 'confuse(d) with light'
*\J daezzle 'overpower (the
vision) with light'
debAte ~ combaet
fÁble ^ faabul-ist/-ous/-osity
(from p^ä- 'speak')
(de-/ef-)fAce, fAcial ^ faec-
et(ed) [faceré]
(somni-)fAcient '(sleep-)mak-
ing'230 % faEcsimile 'a
making similar', (satis-)-
faectory, manufaacture (ma­
nu- 'by hand'), benefaactor
fAl(ure) % (in) faallible, faal-
lacy [faZZere 'deceive']
(pro) f Ane ^ -faenity159
III.3.1 242

fantAsia ~ fantæstic pomegraanate [gränum

fAre ~ far 'seed']
fAsc-es/-ia(te) ~ fæscicle grApe(shot) ~ graapnel, graep-
(ef) ficAcious ~ -æcity 3 0 ple [Gmc; cf. F loans
flAl [flagrum 'whip1] ~ grappe 'bunch of grapes',
flaEgellate agrafe 'hook']
flAme ~ (in) flâemm-able/ grAve ~ graav-id/-ity [L
-atory gravis < gwr- 'heavy',
(con-/de-/in-)flAte ~ cf. βάρος 'weight']
flaetulent [flare> fla­ grAze ~ graass (from k~r-
tus < phlX- 'blow'] 'grow', cf. grow, green)
formAtion a, formaat gymnAsium ~, -aBSt(ic) (from
frAl [ME freyl < OF fraile {ngw- 'naked'}; cf. γυμ­
< fragilis] ~ frægile νός 'naked', γυμνάζείν
[frangere, fräotus 'train naked', naked from
'break'] nogw-oth- [OE nacod, G
fray [fricare 'rub'] ~ nackt], nude from L nüdus
fraszzle < now-d- < nogw-evl-\ ΝΆ-
(re)gAle % gaellivant, gael- GÔJ)
lant [non-IE] (ex)hAle ~ haelitosis [häläre
gAme <\* gasmbler, (back)- 'breathe']
gaammon hAre [OE hara] *v haarrier 'hound
germAnium % -maBnic (chem.) used to hunt hares' (from
glAze 'furnish with glass; kas-, orig. 'gray', cf. G
become glassy', glAzier Hase, L canus 'gray' < kas-
~ glæss(-es/-ful/-ware/ -η-os)
-y) (from khl- 'shine', (be)hAve [ME behaven, OE behab-
cf. related glare, ban 'have control of],
gleam, glow) hAven [ME havene, OE hœfen]
(dis)grAce, grAcious, ~ haeve [ME haven, OE hab-
grAteful, ingrAte, in- ban] (from kap- 'grasp,
grAtiate ~ græt-ify/ contain', cf. cap er e, not
-ification/-is/-itude, habere)
congætulate [gratus hilArious ~ -aerity (from {sl-
'pleasing, favorable'] 'happy'}, cf. Ιλαρός 'cheer­
(retro)grAde, grAd-ation/ ful' and Ε silly)
-ient ~ graadu-al/-ate hum-Ane ~ -aenity [hwn-änus,
[gradus 'step'] -änitäs]
(in)grAn, grAnary, grAnge inAne η, inaanity [inänis, in-
~ græn-ule/-ular/-ite, ânitâs, οοο]
 243 III.3.1

JAcob, JAke ~ Jæck [ult. 'handcuff' {lit. 'little

Semitic] hand'), mænage 'handle',
JAne ~ dim. Jænet [ult. mændate 'what is command­
Semitic] ed/given into one's hands',
KAte ~ KaEtherine [καθαρός mændatory, com-/counter-/
'pure'] de-/re-maend, masnicure,
(be)lAbor a, lasb (oratory) , mænifest 'graspable by
col-/e-laeborate [la­ hand', mænufacture, mænu-
bor, -oris] script, emæncipate 'take
(en)lAce ~ læsh 'bind', ex- from smb.'s hands'
læsso (from lak- (rose)mAry '(dew) of the sea' ~
'snare') mær-iner/-itime [L mare
dilAte 'make/become wider' 'sea']
[dis- 'apart'] ~ laati- (auto)mAte ~ -mast228
tude, lasteral mAtr-on/-iarch ~ maetr-i-cide/
lAte(r) [OE lœt] ^ lastter, -mony
lasst (from lad- 'leave nAtion, nAtive ~ naEtional(ity),
(behind), let go') næturalize (n. 79)
lAve ^ laevatory [lavare nAture, innAte, cognAte ~ n æ t -
'wash'] ural(ist) 79
mAke [OE macian] ^ maatch nAvy [navis 'ship'], nAval ~
'equal, one of a pair' nævigat(ional) {-igätus in
(from mag- 'knead, navigätus = PRT of -igare <
make'; here also belong agere 'drive, do'; hence
mingle 'knead together, -ig- in navigate 'drive a
mix', mongrel 'animal ship' is related to agent3
of mixed breed' {-rel act(ion) &c; same -ig- also
probably dim. suffix in in castigate 'punish, crit­
cockerel^ pickerel &c), icize' (v. chAste above),
among3 magma> macerate^ fvmigate 'drive fumes in',
masons mass 'volume, litigate 'drive to a law­
size') suit', mitigate 'drive to
mAle [F male < OF masle < gentleness/mildness', vari­
masculus] ~ mæsculine egate 'drive to variety,
mAnia(c) ~ mænic [Gk < diversify', fatigue 'drive
{mn- 'think'}] to exhaustion', indefati­
mAntain [F = OF maintenir gable (NEG n-: 'unable to be
manU tenere 'hold in driven to exhaustion, tire­
(the) hand'], legerde- less'), ambiguous 'driving
mAn ~ maenual, maenacle ambi- both ways' (cf. ambi-
III.3.1 244

-valent 'having both (i.e. conflicting) feelings' [coin­

ed by Freud], ambidextrous &c), exigent 'driving ex-
out, demanding immediate attention, urgent', intransi­
gent 'not driving trans- through, not coming to an agree­
ment, uncompromising', and in several less frequently
used forms like clarigation 'drive to clarity', fastigi-
ate 'driving to the top', levigate 'drive to smoothness,
make smooth' (cf. ob-liv-ious 'with smth. in the mind
smoothed out/rubbed out/erased') &c. There are also a
few forms with i dropped from -ig-: 'purge 'drive to pur-
purity, purify' [OF purgier < purgare < OL pürigäre] ,
purgativej expurgate 'purge out = remove obscene passages
from a text', objurgate 'drive to a jury' [cf. jus, juris
'justice, right, law', objürgare < earlier -igare]. It
is clear the basic meaning of ag--inadequately represent­
ed by 'drive' above--remains constant in all these forms
and that failure to analyze the forms as compounds of ag-
would result in a significant loss of generalization.
The form with rhotacism provides additional motivation
for this analysis: if g were not derived from an inner
ag-, we would expect *objusgate, *objusgatory &c, with s
as in just (-ice/'-ify) .
occAsion(al) ~ cæsual [cadere, casus 'fall']
opAque ~ opascity [opacus 'dark', ooo]
pAce [OF pas 'step'] ~ pass(age), trespass (also faux pas)
(pro)pagAte ~ -senda [L -pãgäre has same source as next entry]
pAge ~ psegin-al/-ate [pagina < pag- 'join', source also of
pangere, pactus 'join, make firm' and (im-)pingere^ -pac-
tus 'drive/strike against']
pair 2 3 1 ~ pæri (syllabic) 'having an equal number (of sylla­
bles)'
pAle ~ paBll-or/-id, fællow deer (also (ap)pall 'make/grow
pale')
ρ Ane ~ (em)psenel
(com)pAre 231 ~ -pær-ative/-ison
pAtient ~ pæssive, compaetible [pati, passus 'suffer']
pAtriarch ^ paetr-imony/-onymic
pAtron ^ psettern 'smth. to be imitated' (same root as pre­
ceding)
phrAse(ology) % holo-/para-phraBStic [φράσις 'speech', ooo]
plAce [OF (cf. F, It piazza, Sp plaza) < platea 'broad street,
open space' < πλατεία δόος 'broad way' < πλατύς 'flat,
wide', cognate with Lth ρlatus , Ε flat{ten), flatter{y),
 245
flounder 'flatfish'],
plAte ~ plaat (-eau/
-ter/-form) (from
plat-/piad- ' spread
out, broad'; c f . next
entry)
plAt 'braid (of hair)' ~
plaat (from {pl-
'fold'})
(com)plAcent, complaisant
~ plaac-ate/-id(ity)
(from plak- 'smooth(e),
even')
plain 'easily understood',
explain ~ -plaæatory
(II.1.1)
prAte ~ prættle [Gmc]
(de)prAved ~ -prævity
[pravus 'crooked']
profAne ~ -fænity 1 5 9
rAbies, rAge [bi > g is F,
cf.' F = OF rage < VL
rabia] ~ ræbid
rAce '(ginger) root' ~ d e -
ræcinate ' tear out by
the roots', eraadicate
'root out', r æ d i s h
rApe, rApine, rAven 'de­
vour greedily' ~ r æ v -
age, r æ v i s h , r æ v e n o u s ,
raapt [rapere 'seize,
snatch']
rAre ~ rara (avis)
sAcred ~ saecrament
sAline 'of/containing salt'
~ sælary (cf. He's not
worth his salt., Mat­
thew's "Ye are the salt
of the earth." &c)
sAne ~ (in)sænity (L sanus
III.3.1
'whole, sound, healthy',
ooo; related to sœnitary)
sAte, sAtiate ~ saBtisfy
sAve [L salvus 'safe'], sAfe
~ sælv-ation/-age
scAbies ~ s c æ b (from skab-
'scrape, scratch'; per­
haps related to Gmc
shape)
scrApe ~ scræp [SKREBOK
'scraper']
shAde ~ s h æ d o w [σκότος 'dark­
ness', G Schatten; for
sk > s App.1.19]
shAke ~ shæ3ckle(s) (Gmc, from
shag-)
slAke ~ slaack(en) (from
(s)lag-, cf. languidus
'languid', laxus 'lax',
re laxare ' relax')
slAte ~ s l æ t [cf. F êclat(er) ]
snAre 'trap' ~ snarl 'tangle'
solArium ~ solar (-ar here as
in pol-ær-ity &c)
spAde ~ spastula (from spa-
'spread, stretch', whence
'flat tool'; spoon belongs
here)
SpAn ~ Spænish
stAble, stAbilize ~ estseblish-
(ment)232
stAke ~ s t æ c k
stAmen (from stamen, stdminis
'warp, thread') ~ staemina
(from stamina = p l . of
stamen)
s t A t e , 2 3 2 estAte, stAdium,
stAge, stAtion(ary), stAy
'prop, support; remain,
stand still' ~ s t æ t - u e /
III.3.2 246

-ure/-us/-ute/-utory, (a)staetic, (thermo)stæt

strAta, prostrAte ~ straBta, stræt-agem/-egy 2 3 3
tAble ~ tæbl-et/-ature/-eau/-oid, taebul-ar/-ate [tabula, ooo]
(con)tAg-ion/-ious, 234 attAn [F = OF atteindre < OL attangere]
~ tæct(ile), contæct(ual), intaect, t æ x , contæminate
(from -tags-men-) , tængent, (in) tængible
(de-/re-)tAl ~ tælly [cf. F , OF taille 'cut']
tApe ~ tæpestry [cf · F tapis]
tenAcious ~ -aBcity
titAnium ~ titænic (chem.)
urAnium ~ urænic
vAc-ant/-ate ~ evaecuate, vaecu-ous/-um/-ity [vacuus ' e m p t y ' ,
vacare ' be empty']
(a-/pre-)vAl, -vAlent (chem.), vAlence ~ vael-iant/-id(ity)/
- u e , (d)evaeluate, invæelid(ate) (all from wal- '(be)
strong'; VLAST', Lth valdyti 'rule')
vAle ~ vaslley
vAn ~ vænity [vanus ' e m p t y ' , related to vacuus three entries
above]
vApor(ize) ~ evæporate, vaepid [vapor, -oris 'steam', ooo]
viv-/vor-Acious ~ -æcity
volcAno ~ volcaenic
wain 'large wagon' ~ wægon [OCS vozu]

3·2 Ε ~ e.
acadEmia ~ academic(s)
acEtic ~ (oxy-) acetylene
[L acetum 'vinegar' <
acere 'be sour', re­
lated to acer, acris
'sharp', all from same
root underlying acerb
(acerbus 'sharp, bit­
ter') in (48) of
I.3.2.6]
athlEte ~ athletic
austEre ~ austerity [αυσ­
τηρός 'harsh, severe']
bEcon ~ beck(on)
bEst ~ bestial [L bestia, ooo]
(dia)bEtes ~ -betic
bleed ~ bled [OE bledde], bless
(orig. 'hallow with blood')
breed [Gmc brddyan] ~ bred [OE
bredde]
brEthe(r) ~ breath [-e-] [OE
bræp < Gmc brethaz]
brEviary, abbrEviate, brEf ~
brevity, brève, brevi-
'short' (from brkh-, cf.
II.1.10)
(con-/pre-/re-)cEde, pro-/suc-
ceed ~ -cession, -cessive,
 247 III.3.2

success [cederé, cessus [δñμος 'people']

'go (away)'] (en)dEr ~ darling (with e >
(con)cEl ~ cell(ar)122 a / -r) [OE deore <
(Eo)cEne ~ Cenozoic Gmc deuri-, G teuer; OE
cEse ~ incessant [cessare dêorling]
'delay' = freq. of drEm(er) ~ dremt [OE dream <
cedere] Gmc draug-m-; G Traum,
(con-/de-/per-/re-)cEve ~ Trug]
-cept(ion)236 E-dict/-gress ~ e-dit/-ducate/
clEn(er) ~ cleanse(r) [-e-] -legant
clEve 'cling/stick to' ~ (red-)eem(er) ~ red-emption,
clever(ness) [G kleben] exempt 'free' [L emere
clEve(r) ~ cleft (from 'take', IMET'; v. ex­
glewph- 'split'; G emplify in PFX.l]
klieben) (ex)eg-Esis ~ -etic (v. seek
crEd(ence) ~ (in)cred- below)
-ible/-ulous, accred- Eland 'large African antelope'
it [credere 'believe'] ~ elk 'large deer'
creep (y) ~ crept (herp)Es ~ -et-ic
crEmate ~ cremator-y/-ium esthEte ~ esthetic(s)
(from {kr- 'fire, Et, obEse ~ edible, comestible
burn'}, source also of (delicat)essen, esculent
car-bon and hear-th) 'edible', Samoyed
(de-/in-)crEse ~ crescent (obsol)Ete ~ -escent
[crescere'grow', de- ethEreal(ize) ~ ethérify, eth-
crescere 'grow less'] èrification (chem.)
(dis)crEt ~ -cretion (dis- (prim)Eval ~ longevity237
cernere, -cretus 'sep­ Eve ~ Evelyn [e-]
arate', cf. discern) feed ~ fed (from pa- 'food';
dE-certify/-escalate/-tour v. pabulum in II.1.1)
~ de-butante/-tonate/ feel ~ felt [OE felan < fdly-;
-triment G fühlen]
dEcent ~ decor-ous/-ate (I.5) feet ~ fetter, fetlock, fetch
deep(eningly) ~ depth (from fEld ~ feldspar (from pl-X-;
ihwb-, source also of L planus; POLE)
dip, dive, G tief, ΌΝΟ < fEline ~ felicide [L fêlés
dub-n-o) 'cat', ooo]
dEl ~ delt [0Edæi'share', fEmale ~ feminine, effeminate
G teilen] fEmur ~ femora(1) [L femur,
(epi)dEmiology ~ -demic [cf. -oris 'thigh', ooo]
III.3.2 248

fEr(some) [G Gefahr Man­ lit. 'one-ten'), hecatomb

ger~] ~ peril [OE (from sm-km-t-on-b- lit.
periculum < {pr- 'risk, '[sacrifice of] one katon-
trial1}] hundred b- oxen'; strict­
fErce(ness) ~ feral189 ly, the word should have a
fEst ~ festiv(al), fête159 for its first vowel, *ha-
fEt 'deed',238 defEt(ist), catomb; for de-km- 'ten',
fEsible 'which can be cf. decern ; for km-t-on
done', malfEsance 'hundred', cf. centum)
'wrongdoing' ~ defect (co)hEre 'stick/cling togeth­
'smth. de- un-done', er' , adhEsion ~ hesitate
effect 'do, bring about; 'stick, cling, be uncer­
smth. done', feckless tain' [haerere, haesus
'ineffectual', ineffect­ 'stick']
ual 'unable to do HermEs ~ hermetic ['Ερµης, οοο]
smth.', perfect(ion) hEro ~ hero-ine/-ism [her-]
Vhat is) done pep- hEth ~ hether [OE hœd, Gth hai-
through/completely' , pi 'field']
perfective hEve ~ heft(y) [OE hefig]
fEver ~ febrifuge hystEria ~ hysteric(-s/-al)
flee ~ fled [ME fledde] JEsus ~ Jesuit
(con)gEl ~ jelly (n. 138) keep ~ kept [OE cepan, cepte ,
gEne(alogy), gEnus ~ gen­ ooo]
­erate/-esis/-ocide, (tele)kinEsis ~ -kinetic [KIV-
protogenic εĩν 'move']
greet ~ regret(s) [OE gretan knee(l) ~ knelt
< groty-; G gr'ûssen] lEd ~ led [OE Iædan < laidi-;
hEl ~ helth(ful) [OE hœld < G leiten, Leitmotiv 'lead­
hal] ing motif'; led < OE
hElix ~ helico-(pter), hel­ lœdde ]
ical 'shaped like a lEgal ~ legis-late/-lature
helix' (cf. η. 266) lEve ~ left [ME lefte]
HellEne ~ Hellenic [^Eλλην, (al)lEviate, re-lief/-lieve,
οοο] lEvy ~ levity, (canti)le­
hEm-al/-atology/-in/-o- ver, levitate [L levis <
(philia &c), leukEmia lekwh-, source of light
(leuk- 'white') ~ hem- 'not heavy']
orrh-age/-oidal magnEto ~ magnetic
hEn-o- 'one' ~ hendeca- 'e- mead [mEd] 'meadow' (arch.) [OE
leven' (from sem-de-km- mœd] ~ meadow [-e-]
 249 III.3.2

(re)mEdial ~ medic(al) (from drive', source of impel,

{md- 'measure, consider'} (im)pulse, propulsion,
(im-/inter-)mEdiate, mEd-ia/ push (OF poulser, whence
-ian/-iocre/-ium ~ mez­ F pousser), pousse-cafe,
zanine, intermezzo, Gk catapult, polemic (πό­
meta-, meso- (from {mvh- λεμος 'war'), Apollo 'one
'middle'}; OE midd) who drives away (evil)']
meet ~ met [OE metan < moty-; pEnal(ize), subpEna ~ penalty
cf. moot < OE mot; both (ap)pEr(ance) ~ ap-/trans-pær-
from {md- 'meet, dis­ ent (with e > a / r)
cuss'}] (ex)pErience ~ experiment (cf.
mEn ~ ment fEr)
(a)mEnable 'tractable,' de­ (com-/re-)pEt ~ -petitive,
mean 'debase' ~ menace competitor (cf. n. 80)
(cf. minatory 'threat­ (salt)pEter ~ petrify, petrol-
ening') (eum)
mEter ~ metric(s) phEnol ~ phenyl (chem.)
(be-/under-)nEth ~ nether- (schizo)phrEnia ~ -phrenic
(most) [φρην, φρενβς 'mind', ooo]
obscEne ~ obscenity [obscen- plEb-e/-ian ~ plebiscite
us , ooo] plE(d) ~ pled
(centi-/veloci-)pEde, impEde (para)plEgia ~ (apo)plexy
'put into fetters', ex- (from plag- 'strike', cf.
pEdient, expedite 'free L plaga, πλαγα 'stroke,
from fetters', expedi­ blow', Ε plague)
tious [cf. pedica and plEn-ary/-um, replEte, plEo-
cognate πέδη 'fetter', (nasm) ~ plen-ty/-teous,
impedire 'entangle, en­ replenish, plethora
snare', expedire 'ex­ (dis)plEse ~ pleasure [-e-]
tricate, facilitate'] ~ postErior ~ posterity
pedal, impediment, quad­ prE-(cede) ~ pre-(cedent)
ruped (all from {pd- (ap-/de-)prEciate ~ precious
'foot'}) (be)quEth ~ -quest [OE cwepan
(encyclo)pEdia ~ pedagogue 'say', cf. arch. quoth]
[παĩς, παiός 'child'] V rE-cord; Ν rÉ-lay; rE-arm/
pEdiatric ~ pederast, peda­ -open ~ Ν ré-cord;
gogue [παĩς] re-levant/-novate
(ap-/re-)pEl ~ appelative, rEd ~ red [OE rœdan 'advise,
repel(lant) [peilere, explain' < reth-, source
pulsus < pl- 'push, also of riddle~ -red (in
III.3.2 250

hatred, kindred) , G (a)sleep ~ slept [OE slæpan,

(er)raten, Heirat; PRT G schlafen, perhaps SLAB
read < OE rædde ] 'weak'; slept < OE slæpte]
rEgal ~ regicide [rex, regis spEcies ~ especial, spec-imen/
'king'] -ific(ation)/-tacle(s)/
(ad)rEnal ~ adrenaline -tator/-ter/-ulate (from
[rênes 'kidneys1, ooo] spek- 'look at')
(ar)rEr(s)239 ~ retro- speed(y) ~ sped [OE sped 'suc­
(be)rEve ~ -reft [G rauben cess' < spddi-; PRT sped <
'rob'] OE spedde]
sEcret ~ secretary [secer- (atmo)sphEre ~ spherical
nere, -crëtus; cf. [σφαίρα, ooo]
(dis)crEtabove] stEl ~ stelth(y) [OE stelan,
seek [OE secan < sōky-], be­ G stehlen, ooo]
seech ~ hegemony (heg- < (neur-a-)sthEnia ~ (cal-i-)-
seg- ' track down the sthenics (v. n. 140)
way' > 'show the way' > [σθένος 'strength', ooo]
'lead, rule'or 'ex­ supErior ~ superb
plain'--v. lĩra in suprEme ~ supremacy
fourth paragraph of n. tEle(ological) ~ tele (phone)
35 for S development of [cf. G calque Fernsprechzer]
another root meaning teen(s) ~ ten
'track'; for loss of h (abs)tEmious ~ temulent
in exegete, exegesis , 'drunk', tenebrous [L tene-
App.1.5) brosus 'dark' < tem-, cf.
seem(ly) ~ semblance temere 'in the dark']
sEmen ~ dis-/in-seminate, (ex-/in-)tErior ~ -ternal
semi-nal/-nar(y) [semen, teeth(e) ~ dental
seminis 'seed' < se- thEf, thEve ~ theft [G Dieb]
'sow'] (ex)trEme ~ -tremity
sEnior, sEnile ~ senate [se- vEhicle 170 ~ vector, convection
nex, gen, senis 'old'] [vehere, vectus 'carry,
serEne ~ serenity [L seren- convey'; VOZIT']
us, ooo] vEnal ~ vend(er) [F vendre < L
(per)sevEre ~ severity [L vênum dare 'give for sale']
sevērus,ooo] (con(tra)-/inter-)vEne, convEn-
sheep ~ shepherd ient ~ -vent(ion), venue 184
shEld ~ shell, shelter VEnus, vEnial ~ vener-ate/-y
shEth(e) ~ to shed (from weep ~ wept (from {wb- 'cry
skey- 'cut', cf. abscise (out)'})
in PFX.l) wEl 'wale' ~ welt
 251
wEve ~ web, weft [OE wefan,
G wehen 'weave', all
from weph-]
3.3 I ~ i.
(apolog-)Ize ~ -ist (an
X-ist is 'one who X-
izes~)
bI-(nary) ~ bi-(gamy)
(im)blbe ~ bib(ulous)
Bible ~ biblical
bIle ~ bilious [bilyes]
bIte ~ bit(ten) (from p~eyd-
' split'; OE hitan¡hiten)
chide ~ chid [OEcidan,ooo]
chIld(hood) ~ children
cicle ~ cyclic [Ι ~ i]
(de)cIde, decisive ~ -cision
[cado, caesus 'cut']
(recon)cIle ~ conciliatory
CIprus,~ Cypriot
(circum-/in-/pre-)cIse ~
-cision [caedd]
(de-/in-/re-)clIne ~ clinic-
(al), de-/pro-clivity
(from kley- 'lean/bend
(over)', source of lean
(OE hleonian) , κλίνη
'bed')
(hetero)clite ~ -clitic
(same root as preceding)
crime ~ criminal
crIogen(ic) ~ crystal (of
ice)
crisis, criterion ~ (dia)-
critic(al), hypocrite
dI-(chotomy) (-torn- < {tm-
' c u t ' } ) ~ di-(phthong)
III.3.3
zEl ~ zel-ot/-ous, jealous
[F jalottx < L zelus <
ζnλος]
dI-(late) ~ di-(latory) (di-
< dis- before l)
(in)dIct ~ verdict (like par­
adigm(atic) , from dik-
'show')
(para) dIgm ~ -digmatic (from
dik- 'show')
dIke ~ ditch (both from thig-
'cut out'; see i ~ U in
App.2.3)
dIne(r) ~ dinner
DionIsus ~ dionysian
(extra)dIte ~ -dition (ult.
from {dX- 'give'})
(div)Ine ~ -inity
drive ~ driven, (snow}drift
[G treiben, OE drifan/
drifen ]
Eliza ~ Elizabeth
fel-Ine ~ -inity
(cruci)fI ~ -fix(ion) , (af-/
in-/pre-/suf-/trans-)fix
(all from fig-' fix, fast­
en ' ; figere, fixus )
(suf) fIce ~ de-/ef-/pro-/suf-
ficient, arti-/bene-/su-
per-ficial240
fIle 'line' ~ filigree, fila­
ment [all from filvum
'thread']
(de)fIle ~ filth(y)
fIn-al/-ance/-e/-ite, (con-/
de-/re-)fIne(d) ~ fin-ish/
III.3.3 252

-icky, af-/in-finity, Idea(l) ~ ideate, ideo (gram)

definitive (all from [ίόεα < wid-, related to
fig-s-n-, with fig- video, visus 'see']
as in (cruci)fI above) Identical a. idem, id
five ~ 5th, 15(th), 50(th) (ben-/mal-)Ign ~ -ignant
ForsIth ~ forsythia 'well-/ill-begotten'
frI ~ fritter [L frigere, ignite ~ -ition
F frire/frit] (serv)-Ile ~ -ility
friable [friare 'crumble, (div)-Ine ~ -inity
rub away'] ~ friction Iris ~ iridescent
[fricare 'rub'] Isis ~ Isidore [i-] (n. 255
grInd(er) ~ grist 'ground s.f.)
grain' (OE grindan Isle(t), Isolate 'make into
khr-en-ifh- 'rub', with an island' ~ peninsula
e > i before η; for V [paene 'almost'; cf. F
in NE, v. (98) in §4.1; presq'île], insular, in­
PRT ground, and also sulate [L insula, ooo,
the Ns ground(er), are unrelated to Gmc island]
from 0-grade khr-n-th-; -ist: v. apologize = first
Gk chondro-/chondri- entry in §3.3
'grain, cartilage' dis­ Italic ~ Italy [i-]
simulated from *chrondr- (bipart-)Ite ~ (part-) ition
[χονδρος 'corn, grain; (exped)Ite ~ -itious
cartilage']) Itinerary ~ in-it-iate 'go
hIde 'skin; conceal' ~ hid- in(to), begin', initial,
(den) [OE hyd(an) < kew- exit [iter, itineris
'cover', source also of 'journey' < eo , ire 'go']
hose 'socks' (G Rose (arthr)Itis ~ -itic
'pants'), house (OE hus), (recogn)Ize ~ -ition
custody (custos, -odis license ~ (il)licit [licere,
'guardian'), cuticle (L licitus 'be permitted']
cutis 'skin'); hid < OE lichen [λειχήν 'licker'] ~
hydde ] lick (from lykh-, cf. OE
hIke ~ hitch liccian, Gth -laigön, G
(be)hInd ~ hinterland, hinder lecken)
hIpo(-chondria/-coristic/ (col-/e-)lIde ~ -lision
-dermic/-tenuse) ~ hypo- [laedere~ laesus 'hurt.,
(crite) injure' ooo]
hostile ~ -ility (II.5.3) lIfe ~ live(r) (from lip-
(al)ibI ~ ibid 'continue'; cf. G Leib
 253
'body', leben)
(ob)lIge, allI, liable ~
obligatory, ligature,
ligament, religion (all
from lig- 'tie, bond')
light(house) ~ (a)lit (OE
leoht, G Licht < leuk-
'shine', source of lu­
cid, ('trans)lucent, lu­ PIscez [pIsEz] ~ piscatory
minous < leuk-s-men-,
lunar < leuk-s-n-, lus­
ter < leuk-s-tr-)
lIme 'linden tree' ~ linden
(sub)lIme~ -liminal, pre­
liminary ,_eliminate
[limen, liminis 'thresh­
old']
lIne ~ linear(ity)
lIre ~ lyric(al)[λορα,οοο]
LIza ~ Elizabeth
(ana)lIze ~ -lytic(al), -lyst
mIle ~ million241 (steps)
(panto)mIme ~ mimic [μiμος,
οοο]
mIne ~ mineral
minor ~ minimal [minor,
minimus]
A minute ~ minute [minutus,
related to last entry]
(ad)mIre ~ miracle
(compro-/de-/sur-)mIse ~
(ad-/per-/re-/trans-)-
-mit/-missible
miser ~ misery [miser
'wretched', ooo]
(an)nIhilate ~ nihil (ism)
opine ~ opinion(ated) (re­
lated to op-t-ion)
Osiris ~ Osirian
Palestine ~ Palestinian
III.3.3
parasite: v. (para)sIte below
(ex)pedIte ~ -ition
(Anglo)phIle ~ -philia(c)
[φίλος 'beloved', ooo]
pIke 'fish' ~ pickerel
pIke ~ pick(-ax/-et) , picador
pIle(-driver) ~ pillar
pIne (cone) ~ pineal
(ap-/im-)pll ~ -plic-able/-it
(from {pl- 'fold'})
(cosmo)polIte ~ political
[πολiτης 'citizen' <
πoλiς 'city']
primal 'original, fundament­
al' (from pris-m- 'first,
original, oldest'), pri­
mary, primate, prime ~
primitive, prince 'first
in rank', principal (n·
118), pristine 'primi­
tive, original'
private, deprive ~ privy,
privative
prize 'something (an enemy
ship, e.g.) seized during
wartime' [OF prise 'seiz­
ing, taking' = PRT of
prendre < L prendere,
contraction of prehendere
'seize, take'; distinct
from prize 'reward' < OF
pris (F prix) < L pretium
'worth, value, price'],
reprisal 'seizure in re­
taliation ' [reprehendere]
~ prison(er) [OF < VL
presionem < L prensio-
(nis), contraction of
prehensio(nis)< prehen-
III.3.3 254

dere 'seize, take'], (re)sIde ~ residual (from

misprision (pej. mis- + {sd- 'sit'}; for e > i in
prehendere 'take wrong­ -sed-, n. 106)
ly' [F méprise, se me- sIgn ~ signal, signify [L
prendre]) signum ]
quiet ~ tranquil(-ity/-ize), (co)sIne ~ sinuous, (in)sin­
quit(s), acquit (ad-) uate [L sinus 'bend,
(II.1.11) curve']
(in-/re-)quIre ~ -quisitive sIsmic ~ sis-trum [σεισμός
[quaerere, quaesZtus 'earthquake' < σεινειν
'seek', ooo] 'shake']
rabbi ~ rabbinical [non-IE] sIte ~ situate [situs 'place']
reptile ~ rep-t-ilian (from (para)sIte ~ -sitic [σiτος
rep- 'creep'; cf. rep­ 'food', ooo]
­re , Lth repliôti) slice ~ slit
rIce ~ risotto slide ~ slid [OE slidan/
rIde ~ ridden (from reit -; sliden], slither [OE freq.
G reiten, ΟΕ ridan/rid- slidrian]
en) smite ~ smitten
(de)rIde, derisive ~ ridi- spider (from spin-θr) ~ spin
-cule/-culous, derision (a-/con-/ex-/in-/per-/re-/su-/
[ridere, risus 'laugh'] trans-)spIe, spirant,
(a)rIse ~ risen [OE ryian/ sprite, sprightly ~ con­
risen] spiracy, spirit(-s/-less/
rIte ~ ritual [ritus < ri- -ual) [spiritus 'breath­
' count, number'] ing)']
rIve 'tear apart' ~ rift (de)spIe, (de-/re-)spIe ~
(de)rIve ~ -rivative [riv- con-/per-spicuous, de­
us 'stream'] spicable, suspicion (all
(e)rudIte ~ -ition from spek- 'look at')_
satire ~ satiric(al) stride ~ stridden [OE stridan/
(ab)scIse (PFX.1) ~ abscissa gestriden]
(de-/pre-)scribe ~ -script- strike ~ stricken
(ion) strive ~ striven
Semite ~ Semitic thrive ~ thriven, thrift
senile ~ -ility t I e ~typical, typify
shine ~ scintilla(te) , shim­ tirant (cf. F tyran, similar
mer (from ski- 'gleam') to ancient¡ancien, peas­
shrive ~ shrift (v. Lehmann ant /paysan, pheasant /fai-
1962: 236) an &c; excrescent -t is
 255 III.3.3

realized phonetically (di-/pro-)vIde, (re-/tele-)-

and poses a problem in vIse ~ -vision (cf. my
derivation of forms 1978c)
like tyrann-ieal/-ize/ (re)vIle [vilis 'cheap, worth­
-ous/-y) ~ tyranny less', ooo] ~ vilify [vi­
(en) title ~ titular [OF lis + facere]
title (F titre) < L whine ~ whinny
titulus, ooo] wIde(ness) ~ width
(ex) tradIte ~ (ex) tradition wIld [OE wilde] ~ wilderness,
trI-(angle/pod) ~ tri-(nity/ bewilder
logy) wIle [Skeat: Modern E. wile is
tribe, tribunal ~ tribune rather a shortened form of
'head of a tribe', tri­ AS. wigl 'divination'] ~
bute 242 witch [OE wicc-]
trine 'threefold, triple' wIne [OE win < L vinum, ooo] ~
[trinus < tris-n-os] ~ vin-yard/-egar/-tage/-tner
trinity [tri-n-itäs] wIse [OE wis(e) ; G weise, Wei­
(con)trIte ~ -trition se], guise [from OF < Gmc
{terere, tritus 'rub wisa] , disguise [from OF
(away)' < tr- 'rub, desguisier (F déguiser) <
turn'; Gmc words from L dis- + OF guise], guide,
this root include guy 'rope' ~ wisdom, wit,
thrash, thread, thresh, unwitting (from wid- 'see;
throw) know', hence related to
viable, vital, vitamin, vi­ video ,οΐόα,Sktvedah,
vacity, revive ~ vict­ VID, Lth veidas , G wissen
uals [vitlz], vivid, &c)
vivisection, convivial wrIte(r) ~ writ (ten) [OE wri-
131 tan 'scratch, tear'/ge-
vibrate ~ whip writen , cf. G reissen,
vicarious ~ vicar 'sub­ Riss, Grundriss &c for S
stitute' development]
vIce [L Vitium 'fault'] ~
vicious [vitidsus 'full
of faults'], vitiate
[vitiare 'make faulty']
III.3.4 256

3.4 0~o > a

(ge)-0-(centric) ~ geagraphy clOk (with shape of a bell)
(-o- here, and in many ~ clack
other words [Anglo-Saxon, (en)clOse [OF clos = PRT of
electromagnet&c—perhaps clore 'shut'] ~ claset
most freq. in -ology], is [OF = dim. of clos <
a connecting vowel used clausus = PRT of clau-
to form compounds, orig. dere 'shut']
with Gk elements [demo­ clOthe(s) ~ cloth [OE cladian
cracy , ethn-/micr-o-bi-I < clap, related to G
ornith- /phil-o-logy, Kleid]
kleptomania, monograph, (pre)cOcious ~ -cacity244
orthodox, ot-o-laryng-o- cOgent ~ cagitate
scope], later with L or cOde ~ cadify
mixed elements [L-Gk cOl [ME cole < OE col] ~ cal-
criminology ; Gk-L auto­ lier 'coal miner'
mobile, monovalent; L-L cOlon ~ calic [κόλον 'large
cumulonimbus ; both ele­ intestine', ooo]
ments are Slavic in cOpious ~ capy(copiosus<
Serbo-Croatian]; these copia 'abundance' < co-
compounds are often coin­ -opia < ops, opis 'ab­
ed; in L, the connecting undance, strength,
vowel was - i - , as in wealth', related to ogus,
fratricidium, mult-i- operis 'work', operari 'to
farius/-partitus, omni- work'. A few E words in
pοtens , qualificäre, this family are opus,
viviparus) oper-a/-etta/-atic/-able/
atrOcious ~ -acity243 -ate/-ative, opulent~ op­
BabylOnia (η) ~ Babylon timum , oeuvre, office (v.
banjO ~ bandora §5.3), Cornucopia 'horn of
bOne ~ banf ire plenty' &c)
burO ~ buracracy cOquett(ish-ness) ~ caquetry
chrOnal ~ (syn)chranic [dim. of F coq 'cock']
(auto)chthOne, chthOnian ~ cOst(al) ~ accast, (inter)cas­
-chthanic [from χθων, ­al [all from L costa 'rib,
χθονος 'earth', apppar- side'; the R cognate KOST'
ently related to χαμαί means 'bone']
'on the ground', humus cOte(rie) ~ cattage
'earth1, ZEMLJA 'land'] crOsier ~ (la)crosse
 257
cyclOne ~ cyclanic (re­
lated to cycle)
(pan)demOnium ~ demanic
(ab)dOmen ~ -daminal
dOte on ~ datty about
dracOnian ~ dracanic
embryO ~ -bryanic
ferOcious ~ -acity 2 4 3
flOt(illa) ~ flatsam
frOze(n) ~ frost
glObe, hemoglobin ~ glabul-
-e/-ar/-in
(co)gnOmen ~ naminal (II.5.1)
(a)gO ~ gone [OE gan = PRT
of gan 'to go']
harmOnious ~ harmanic
hOle ~ hallow
hOly (day) ~ haliday, h æ l -
low(een)
hOmo-(geneous) ~ hamo-
(phone)
homO-(sexual) ~ homa-
(phonous)
hOmunculus ~ hamicide (~
hUmus ~ hAmble)
hOst 'army' ~ hastile
hOtel ~ hastel
IOnian ~ Ianic
jOke ~ jacular
knOw ~ (ac)knawledge
lOc-al(ity)/-ate/-omotion/
-us ~ lacative
(col)lOquial, (e)lOcution,
lOquacious ~ inter-
lacutor(y) [loqui, lo-
cutus 'speak', ooo]
mediOcre ~ -acrity
melancholia ~ -chaly
mOde, mOdus, mOld ~ mad-
-el/-erate/-est(y)/
III.3.4
-ify/-ulate/-ule (from
{md- 'measure, consider'},
cf. remedy in §3.2)
(com)mOde, commOdious ~ accam-
modate, commadity [L com-
modus 'convenient', relat­
ed to last entry, with
meaning 'measure']
mole [mOl] 'gram molecular
weight' (chem.), mOlar
'pert. to mass' ~ malecule
niObium ~ -abic (chem.)
nOde ~ nadule [nodus 'knot']
(metra)nOme ~ (-)namic [νομoς
'rule, law']
nOmen(clature) ~ naminate
(epis)Ode ~ -adic (έπις- <
epi-ens-; v. PFX.2)
Omen ~ -minous, abaminate [ab-
ominäri 'avoid as a bad
omen' < omen, ominis, ooo]
Onus, Onerous ~ exanerate [L
onus, oneris 'burden']
(misanthr)Ope ~ -apic [from
ώψ, ώτίός < okw- ' eye ' ;
n. 243]
Opus ~ aperate (examples under
cOpious above)
orthO-(epy) ~ ortha-(graphy)
(neur-/osm-/psil-/psych-)Osis
~ -atic
(tele)phOne ~ -phanic [φωνή
'voice, sound' < pha-
'speak']
PlatO ~ Platanic
PlutO(nium) ~ -a-cracy/-nic
pneumOnia a. -anic
pOdium, antipOde ~ tripad
(tad)pOle {tad- < toad; cf. OE
tade) ~ palliwog
III.3.5 258

(de)pOse ~ -pasit (cata)tOnia, tOne ~ -tanic

post- ~ pasthumous 2 4 5 [κατατονος 'depression'
pOtent(ate) ~ despàt [potens < τείνειν 'stretch', cf.
< potis 'able, powerful'; tendere ' s tretch ' ]
despot < dems-pot- 'mas­ (iso)tOpe ~ -tapic (chem.)
ter of the house'] trOll ~ tralley
(ap-/ex-)prOpriate ~ prap- (helio)trOpe 'plant that turns
er(ty) toward the sun' ~ -trapic
quotient, quOta ~ aliquàt [L [τροπή 'turn(ing)' < trep-
quot 'how much/many'] 'turn', cf. L trepit
(tele)scOpe ~ -scapic (scop- 'turns']
< skep- < spek- 'look at' verbose ~ - a s i t y 2 4 6
by metathesis) virtuOso ~ -asity [vir 'man' ]
slO ~ slath (re)vOlt ~ -valve (volvere
sOle ~ salitude [solus , ooo] 'roll (along), turn' <
(con)sOle ~ salid, solder wel- 'turn, twist', from
[sadr], consalidate which w e have valve, volt,
[solidus, related to vault, volte-face, vulva,
sollus 'whole', salvus convolution, evolve, in­
'safe'] volute &c)
throat ~ thrattle 'valve r e ­ zircOnium ~ zircan(ic)
gulating fuel-intake' zOne ~ azanic [L zona < ζώνη
[OE prote, G Drossel] < yos- 'gird(le)', c f .
tOll ~ talerate POJAS 'belt']
tOme ~ anatamical zygOte ~ zygatic (from ywg-
'join', cf. con-¿ug-al,
join, yoke)

3.5 Ü ~ u.
boom ~ bum(blebee)-—b in
bumble may be inter­
calated
booty, freebooter ~ fili­
buster 'to "pirate"
the time of Congress
by talking'
bUcolic, BUcephalous, b U -
strophedon, bUtyric
~ buffalo, butter [L
bos, bovis, βοΰς, βοός
'ox']
bUillabaisse ~ bouillon [bu-]
(de)bUt, bUtte ~ butt 'goal,
target'
(un)couth ~ cunning
crouton ~ crust
crUcifix [figere, fixus 'fix
f a s t e n ' ] , crUcial 'cross-
shaped' , excrUciate ~
 259 III.3.5

crux [crux, crucis cís 'sweet'; cf. dolce

'cross, smth. hard to far niente, dulcimer,
understand/explain'] glucose (γλυκΰς < dluk-),
(in)cUbus 'nightmare', lit. glycerine, glyco-]
'what lies in- on one', (de-/re-/se-)dUce ~ -duction
concUbine 'smb. who dUke ~ duchess [OF ducs < dux]
lies with one' ~ incum­ duplicate ~ double [dAbl] (OF
bent 'obligatory, lying L duplus; not an example
on one', succumb 'lie of Grimm's law)
down, submit' EtrUria ~ Etruscan
cUckoo ~ cuckold (con)flUent, flUvial ~ (in­
Cuneiform 'wedge-shaped' ~ flux [fluere, flüxus
cunt [cuneus 'wedge', 'flow']
also the source of gloom ~ glum
coin ] (de)glUtition ~ glut(ton(y))
(re)cUperate ~ recover(y) (ra)gout [raegU] ~ gustatory
[recuperare < -cipere (gustus < gws-; here be­
< capio 'take'] long words like goût,
CUpid(ity) ~ covet(ous) gustat-ion/-ive, de-/dis-
cUpola, coop ~ cup(board) -gust, Gmc choose, Gth
cUrier ~ (re) current (cur- kiusan, G kiesen)
rere, cursus 'run', groove 'furrow' ~ grub 'dig
whose root underlies up' (from khreph- 'dig':
words like car(-eer/ (en)grave [G Grab(en)],
-go /-riage/-ry) , char­ groovy, grubby)
iot, cor-ral/-ridor hUman 'earth being', hUmus,
'place for running'/ humility ~ humble [humilis
-sair 'runner', cour- 'on the ground']
-ant(e) /-se, cursive/ (be)hUve ~ -hoof
-ricular /-riculum / judicial ~ judge [judex, judi­
-sor(y), and derivatives ­is]
with prefixes con-, de-, lUcid (from leuk-id-), (il)lU-
dis-, ex-, in-, oc-, minate (from leuk-s-mn-) ~
pre-, re-, suc-; kraal illustrious, luster (from
is a variant of corral) leuk-s-tr-) (all from lwk-
cUtis, (sub) cUtaneous ~ '(emit) light'; cf. light
custody 'protection, in §3.3)
guard(ian)' (v. hide in (a)lUf ~ luff
§3.3) (de)luxe [U ~ A ] ~ luxury
dU ~ does (n't), done MalthUsian ~ Malthus
(billet-)dU ~ dulcet [dul­ nUbile, connUbial ~ nuptial
III.3.6
nUmer-ous/-al ~ number (L
numerus < nom-er-os <
nem- 'divide, allot':
OE niman 'take', G
nehmen , E nimble 'quick
to take', numb 'taken')
nUtr-ient/-ify/-iment(al)
-ition/-itive ~ nourish-
(-able/-ment)
pluperfect ~ plus [plus,
plüris 'more']
pUgilist, impUgn ~ pug(na-
cious)
pUnitive ~ punish (ment)
pUtrid ~ pus(tule)
rUbi- 'red' (n. 157) ~ rus­
set 'reddish-brown'
(from rwth--s-), rust
rUmor ~ rumble (inter­
calated b)
rUtine ~ in a rut
3.6 AW.
Interestingly, the short vowel variant of AW is the
same as of U.
AWt [OE üt(e)], carAWsw [G
garaus] ~ utter, ut­
most [OE uttra, u t e a ,
üt(e)-m-est]
to bAW248 ~ buxom
(de)bAWch [F bouche] ~ buc­
cal [L bucca 'cheek']
bAWnd ~ bundle
bAWnt-y/-eous ~ bunt 'sift'
cAW ~ buffalo, butter (all
from gwow-; cf. OE cu,
G Kuh)
260
scoop ~ scupper, shove(1)
shoot [G schiessen] ~ shuttle
[OE scytel 'missile']
(con)strUe, obstrUent ~
struct(ion) 233
stUdio (us), student, étUde ~
study
(con-/pre-/re-)sUme ~ -sump­
tion [L sumere 'take up'
< sub-emere; for em-
'take', v. ex-emplify in
PFX.l]
tooth ~ tusk 2 4 7
tUmid 'swollen' [L tumidus] ~
thumb [OE puma; both words
from {to- 'swell'}; v. al­
so thousand in §3.6)
tUna ~ tunny
(con)tUse 'bruise' ~ contund
[tundere, tusus 'beat']
Unit(y) ~ (n)one (cf. App.2.4
and n. 280)
yUth ~ young
clAWd ~ cluster
crAWd ~ curd(le) (OE crudan
'crowd, push together';
cf. n. 249)
dAWdy ~ duds
fAWnd 'melt, pour, cast',
fAWndry ~ funnel, infun-
dibulum 'instrument for
pouring into', refund
'pour back' [fundere
'melt, pour']
fAWnd(ation) ~ fund(amental)
 261 III.4.1

[fundare < fundus 'bot- (pro-/re-)nAWnss-nunciation

tom']
(pro)fAWnds-fundity
gAWt ~gutter [gutta
'drop']
gouge [gAWg] s g u d g e o n
[gAgan] 'pivot' [OF
go on = dim. of gouge
'rounded chisel']
grouch, grouse s(be) grudge, scAWl ~skulk (both probably
grunt (from gr-w- 'make
a hollow sound', cf. L
grundire3 YpU, perhaps
GROM, GREMET' 'thunder')
hAWs [OE hüs] "u husband (n.
24), hut, husk
joust r\j juxta-(pose)
mAWse [OE mus] smuscle
'little mouse' [cf. G
Maus]
[nuntiäre 'announce' <
nuntius 'messenger']
AWnces u n c i a l (v. first en­
try in App.2.4)
pAWnces p u n c h (eon) (not re­
lated to punch 'kind of
drink')
sAWth [OEs u e ] ~ southern
Scand)
scAWr 'move quickly' ~ scurry
(a)stAWnd OJ Stun, thunder
(cf. astonish, detonate,
OE punor, G Donner9 L
tonare)
tAWer ' turret [OF tor < tur-
ris < TÖppie 'tower, wall­
ed city']
thAWsand ' thumb (from {tw-
'swell'}, cf. tumëre id.;
thousand [OE pusend, Gth
pusundi] from tew-s-kmt-,
lit. 'swollen hundred')

4. Analysis of the Shift.

4.1 Reflexes from the Great Vowel Shift.

AW in §3.6 is the reflex of u by GVS (just as [ay] in
§3.3 is the reflex of i by GVS). This hypothesis correlates
with the fact that theshort counterpart of AW is (just as
i is theshort counterpart of I [ay] in §3.3). Hence suθ ~
Sometimes assource of [aw] can arise indirectly, as in
Gmc mouth, which has an underlying nasal (cf. related mandi­
ble 'jaw', manducate 'chew'; umändere 'chew', G Mund ; we
mentioned related mange while discussing -g in §2; Gk masti­
cate also belongs h v ' j a w s , mouth', lit.
III.4.1 262

'chewer'); the derivation is thussimilar to that of isolate

'make into an island' (cf. F isole and related E insular,
peninsula < L insula; E isolate is thus a doublet of insu­
late) :
(97) UPR: mnθ- ns-
S ~ S: n n
anaptyctbc V: un (as ?. un-) ins- (as insular)
W. u ï
£75 = Ptf: mawθ ays-
The Z7fs of §3.5 are exceptions to GVS.25θ This hypo­
thesis correlates with the fact that theshort counterpart
of these U/'s is u, thesame as of aw. Further confirmation
comes from alternants with UsAW, such as rute srAWte,
flutist sflAWtist, brUnette/BrUno/brUin sbrown [OE brun],
accUchement scouch, rUne round 'whisper1 [OE run 'se­
cret', G raunen 'whisper'], prüde sproud, snoot( ) snout,
confuse O/ confound, dubious dAWbt (both from {dw- 'two'},
cf. G Zweifel) : the first member of each pair has failed to
undergo GVS.
In E, the C-cluster nd is like E ld in that it causes
lengthening unless followed by another (cf., e.g., E fEld
vs G Feld; v. 1.3.2.4). Thus in find found [OE fundan
funden], we see e sθ ablaut:
(98) find found
UPR: fnd- fnd-
e-Abl: e
S ~ S: n
e» *
anaptyct~c V: un {as drunk of (82), p. 113)
e ~ i / N: i
V ~ V / nd: ï Ü
GVS = PR: faynd fawnd
Bind bound is like find ~ found, but from this root
is also bundle < bnd-l-, with anaptyctic kept short by
the consonant 1 following nd. Similarly, wind 'to turn' '
windlass. Foundling is exceptional in that its vowel is
lengthened despite the following, non-syllabic lm Grist
 263 III.4.1

'grain for grinding1 [OE grist]is from thesame root as in

grind sground, but its derived V isshortened by the fol­
lowing C-cluster. Found 'pour, melt, cast' [fundere] has
exceptional derivatives like fAWndry, refund 'pour back'.
Onesporadic difference between nouns and verbs (cf.
1.2.2, pp. 67-8) is that nouns undergo umlaut, verbs ablaut.
We have mouse, louse from mus-, lus- by GVS; but mice, lice
are from mus-i-, lus-i- by umlaut, loss of conditioning vow­
el (n. 2θ2), unrounding of Ü,251 and GVS (see derivations in
(102a) below). The pair mansmen [G Mann, Manner, OCS
mgzi, MUZ]9 doubtless from {mn- 'think'}of n. 81, presents
an interesting exámple. Our proposed derivations for both
ical development :

(99) man men

UPR: mn- mn-y-
e-Abl: e e
o-Abl: mon-
S ~ s : --mon-i-
Uml:-- o (~ e by . 251)
~ a by (81) :
loss of -i: - θ
PR : maen men

The derivations in (99) are reminiscent of those in

(95) of II.5.5 for broad sbreadth: here too we could have
"simplified" the derivation for men by assuming that the UPR
did not containsuffixal - and that o-ablaut did not apply.
But this path would differentiate man/men from mouse/mice
(asg./pl. pair which cannot easily be derived by difference
in ablaut). Under the analysis of (99), formation of man/
men is parallel to that of mouse/mice, tooth I teeth &c. The
R loan muzhik [mUzEk] 'Russian peasant', historically cog­
nate with man (cf. MUZ 'husband', MUZCINA 'man', all from
vdevelopment; a more reasonablesolution would class­
ify muzhik (along withsome other recent IE loans likes p u t ­
nik, ayatollah) as non-IE.

In filth, the N-suffix -th carries the umlauting vowel:

III.4.1 264

(100) foul filth

UPR: ful- ful-ye
S ~ S: - i
Umi: - u (~ i by n. 251)
loss of ï: - θ
shortening : - i
GVS: aw -
PR: f awl fue

The derivations in (100) s u p p o r t the analysissuggested

in II.5.5 for length: here there is little possibility that
ablaut-variance is responsible for the alternation in (be)-
foul filth [OE ful o; fyld]. _
Remaining vowelss e e m straightforward: ce from a in
rabies is raised to [ey]; ê in creed is raised to [iy];
o in tooth [OE top] is raised to [ u w ] . 2 5 2
Tooth steeth (from o-grade dont-) is roughly parallel
to mouse smice:

(101) UPR: dnt- dnt-y-

e-Abl: e e
o-Abl:
S ~ S: i
Grimmrs law: t e ton-i
Uml: -- o (~ e by n. 251)
loss of -i: -- θ
VN: 5
GVS: u i
PR: tuwθ tiyθ

Many of these apparentlys i m p l e x Ns are assigned to o-

grade, ands o m e (like mouse and foot) undergo morphologically
conditioned lengthening. Foot (OE fot), as opposed to food
(OE foda), is peculiar in undergoingsubsequentshortening of
(see derivations in (102a) on the next page).
We find this shortening of < 5 by GVS in other words
like foot: blood, book (cf. beech, p. xvi), soot, woof (cf.
weave) &c, but not brood (cf. breed), food, goose, shoot (cf.
 265 III.4.1

(102a) mouse mice foot feet

UPR: mws- mws-y pd- pd-y
e-Abl: e e
o-Abl
S ~ S. u u i - i
M-lengthening of root V: û u 5 5
Grimm's law: - - f t f t
- -

o:i
Uml: Ü
loss of -±, - θ - θ
unrounding of Vs : - Ï - ê ( . 251)
GVS aw ay u i
shortening of u - u
PR maws mays fut fiyt

ic; 253 Coats and Lightner 1975 presents a formal mechanism

for writingsuch rules, as well as motivating them with data
from R.
No realistic derivation other than (102a)s e e m avail­
able for foot.
Thus we have at least four U's: U from by GVS (tooth,
food &c), U thatshifts to [aw] (as in §3.6), U that remains
intact (as in §3.5 and n. 25θ), and U thatshortens idiosyn-
cratically (foot, glum &c).25if
When wesaid, just before (99), that verbs undergo ab­
laut (not umlaut), we werespeaking in terms of paradigmatic
inflection (get sgot, tread a. trod, fell sfall, s e l l ~s o
pairs like food sfeed, brood breed, tooth steethe, room sre
&c, which present a different picture:--

Such pairs could be analyzed asshowing a lengthened

vs difference in ablaut (similar to pairs like (e)lope sleap
verb [cf. Gth fodyan 'to feed' &c]. This requires M-condi-
tioned lengthening of o-grade for thesimplex Ns (mentioned
in the paragraph below (1θ1)). Since the Vs are derived from
the Ns, they alsos h o w thesame M-conditioned lengthening of
<9-grade;but the.V in addition undergoes umlaut, presenting
a derivation like that of feet in (102a).
III.4.1 266

The N blood [OE blod] undergoes idiosyncraticshorten­

ing, as in (102b); food, brood, tooth aresimilar, but keep
their long intact.

(102b) blood bleed brood [OE brod]

UPR: phlth- h
p rt - h

e-Abl: e e
o-Abl:
S ~ S:
M-lengthening: phlooth-i- oo
oo b d
Gl: b d b d
Umi :
loss of -i: θ
mrounding of Vs:
GVS: uu ii uu
shortening of û: u
PR: blAd bliyd bruwd

Not all de-N verbs undergo umlaut (cf. foot, e.g., as

in She footed the bill.. She footed handsomely across the
floor. &c).
The N feed is de-V, from to feed (itself de-N, from
food), properly meaning 'that which is fed (to animals,
e.g.)'; the other meanings of N feed are. derived from that
meaning by S extension (n. 35).
We have found in these Ns V pairs like tooth steethe
another exámple, in addition to long slength and man smen,
where DMshows it preferable to use umlaut rather than ab­
laut in the P. That is tos a y , the DM of these exámples
teaches us how to deal with their P, not vice versa.
Further confirmation for the correctness of the pro­
posed analysis of brood sbreed &c would be forthcoming if
we could point to parallel pairs with ou [aw]s i [ay/i],
forsuch pairs (like louse s l i c e , foul sfilth &c) cannot
have their vowel-alternations explained directly by es
ablaut. But I have not been able to find anysuch probative
pairs (no doubt carefulsearch--perhaps facilitated with the
help of high-speed computers--would revealsome, although my
guess is not many will be found). Pairs like foul [OE f u l ]
 267 III.4.2

~ de f ble [OE -fyZan], proud [OE prud, prut] spride [OE pry-
te], while certainly contributory, are not exactly what we
need here, because of the different formation {foul, proud
are As). But I think'that even in the absence ofsuch s u b ­
sidiary confirmation, the argument above for pairs like
bZood sbZeed will stand on its own feet: only this analysis
seems to grasp the maximum number of generalizations, to
minimize fortuitous redundancy in the lexicon.
To close thissection, I mention an exámple which
might be treated best by ablaut. If steer 'young ox' [OE
steor] is related to [tor] in words like toreador 'bull­
fighter1 [Sp toro 'bull'], Taurus 'constellation;s i g n of
the zodiac' [taurus, xaupoe, OCS tûru 'bull(ock)', Lth tau-
ras 'aurochs'], Minotaur [Mivarraupoc; Zit. 'Minoan bull'], we
could posit an UPR (s)tr-. Steer undergoes e-ablaut (= ster-),
forms undergo both e- and θ-ablaut (= tor-), M-lengthening
(= tor-), and theshortening of before r in §2 (= tor-).
Difficulties with this analysis lie both in thes s θ alter­
nation and in the fact the words are ooo (they may ult. be
Semitic, cf. Ar tor-, H gor- 'bull(ock)' &c).

4.2 Examples of U: an Ordering Paradox.

Orthographic oo often represents U (or itsshort vari­
ant u), and we give below lists ofsome (probably most) of
the common words containing oo (obv. we are not concerned here
with words like brooch [brOc], coordinate, microorganism,
oophore, whippoorwiZZ &c). Since one cannot argue linguistic
analysis on the basis of orthography, we give besidesome of
the words related forms and/or comments from which one might
compose arguments for (intermediary) U; at times the argument­
ation would have to be rather indirect--but thatseems to be
the way language is constructed.

(103) [U]: aloof 'into the ballyhoo [ooo]

wind' (cf. bamboo [non-IE; MaZay]
Zuff 'the bamboozle [ooo]
windward bandicoot [TeZegu]side')bazook

coined name of a wind-

instrument)
III.4.2
behoove (OE behofian; cf.
E behoof)
bloom (from ON blom; cf.
blossom, flower, flor-
-a/-al/-ist; F fleur,
fids, f loris)
bloomers [named after the
designer]
blooper [imit.]
boo [imit.] (also boohoo)
boobs (vulg.; ooo)
boob(y) 'foolish person1 <
ba(l)b- 'stammer' {bab­
ble, babe, baby, ba-
boon(ery), barbarian
(ßapßapoe 'non-Greek,
foreign'), barbar-ic/
-ism (ßapßapia|iO£ 'un­
intelligible speech')/
-ity/-ize/-ous/-y (ape),
bauble &c)
boodle {slang; from Du, cf.
caboodle)
boom 'deep, resonantsound'
(cf. bomb(ard), bump-
(tious), bumblebee &c)
boom 'longspar' {naut.)
[Du 'tree, pole', cf. E
beam, G Baum]
boomerang [Australian]
boon 'favor, request' (from
ON bon 'request, prayer'
< phä- 'speak,s a y , tell'; brood, cf. bre(e)d
f. ban(-al/-ish/-ns),
abandon, contraband,
fame, fib &c; unrelated
to next entry)
boon 'gay, convivial' (in a
boon companion; from ME
bon(e) 'good' < bonus <
268
OL dueños; for dw- ~ b-,
OL duis ~ L bis 'twice';
cf. bene-diction/'-fit/
-factor/-volent; with
boon, contrast beauty < F
beauté < bellitätem < bel­
lus 'pretty' < dwen-l-os
(with assim. of n. 123);
other words from dwen-
include benign, bonanza,
bonbon, bonny, debonair,
bounty, belle, belladonna,
embellish, beautify, slang
beaut [byuwt] (as in F.H.
La Guardia's "When I make
a mistake, it's a beaut.rr)
&c. Unrelated to the above
are bellicose, belligerent,
rebel(lious) < bellum 'war'
< OL duellwn, ooo)
boondocks {slang; Tagalog)
boondoggle 'waste time/time
wasted on pointless/unnec­
essary work'
boor(ish) {Du boer 'farmer';
cf. Boer, bower, neighbor,
build, booth)
boost(er) [ooo]
boot (n. 76)
booty [F butin < MLG bute]
booze [ooo]
bridegroom (v. groom)
of §4.1s.f.
broom (OE brom; cf. bramble <
OE brœmbel < bremel)
buckaroo (Sp vaquero < L vacca
'cow'; cf. E vaccine)
caboodle (in kit'n caboodle;
cf. boodle)
caboose [perhaps from a Du com-
 269 III.4.2

pound meaning 'cabin- hydropsy--does not belong

house'] here)
calaboose 'jail' {slang; Sp food (OE fdda; cf. fodder,
calabozo) fe(e)d; v. pabulum in
cartoon [F carton] II.1.1)
cheroot [Tamil] fool(hardy) (ME, OF fol < VL
choose (OE ceosan, Gth follis 'empty-headed per­
kiusan; cf. E chose(n), son' < L follis 'bellows,
choice, (dis)gust &c) ball filled with air';
cock-a-doodle-doo [imit.] cf. follicle, folly)
cockatoo [non-IE] freebooter (from free + booty,
cocoon a caique from Dutch)
coo [imit.] gloom, cf. glower, glum
cool (OE col < {gl- 'cold1}; goo(ey) {slang)
cf. cold, chill(y) &c of goober [ooo]
n. 138) goof(y) {slang; ooo)
cooler 'jail' {slang; from gook {slang)
last entry) goon {slang)
coolie [Hindi] goose (OE gos, G Gans, (h)an- ser, , Lth ~qst>s; g
coon (short for raccoon-, cf. gander, gannet 'kind of
metaphorical slang in a goose' &c)
coon1s age 'for a long groom [OF groumet, gourmet
time') 'servant, page', ooo; unre­
coon {vulg.; ooo) lated to gourmand, gorman­
coop, cf. cupola, cup &c dize]
coot 'kind of bird; foolish
old man' [ME cote, ooo] groove (MDu groeve 'ditch'; cf.
croon [MDu kronen 'groan, (en)grave(n))
whimper', ooo] harpoon [OF harpe 'claw', pro­
cuckoo [imit.] bably a Gmc loan; unrelated
doodad [ooo] to L harpe 'sickle', de­
doodle spite AHB]
doom(-sday/-ster) (OE dom; hooch (orig. 'kind of liquor
cf. deem, deed &c) made by Hoochinoo Indians
dragoon [F dragon; v. -oon of Alaska')
below] hoodlum 'young rowdy, gangster,
drool (perhaps related to thug' [amusing etymology
drivel) based on a printing error]
droop, cf. drop(let), drip hoodoo (variant of voodoo)
{dropsy--aphetic for hooey {slang) 'nonsense' [ooo]
III.4.2
hookah [A]
hooligan (slang; ooo)
hoop 'circular band' [OE
hop]
(w)hoop (one word with two spellings)
hoopla [F houp-la]
hoopoe Tkind of Old World
bird' [F huppe < L
upupa (imit.); cf. E
dupe < F < de huppe]
hoosegow fjailT (slang) [Sp
juzgado 'court of just­
ice1 < juzgar 'to judge'
< jüdicäre]
hoot (imit.; cf. hue in hue monsoon [A]
and cry)
hootenanny [ooo]
hullabaloo [imit.]
igloo [Esk]
kangaroo [Austr]
Koh-i-noor [Pers kdh-i-nür
'mountain of light' <
Pers koh 'mountain' 4-
A nur 'light']
lagoon (-oon here is not
aug. -oon referred to
about twenty entries
below; cf., rather,
lacuna, lake)
lampoon [F lampon]
loo (informal), euphemism
for toilet [ooo]
(heir)loom [ooo]
loom 'come into view' [ooo]
loon 'kind of bird' (cf. ON moose [Algonq]
lomr)
loon 'simple-minded person'
loony (short for lunatic)
loop 'noose'
27θ
loophole
loose(n), cf. lose3 losSj (ab-/
dis-/re-)solve [from solv­
ere 'loosen, untie' < se- +
luere], ab-/dis-/re-solute
[from -solutus = PRT of
-solvere], Gk (ana)ly-tic/
-sis, all from lw- 'cut
apart']
macaroon [F macaron < It mac-
car one, cf. macaroni < It
maccaroni < 'happi­
ness' < 'happy', ooo]
maroon [F marron]
mongoose [non-IE]
moo [imit.]
mooch (slang)
mood 'state of mind' [OE mod,
ooo]
mood 'set of verb forms', cf.
mode [F < L modus]
moon (OE mona, ynvri, mens is ;
cf. month, men-iseus/-ses/
-strual, -ltri-lse-mester
&c)
Moor, cf. Mauritania [from L
Maurus 'Moor' < yaupoQ,
ooo], mavrodaphne 'kind of
modern Greek wine' (yaupOQ
'black' + oá(í)Vri 'laurel')
moor 'secure, make fast', cf.
marl(ine)
moor 'tract of (often swampy)
land' (OE mor; cf. mere)
moot 'debatable' (OE mot; cf..
meet 'encounter' [OE met­
an])
mushroom [OF moisseron]
 271
nincompoon [ooo]
noodle [G Nudel]
noon (OE non < L nona (hora)
'ninth (hour)' < nowen-
-os; E non-agon/- ge-
narian/-ary/-es &c)
noose 'loop with a running
knot (as in a lasso)'
(from L nodus 'knot';
cf. node, net [ME, OE
net(t)y Gth nati 'net',
G Netz < Gmc natya
'smth. knotted' < nod-];
from wed- 'tie, knot';
perhaps related to neo,
neve 'sew' and "snood"
below)
offshoot: v.s h o o t
oodles {slang) [ooo]
oolong [Chin]
-oon (aug.suffix < Espell­ probable, reprieve, (ex)-
ing of F -on < L -5nem9
after bab-9 ball-, bass-,
buff-, doubl-, drag-,
fest-, octor-, picar-,
plat-, poltr-, pont-, sal-, spit-oon &c; somebut influenced by words in
E words in -on are from
this source: caisson,
million, piston &c)
ooze, oozy [OE wo s 'juice, sap'] re of land']
pantaloon(s) [It pantalone],
the source of E pants
papoose [Algonq]
paratroops < parachute +
troops
pooch (slang) 'dog' [ooo]
pood (R < LG pund, borrowed
from L pondo 'by
III.4.2
weight'; cf. pound, pen­
dulum &c)
poodle 'kind of dog' (G Pudel-
(hund); cf. Spuddle)
pooh [imit.] (also pooh-pooh)
pool 'small pond' [OE pol, G
Pfuhl, OCS blato, BÔLOTO,
Lth bala 'swamp, marsh']
pool (F poule 'stakes in gam­
bling; hen' < L pulla
'young animal (fern.)1; cf.
related foal, filly, pole­
cat, pony, poult(ry), pul­
let, pup(py) &c)
poop (deck) [L puppis, ooo]
poop (slang) 'tire' [ooo]
poor [OF povre < L pauper]
proof, prove (OF prueve < pro­
ba, probare 'test, prove';
(ap-/re-)probate, probity,
acer-b-ate, du-b-ious, super-b &c)
pussyfoot < pussy + foot
quadroon (from Sp cuarterón,
quadr-)
(rac)coon [Algonq]
rood [OE rod 'rod, pole, meas-
roof [OE hrdf < Gmc hrdf-]
room (OE rum 'space', Gth rum,
G Raum, L rus, rüris 'coun­
try', PIE rwX- 'wide, open, space'; cf. r
large a hole', lit. 'make
room' [OE ryman], rummage
'thorough search, search
thoroughly')
roost 'perch for fowls' (with
III.4.2 272
extension, cf. expres­
sions like rule the
roost), rooster [ME
vooste < OE hrost
'framework of a roof,
perch1]
root 'usually underground
part of plants,serv­
ing assupport, ab­
sorbing andstoring
food' (ME ro(o)t < OE
rot; Gth waurts, L
(w)radix, -ids 'root';
E race '(ginger) root'
[OF < radbcem], radic­
al; radish~ ram-(ify)
'branch out' [ramus
'branch' < wrad-m-os],
deracinate~ eradicate;
rhizo- 'root' (pica
'root' < wrXd-y-ä, cf.
(f) paôayvoQ 'branch'),
licorice [ ],
(liver)wort [OE wyrt
'herb, plant, root', G
Wurz(el)] &c); cf. n.
256
root 'dig (as) with the snout' (OE
wrdt 'snout'; rodere
'gnaw'; rodent, corrode,
erosion &c)
root(er) 'cheer(er)' [ooo]
saloon [F salon]
school (OE scot < L schola <
θ)(oXf\ 'leisure devoted snooze [ooo]
to learning'; cf. schol­ soon [OE sdna 'immediately']
ar)
school (of fish) [Du school]
schooner[earliers c o o n e r ]
scoop (cf. s h o v e d ) ! )
scoot(er) (cf.s h o o t ! Ifs o ,
probably of Scand orig.)
Scrooge [character from Dick­
ens' Christmas Carol]
shampoo [Hindi champo]
shoo [imit.]
shoot (OEs c e o t a n <s k w d -
'shoot, throw';s h o t ,sheet(of
trapshooting',s k i t 'gibe,sati
ter _,s k i t t i s h ~ pi.s k i t -
ties; shuttle &c)
sloop (Dus l o e p 'glider', OEslupa
äslupan 'slip ä- away'],slop(s)
(pery), cowslip, oxlip,
lubricate [slubric-], fromsleu
smooth [ooo]
snood, cf. needle, nemato-
'thread' (bot., zool.),
nerve~ neuro- (veupov 'sin­
ew,wrotan
cord, nerve'), from
(s)ne- 'spin,s e w ' , cf.
neo, nêre 'sew' (perhaps
related to noose above)
snoop [ooo]
snoot(y), from snw- 'flow'; snout (§4.1),
Schnauzer &c
sooth (arch.) 'truth', sooth­
sayer 'speaker of truth'
(< es- 'be'), forsooth
 273 III.4.2

(arch.) 'in truth, in­ taboo [non-IE]

deed1 tattoo (v. under genesis in
soothe (OEs o b i a n 'show the II.1.6)
truth of' < sod 'true'; tattoo 'mark/design on the
cf. preceding) skin' [Polynesian]
spoof [a coined word] too (OE td9 E to; v. tattoo)
spook(ish) tool (OE, ON tol; -I is an
spool [G Spule] instr. suffix, as in han­
spoon(ful), from sphX-/spX- ; dle, shovel &c)
toot(le)
Gk spheno- 'wedge', spade 'tool for [irait.]
dig­
ging', F epaulet 'shoul­ tooth [OE top]
der ornament', epee troop(er) (MF troupe; E
'kind of sword', espali­ troupe)
er, paularon 'armor for tycoon [Jap]
the shoulder' &c typhoon [Chin]
vamoose [Sp vamos 'let's go']
spoonerism [named after Rev. voodoo(ism) (Creole F voudou)
W.A. Spooner] Walloon (related to Welsh)
spoor 'track/trail of an an­ woo(er) [ooo]
imal';s p u r ,spurn 'kick woozy (cf. ooze above)
away' yahoo [name coined by Swift
stooge [ooo] in Gulliver's Travels]
stool [OEs t o l 'seat'] yoo(-hoo) [perhaps imit.]
stoop, cf.s t e e p ( l e ) zoo (short for zoological
swoon [OE geswdgen 'in a swoon'] garden)
zoom [imit.]
swoop (OEswäpan; cf.s w e e p )

(104) [ ]: blood (OE blod; cf. ble(e)d)

flood (OE flod; cf. fleet3 flow, pluvial)

(105) [U]: behoof (OE be- brook 'put up with' (v. fruit)
hof; cf. E Chinook 'tribe of NA Indians;
behoove) one of its members; its
boogie-woogie language'
book (v. p. xvi) cook (n. 244)
brook 'what "breaks" out of cooky (not from cook, but
the earth from cake)
III.4.2 274
crook(edness) (ON krdkr
'hook'; related are E
words like crutch,
cricket (the game),
crotch, lacrosse, crosi­
er, crochet [the F words
are of Gmc origin])
foot(fall) (OE fot)
forsook [OE forsoc]
gobbledygook [a coined word]
good(liness) (OE god; gos­
pel < OE godspell 'good
news', a loan translation
of evangeliwn in n. 71)
goody-goody '(one who is) af­
fectedly sweet, sanctimo­
nious'--from good
hood [OE hod; G Hut], from
kath- cover, protect,
guard, watch1; hat [OE
hœt(t) < GMC hattuz, cf.
ON h a t t r , hottr 'hat,
hood'], heed(less) [OE
hedan < Gmc hodyan, cf. G
hüten 'guard, watch']
hood 'gangster, thug' (slang;
from hoodlum!)
-hood (cf. -head)
hoodwink (from hood + wink)
hoof, hooves [OE hof ON
ho fr, G Huf]
hook(er) [OE hoc, KOGOT'
'claw']
hooky (slang) 'absent (esp.
fromschool) without
permission' [ooo]
look [OE locian]; note ambig.
looker 'one who looks
(out)' vs 'one who is
pleasing to look at'
nook [ooo]
oomph (slang) [ooo]
rook (OE hroc; raven &c, n.
124)
rookie (variant of recruit)
shook (OEs c d c ;shake from
OEs c a c a n )
snooker 'kind of pool-game
for gambling' [ooo]
soot (from {sd- 'sit'}: o-
grade sot9 M-lengthened
to sot; hence sut by GVS,
ands u t by idiosyncraticshortening;c
stood (OEs t o d ;stand [OE
standan]; all from {stí2-
'stand'})
took (OE toe; take < OE ta­
can; Gth tekan 'touch')
wood (OE wudu < Gmc widu- <
PIE widh-- 'tree')
woodchuck [Algonq, perhaps
Cree or Ojibwa]
woof (ME oof, OE owef < o-
'on' + wef 'web' < wefan
'weave'; W in NE woof by
analogy to w- in weave)
woof 'bark of a dog' [imit.]
woofer 'loud-speaker for bass
frequencies' (from preced­
ing)
wool(en) (OE wull < Gmc wulld
< PIE wlna 'wool': VOLNA,
Lth vïlna, L läna9 Aiivoç <
fXnvoQ, Gth wulla (G Wol­
le), Skt ürnä9 Arm gelmn9
Welsh gwlän (whence gwlan-
en 'flannel') &c; E wooly,
-lies, delaine (loan from
F de laine), láñate, flan-
 275 III.4.2

nel (from Welsh))

wormwood (OE wermod; cf. E vermouth)

In the preceding pages, we have not been overly con­

cerned (nor will we be in the pages that follow) with ques­
tions about the proper formulation of rules, possible models
for rule-application, ands o on. Rather, questions of this
technical character have been purposelysubordinated to a
prior, more basic question, one posedseveral times in my
1978 review of Foley's contribution, namely, "Where does it
come from?" Phrased differently, I have been concerned here
more with motivating the origin of representations and the
originalshape of representations than with the formal pro­
cessies) of converting these original representations (UPRs)
into representations--however abstract they may be--of
"sound" (i.e., PRs). Also I have throughout beenspeaking
both of representations and of (morpho)phonological processes
in metaphorical terms of the type mentioned in 1979a, n. 4.
In brief, I have beensatisfied here with rough portrayal
(when we return tosuch matters in our next work, we will
find it not only "rough", but at times evensomewhat inac­
curate) of general P outline and with outright abandonment
of S' development. Not without reason: S development iss i m ­
ply too complicated to present coherently, even in general
outline, amidst consideration and organization of data in­
tended to motivate morphemic divisions and morphemic iden­
tities. As for P processes--more familiar to us than the (to
a large extent corresponding) S processes--it should be clear
that if we do not know what original representations or final
representations look like, we will be hard-pressed to write
rules converting one to the other or to make any philosoph­
ically penetrating observations aboutsuch rules. This is of
course a major reason for the failure of many earlier works
to contribute to linguistic (or even merely P) theory: there,
the prior, crucially important question--"Where does it come
from?"--was often not even mentioned (much less exámined ana­
lytically). That neglect, coupled with flagrant lack of re­
spect for phenomenal data, reducessuggestions there concern­
ing all (except only for the most blatantly obv.) aspects of
III.4.2 276

theory to wild guesses, haphazardshots in the dark, which

do not even incorporate achievements arrived at during the
last century of persevering effort.
We have to remember that theory-construction in lin­
guistics is not exactly like theory-construction in,s a y ,
mathematics. In linguistics, there is an overriding prin­
ciple--an arbiter--to judge correctness or incorrectness of
theoretical constructs: if the construct corresponds to the
human brain's treatment of language, it is correct; if not,
incorrect. Given our present ignorance, unadorned data are
virtually the only yardsticks we possess to measure the val­
ue of any theoreticalsuggestion. If asuggestion conflicts
with data, it is priori wrong--how wrong may vary with the
degree of conflict, but I am notsure: we do not know enough
yet about what is "right" and "wrong" in linguistics for in­
sightful discussion of this topic.
Irrelevant details aside (forsome discussion,s e e
Coats and Lightner, 1975), the MIT-view of rule-application
is that the brain applies the rules of language in linear
order. For the data in (103)-(105), if the reader tries to
write as e t of rules whose application is to be linearly or­
dered, he will find an ordering paradox (of the type described
in my 1978b) results. Apparently < by GVS (as in, e.g.,
tooth < toQ [OE toQ < tonth-, cf. G Zahn], foot (102a) < fot
[OE fot]9 brood (102b) < brdd [OE brdd] &c). But we may ask
questions like the following: if i lengthened before Id under­
goes GVS to [ay] in child, why does lengthened before Id
not undergo GVS to *[uw] in cold, hold, sold, told &c? Lin­
ear ordering, attractive because of its essential straight­
forwardness and simplicity, 55 cannot correspond to the
brain's application of language-rules because this supposi­
tion results in a paradox. The brain must therefore deal
with rule-application in some more sophisticated manner, yet
to be formulated.
Another ordering paradox may arise from the work in
II.5.2. If we postulate the V buy¡bought is from a velar
(roughly) bug-i- [cf. Gth bugyan, OE byegan] ~ big- (by um­
laut) ~ biy- (n. 168) ~ [bay] (by GVS). The difficulty here
is that GVS applies to monophthongs, not diphthongs; in fact,
it leads to derivation of diphthongs from monophthongs.
 277 III.4.3

Therefore, this derivation of buy poses an ordering para­

dox, unless we are willing to postulate a rule (applying
before GVS) which monophthongizes iy. Buts u c h a rule may
by required in any event for exámples likes c y t h e < sek-
'cut' (cf. II.2.4), with a derivation like sek1 ~ sex1 (by
Gl) ~ sey1 (by VI) ~ sêg- ~ síg- [cf. OE sígde] ~ siy- ~
si- [cf. ME sibbe < OE side] ~ say- (by GVS).
In III.5.3 s.f. is mentioned a more damaging order­
ing paradox.
For ordering paradoxes of a slightly different type,
see Walker's brief, but interesting paper on some of the
low level, P processes in colloquial Canadian F. I might
add, incidentally, that Walker was perhaps overgenerous in
devotingspace to the unlikely view that liaison consonants
may be inserted: if [t] in petit Yvon [patsitivo] is in­
serted, one will have to explain why les Etats-Unis e.g. is
not pronounced *[letetatuni]•

4.3 The Rule(s) for Great Vowel Shift.

It wouldseem from the preceding that anystatement
of GVS in terms of P features will have to be fairly com­
plex: the data we have collected seem to suggest raising
for some vowels (ë to iy in feet, e.g.), lowering for oth­
ers (u to aw in found, e.g.). Lehmann, however, claims
that "all the Middle English long vowels are modifiedsimi­
larly" (1962: 151); if we adopt the device proposed earlier
for Grimm's law, this view is readily interpretable. And
it is easy to ac­
count for concom­
(106) itant diphthong-
ization if we as­
sume the basicsystemhas moras
resulting "wheel"
isslightly lop­
sided, in part be­
cause E has an es­
sentially quinque-
III.4.3 278

segmental system (a/œ3 e3 o3 i3 ) ; the lowest vowels shift back and fort
that esometimes shifts to a before r: darling, heart,
market, r [ar],s t a r &c (opposed to dear, o-grade cordial
'hearty1, merchant, l/m/n, stellar, cf. my 1979a: 286)--it
is well known that parson is a doublet of person, that ar­
bor 'shady garden1 is related to herb(age) not arboreal
'pert. to trees', ands o on; but in words like clarity and
transparent* the a from e hasshifted to œ. And it is oft­
en observed that one difference between certain dialects of
British and American E is thatsome words there pronounced
with [a] are here pronounced with [ ]--for exámple, bath.

Another reason for the lopsidedness in (106) is that

O's of §3.4 are not the result of GVS: in atrocious e.g.
hassimply been lengthened, then diphthongized (I ~ oo ~
haps ow, buts e e below).

While the proposed analysis of θseems to work reason­

ably well for non-Gmc forms of IE origin, it apparently
fails for most E forms with Gmc heritage,specifically for
OE words with à which appears now as [ow]: clover [cläfre;
perhaps 'sticky plant', related to cleave 'stick to'], dole
[däl 'part, share'; related to deal 'distribute', OCS,Celu
'portion'], drone [drän 'male honeybee'; related to threno­
dy 'song of lament, dirge'], foam [fam], fro [frä], groan
[gran-; perhaps related to grin], grope [gräp-; related to
gripj grasp < ME graspen < OE *grapsan], grove [gräf], load
[lad; related to lead 'direct'], loaf [hläf; cf. OCS xlebu
'bread', most probably a Gmc loan], loam [lam; related to
(bird)lime], loan [län; from likw- 'leave' of n. 92], loath
[lad], lode [lad; related to load above], mole [mal], owe
[ME owen, awen < OE agan], pole [pal 'stake'; related to
(im) pale], pope [OE päpa < L papa; cf. related pApal], road
[rad\ related to raid, ride], rove [ON rafa 'wander'; re­
lated to rover 'wanderer, pirate (vessel)', bereave~ rob], so [swä], soap [säpe
rung of a ladder'; related to spike, spit, spire, spine], stone [stan; related to
[ta], token [tacn], whole [hâl], woe [wä; related to (be)-
 279 III.4.3

Wait] &c. Clearly our analysis needs to be revised to in­

clude these forms.
Auslaut -ow in some E words has its source in g: bar­
gain [OF bargaignier is a Gmc loan] borrow [OE borgian >
ME borwen- cf. G borgen]; bulge [OF boulge, bouge 'leather
bag' < *bHgh- 'swell'] ' billow [ON bylgja, MHG bulge 'bag,
billow'] ; bow [OE boga, G Bogen] ; to tow [ME towen < OE to­
sían; cf. G ziehen (zog), dücere < OL ¿foudre] ' tug, taut
< tog-t- (all from du/c- 'pull, draw', with E g by Verner's
law); gallows [OE gealga^ G Galgen] &c. However, # does
not result only in W, but also in y (n. 168), and there are
several straightforward triads with g a» W % y. For exam­
ple, beside saga 'long, heroic narrative', there is not on­
ly saw 'a saying' [OE sagu], but also say [OE seogany G
sagen]; again, beside drag there is not only draw, but also
dray 'cart for heavy loads' [ON drage]. The phonetic al­
ternation in these last two triads is almost identical:
[a/aeg] ^ [°] ^ [ ] • For the vowel we are concerned with
here, 0 [ow], there are triads like ogle (from okw- 'see')
4/ window [ON vindauga] a» 02/0 [OE ëa^e, G ].
In addition to g > W9 we can note parenthetically
here that the reverse shift W > g seems to be found as
well. ONF, for example, had the loan warant from OHG weren
'guarantee' (doubtless related to L verus 'true', OCS vera
'faith' &c); but beside the ONF is OF garantie. Today in
E, we have verity a» warranty ( guaranty, guarantee from
{wr- 'true'}. If severe [from L sevêrus 'strict, seri­
ous'] is related (with se- 'aside', as in seduce^ sedulous¿
segregate¿ s elect3 separate &c), the meaning of the root
has been modified; when it does not mean 'truly', a similar
question arises with very [from ME veray < OF verai < vërus
'true']. Both these synchronic problems of relationship—
severe and very—are essentially easy, involving primarily
matters of distribution. But without a practicable frame­
work for S representations (n. 6) and consequently without
an evaluation criterion, it is not possible (yet) to solve
these fundamentally simple problems. That is why most of
the examples in this book are so tiresomely obvious: however
S representations are best to be captured and whatever tech­
nical details may be levied by the correct evaluation crite-
III.4.3 28θ

rion, words like natal, generate, gonad will obv. all have
to be derived from thes a m e root, as will pairs like pedal/
foot ands u c c e e d / s u c c e s s and most of the other pairs listed.
It is on the basis ofsuch obviousexámples--pairswhich
need no extended discussion--that we rest our claim (in §11
of the Foreword) regarding inclusion in Esynchronic gram­
mar of the three rules Ablaut, Grimm's law, and Great Vowel
Shift.
Returning now to the question of W ~ g, we already
cited wise sguise in §3.3s.f.; here we can add wile sguile*,
g < g. We mentioned earlier (n. 6) that g tends to appear
as [g] before [ay] < i. If guile and guise /guide are from
roots with underlying w-'s, we may be able to avoid having
to specify these - s as exceptions to the affrication rule
--apparently a necessity, e.g., in the treatment of gynecol-
°9 [gay-]. Thus we may use the presence of [g-] in these
words as a supplementary, distributional piece of evidence
(admittedly, not overwhelmingly strong) to help us decide
whether it is correct to derive wile I guile and wise¡wit I
guise/guide from the same roots and whether the first seg­
ment of these two roots should be spelled g or w in UPR.
Coming back to the problem of θ, words with ortho­
graphic ow sometimes have ow in OE (flow/fldwan, glow/glow-
an, grow /grdwan), but more often äw: blow/bläwan, crow/
cräwan, know/cnäwan, row/räw, slow/släw, snow/snaw, sow(n)/ säwan

For the earlier forms (without w), there may besome

daedal formulation involving integration with lengthening
rules, butstandard exámples likes a n e [L sänus, ooo], name
[OE noma--lengthening is requisite here] &cseem to provide
an impediment. At thesame time, we have to consider the
difficulty of deriving OE ä anywhere within our framework.256
Wesuggest that <9fs which do not have theirsource in
g or ow are from diphthongal ai. While this may at first
glanceseem a desperate manoeuvre, I think closer exámina­
tion wills h o w it reasonably well-founded. We listsome of
these words in (107) below, together with their P-Gmc recon­
structions (G forms areshown to give at least partial moti­
vation for theshapes of earlier Gmc):
 281 III.4.3

(107) PGmc G OE E
aik- Eiche oak
aiθ- Eid oath
aiz- (ON eir) ir 'brass' ore (shortening of θ
before v as in
§2 [L aes, aeris
'brass']
bain- Bein bän bone
bait- (Boot) bat boat
daig- Teig dag dough
dail- Teil dal dole 'small portion'
(cf• umlauted deal
from dail-i,- in
§3,2)
Feim r: 257
faim- farn
foam
gaist- Geist gast ghost (cf. aghast,
ghastly)
gait- Geiss gat goat
graipyan greifen grlpian grope (cf. θ-grade
gvvp and grasp
grop-s-)
hail- heil hal whole
hailag- heilig hälig holy (related to last
entry)
heim- Heim- harn home (cf. hamlet)
hain- (ON hein) hân hone
hlaib- Laib hläf loaf (of bread)
klaibr- (Klee) clafre clover (cf. oleave
'stick')
laid- leiten lid load, lode
laiθ- leid 1 loath
laiz- lâr lore (shortening of θ
before r as in §2)
mail- (Mal) mal mole 'growth on the skin'

maist- meist mâst most (related to next

entry)
maiz- mehr(ere) mará more (shortening of θ
before v as in §2)
raid- räd road (cf. vide)
III,4.3 282

Reif
raip- saip- rap sape rope [cf. Finn raippa]soap
Seife
ƒ sehr,ver-1 sair- <, y sarFs a v o n )
1 sehren J

sore Tpain(ful)T (θ shortened be

as in §2; cf.s o r r y
[OE sarig], now
misspelled with two
r's)
snaiw- (Schnee) snâw snow
spaik- Speiche spâca spoke (of a wheel);
cf.s p i k e < speik-)
stain- Stein stan stone [OCS stena]
straik- Streich strâc- stroke
taikn- Zeichnen tacn token (related to
teach [OE tcëcan],
from taik-y-, with
umlaut)
tore, torn (cf. tear)
wore, worn (cf. wear)

In this proposal, the UPRs do not contain a (not a pos­

sible underlyingsegment within oursystem), but are rather
(9-grade reflexes of stems in y : bone e.g. is from - ~ - ~ -. Because of
mediary forms in our derivations may look roughly like repre­
sentations proposed for P-Gmc - & ). Within this for­
mat, the realization of diphthongal ai is à in OE, in E. 59
This E reflex is exempt from GVS; itsimply diphthongizes
to [ow].

There are Gmc derivatives related tosome of these

words not in tf-grade. Thus, alongside o-grades t r o k e is e-
grade strike[strayk] < strik- [OE strican] < strig- < streig-
< stryg-,26θ In de-A heal fmake whole', we see not ablaut,
but umlaut: [hiyl] < - [OE hœlan] < hol-i- < hail-i [Gth
hailyan] < koil- [CEL 'whole']. Some cursory derivations
are given on the next page:
 283 III.4.4

snarl sneer snore bone

UPR: snoor-1- snoor-i- snoor- boyn-
umlaut : ee θ
-cluster'. o
(81) = S ~ a: a
a
ay ~ : oo
5 ~ before r:
GVS: iy ow
snarl sniyr snor
PR: bown

In the above, diphthongization (as well as vowel-shift

proper) issubsumed under the acronym GVS. The relative or­
der of application of ~ a with respect to monophthongiza-
tion (ay ~ Ö) has not yet been properly motivated (both,
however, must apply before or ~ ). Observing only the exámp
then the derivation of bone could beshortened by onestep
and rule(s) ay ~ replaced by the perhaps more natural oy
rules which distinguishes the result in OE from NE.

To end thissection, we notice that the UPRs and mon-

ophthongizations for vowel-nuclei in exámples likes t r i k e , stro
like rde < reid- rOde < ro d-: here too we are positing up­
grade roid- to underlie the homophonous N road. Thus the
analysis of θ proposed here requires nothing new and accords
well with the earlier motivated analysis of ablaut.

4.4 On the Format for the Umlaut Rule.

Aside from detailssuch asscope of application and re­
striction on vowels (both undergoing and governing the rule),
the formalstatement for Gmc umlaut will doubtless besimilar
to that for V-harmony in Trk. Brief discussion of the latter
in my 1972. Notice, however, that assimilation is there pro­
gressive (and that the rule applies iteratively from left to
right) need not be explicitlystated in the rule: it follows
from the fact Trk is an OV-language. Similarly, that umlaut
III.5.1 284

is a rule of regressive assimilation follows from the fact

Gmc is a VO-language.
Another exámple was given recently in Fischer's paper
on "e caduc1' in F: his "regie facultative" for assimilation
of œ (as in le premier [l~prç~mje] &c; p. 32) has thesame
format as the rules for umlaut and V-harmony. That assimi­
lation of œ is regressive and that it must apply iterative-
ly from right to left are resulting consequences of the
fact F is a VO-language and need not be mentioned in com­
posing the rule.
This general rule-format probably occurs frequently in
languages of the world; its investigation may help us begin
to understand the nature of P assimilation.

5. Five Closing Examples.

5.1 Nostril [OE nospyrl 'nose-hole'].

It presents an obv. line of analysis. Aftersegmenta­
tion of nos- 'nose', however, we are left with -tril(perhaps
-stril), which tells us next to nothing (there are no words
in s t r i l - , and trill can be disregarded on both S and physi­
ological grounds). To judge from OE -pyrl, apparently what
took place (not necessarily in this order) was 1) the usual
unrounding of y (n. 251) to pirl, 2) metathesis around r (n.
195) to pril, and 3)stopping of 6 betweens and r to give
nos-tril; furthermore, we maysuppose from y that an earlier
vowel was (presumably umlauted to u). Thesesuppositions
may or may not help in thesynchronic analysis of (nos)tril.
But without them, investigation is blocked; with them,s e v ­
eral paths to follow are opened before abandoning hope of at­
taining deepersynchronic insight into thestructure of -tril
in nostril: we should search for E forms in thurly thirl
thrul; thril with some S resemblance to 'hole'.
Such asearch leads immediately to thrill [OE pyrlian
'pierce'], whose possible relation to -tril isstrengthened
when we learn that OE pyrlian is from pyr(e)l 'hole'.261
 285 III.5.1

Since we know th developed to d in HG (cf. three/ G

drei &c of n. 211), another word likely related to -tril,
thrill is drill 'bore (holes)'.
No doubt -el in OE pyrel issuffixal,s o that our in­
quiry can be extended to words in thur-, and (since E r ~
Because tr- has theshape of a root, we might hope to find
related words in ter- or tor-. Wes e e that with very lit­
tle work our original--almost hopeless--task, restricted
to -tril, has grown now to an undertaking of enormous pro­
portion, oneseemingly designed for help from high-speed
electronic data-processing equipment.

Preliminary investigationsuggests words like the fol­

lowing are likely candidates for relation: through [OE
purh; cf. G durch with d-], throughout, thruway, thorough
[OE puruh beside purh}, thoroughfare, thoroughgoing &c. In
fact, 'through1 seems a reasonable basic meaning for the pu­
tative root tr-. Unlikely to be from {tr- 'through1} are
words like thrash('ing), threat(en), thr /thrice, threnody,
thresh(old), thrive/thrifty throb, throe(s), thrombosis,
throne, throng, throttle, throw(back), thrush, thrust.
Thread(bare) and throat(y) are unclear.
Thus our initial suppositions s e e m to be bearing fruit.
The harvest is increased when we turn to words in tr-, for
trans-, which (like dens, dentis 'tooth'--cf. edd, edere
'eat') has the form of a pres. PRT and, moreover, means
'through' (cf. PFX.1), iss u r e to be from this root. The
first member of tranquil(ize) '(make) very quiet' [L tran-
quillus] likely belongs here (for the meaning, cf. F très <
trans); thesecond member would then be related to quiet.
We cannot, after all, credibly derive trespass 'pass through
[some boundary line]' from L tres 'three', or fromsome othei
wildshot in the dark.
When an object to through is not overtly expressed--as
in e.g. transport 'carry through', transgress 'step through'
(last paragraph of n. 118), transcend 'climb through' (n.
37), opposed to transatlantic, transcontinental &c--the neu­
tral object 'boundary (line), limit'seems reasonable to in­
sert, as we did above for trespass. Then terminal 'pert, to
the boundary/limit ofsmth.', from term 'boundary/limit (of-
III.5.1 286

ten of time) ', is plausible to propose as a related deriva­

tive in e-grade (cf. L terminus 'boundary (line), limit',
'boundary, limit, end'). Further derivatives include
(n)terminous 'with a boundary con- in common', (inde­
terminate '(not) precisely bounded/limited', exterminate
'[drive] out of/(away) from the boundaries', interminable
'boundless, limitless, without end', terminate 'end', ter­
minus &c. We can be fairly certain words like termagant
'shrew' and termite 'kind of antlike,social insect that
feeds on wood'--lit. 'the boring worm'--are not related.
Finally, to return to the basic meaning 'through', we notice
that trance '[pass] through the boundary [between life and
death]'seems reasonable to derive from the root tr-9 where­
as most other words in tr- do not (cf. traffic, trait,
trade (mark), traipse (contrast with transgress), trammel,
trip, trap, tramp(le), trapeze, trash, trawl(er), tray,
tree, tread(le), trot, treat('ise), tremble, trepidation,
tress, tribe, trick(le), trifle, trill(ion), trim(ester),
troll(op), trombone, troop, (a)trophy, trouble, trousers,
truck(age), truffle, trump(et), truncate, tru(c)e, trust &c).
There are alsos o m e words on which we cannot decide without
deeper analysis: transom, trestle, trachea, and perhaps a
few others'.
Internally, -tr- 'through' occurs in inter- 'in
through, between' (not inter 'bury' < ter- 'land, earth',
cf. L terra, E territory, Mediterranean &c), enteric 'pert.
to the intestines', and other words of n. 25, p. 33. The
closesimilarity in UPRs proposed for under and inter-,
viz., n-t~r- and n-tr-y suggests thesecond member of these
compounds might be from thesame morpheme, but comparison of
the meanings of under and inter- shows thesuggestion ill-
founded.
In addition to forms of n. 25 (where -tr- appears only
after n), we also find -tr- with the meaning 'alter(native)'
or 'comparison' in words like alter(nate), altruism, alter­
cation, adulterate (from ad-alter-ate), adultery, contra-,
contrary, contrast, deteriorate 'become/make more de- down
= lower, worse', (ambi)dextrous, dexterity, esoteric 'for
those more eso- within', exterior 'outer',, extra(neous), ex­
treme 'outermost', extrinsic 'from without, external' (cf.
 287 III.5.2

intrinsic in n. 25), hetero- '(an)other, different' (he- < sm- 'one'; cf. - <
gain'], master (from mag-is-tr-, with mag- 'great1 as in
magn-), minister (from min-is-tr-, with min- 'small, less-
(en)f as in minus(cule), minute, minuet, minor(ity), minim-
(-al/-ize/-um/-us), miniature, mince(meat), diminish, di­
minue-endo/-tion/-tiv e, Menshevik &c), nostrum (n. 253),
protero- 'more pro- before',s i n i s t e r (cf. dexter), (e)- stran
neous above), ultra- 'on the otherside of, beyond', ul­
terior,... Thesimilar use of -tr- in Gmc forms like far­
ther, further, other &c was mentioned in n. 108.

Many E words are like nostril 'nose-hole', with their

262
sourcesomewhat hidden. Serious investigation of the DM
of E cannot really begin until we have access to high-speed,
electronic, data-processing equipment. After all, before
we can begin formulating rules to combine morphemes into re­
presentations of words, we have to know which morphemes the
words are composed of and to havesome idea of the overall
distribution of these morphemes: we can no longer besatis­
fied with offhand observations like know, knowledge, *know-
ledgement, *acknow, acknowledge, acknowledgement ; fortune,
fortunate, misfortune, *misfortunate, *unfortune, unfortu­
nate &c.

5.2 Ballistics &c.

These words are from {bl- 'throw'}. The family pre­
sents an interesting P distributional peculiarity, explica­
ble within the framework we are promoting here for E.
Aside from bellistic(s), the exámples include ball
[bol] 'dance' (with a ~ of n. 61), ballad 'romanticsong
or poem' [OProv balada 'dance', from balar 'to dance', ult.
from ßaAAlCeiV 'dance' < ßdXXew 'throw', with θ-grade nomi­
náis like ßoArj, ßoXoc 'a throw'--cf. eKnßoXoQ, an epithet
for the sharpshooter, Apollo], anabolic 'thrown ana- up',
catabolic 'thrown cata- down', diabolic 'thrown dia- across,
devilish', med. ecbolic 'causing abortion, a throwing ex-
out' and embolic 'thrown en- in', hyperbolic 'thrown hyper-
III.5.2 288

over', metabolic 'thrown me ta- into a different form/shape',

parabolic 'thrown para- beside, pert, to a parable/parab­
ola1,s y m b o l i c 'throwns y n - together', discobolus 'discus-
thrower', emblem 'smth. thrown in, asymbol', problem
'smth. thrown pro- forward', and a very few, relatively rare
words in e-grade like Belostoma 'arrow-mouth'. There are al­
so a few F loans with b dropped and various vowels contracted:
parley [MF parler 'speak' < *paraulare < parabolre 'speak in
parables'], parlance, parliament, parlor, parol(e).
The P distributional peculiarity mentioned above con­
cerns the vowels. From the above exámples thesituationseems
to be as follows: bl in words with [bl]--emblem, problem &c--
is from underlying bl, and bei in those few words with [bel]
--Belostoma &c--is from underlying bel; but bal in words with
[bal]--all the prefixed forms of -bolic [-balik] &c--is from
underlying bol withshift ofshort to a (as in Ethiopia '
E t h i o p i c [-apik] &c), and bol in words with [bol]--ball &c--
is from underlying bal with ashifted to before 1 or l#
(n. 61).
With back vowels, therefore, weseem to find reversal:
for a and a for o.
But if the view "o for a and a for o"--essentially the sur
the unusual distribution posed by the root {bl- 'throw'}.
The "o for a and a for o"-view requires radical bl- to appear
in fourshapes: (1) bl in problem, (2) bei in Belostoma, (3)
bol in (sym)bolic, and (4) bal in ball--but never in bl (par­
able [ 1] is a misspelling based on F; it ought to be
a(3oXr¡'comparison,parable', the presumably parallel E noun
*parablic)).

Then we would be in a difficult position. Not because

of bl or bel, which are bothstraightforward, but because of
the peculiar absence of bl and the two forms with back vowels,
bal and bol.
Under our analysis, however, a (pronounced [o] in ball,
[ae] in ballad) is an anaptyctic vowel. With thesuggested
interpretation of E, there is no absence of bl, and radical
bl- appears in only three basicshapes (parallel to the three
 289 III.5.2

basicshapes of many other roots): (1) θ-grade bl- (phenom­

enal - and bl- [the latter = bal- in ball 'dance' and bal­
lad]), (2) e-grade bel-, and (3) o-grade bol- (phenomenal
bal-).
Thus--P, at least--the root {bl- 'throw'} is parallel
to roots like pnv1- 'suffer' (II. 2,5 s.f.) and the following
(except that forms in a certain grade may be lacking from some of
{gn- 'beget, bear'}: e-grade genesis, (de)generate,
(en)gender, genetic, genital, genitive, germ (dissimilated
from gen-m-, like Carmen, charm from han- 'sing'; we see,
incidentally, the reverse process in Emma < Erma/Irma, the
latter from compound names like Ermentrud(e), from OHG
ermin 'whole'), germane, homogeneous (Gk bom- <som- < sm-
'one, together'), miscegenation (mise- 'mix', cf. misceo,
mixtus 'mix'), primogeniture, progeny; o-grade gonad, gonor­
rhea (for -rrhea, nn. 88-9), (arche)gonium, cosmogony 'study
of the origin ("birth") of the cosmos'; θ-grade nascent,
natal, native, cognate 'born together', impregnate, innate
'in-born', malign(ant) (from mal-i-gn- 'ill-born'), pre­
gnant 'before bearing', kin(dred) (from umlaut of kun-i- <
gn-y-; OE cynn 'race,species, family, kin', Gth kuni 'fam­
ily', G Kind(er) 'child(ren)'), kindergarten, king (OE cy-
ning < Gmc kun-ing-az 'son of [royal] kin'; G Konig), erl-
king (known mostly from Goethe's "Der Erlkonig").
{gn- 'know'}: e-grade ken; θ-grade keen (OE cene <
Gmc kon-i-) ; θ-grade (a)gnostic, cognition, (un)couth '(un­
known' (OE ), cunning 'knowing' (from kn-), diagnosis,
ignore, incognito, kith (from -θ-), know, narrative (but
not narrow, which is related to snare, narcotic &c), note,
notice, notion, notorious, recognize,...
{gn- 'angle'}: e-grade genuflect('ion); o-grade penta­
gon, dia-1ortho-gonal ; θ-grade kneed),...
{ ~ " 'live'}: e-grade vital [vitälis < wiwit-9 cf.
vivo < gwei-w-d], revive, zoo- [ - < Çooov 'animal']; θ-
grade bio- [ßioe < ßifog < gwi-w-], amphibious, microbe,
quick [OE cwicu < g~i-gw-],...

{krd- 'heart'}: e-grade heart(en) [G Herz], cf. meta­

phorical Ya gotta have heart. ; o-grade accord(ance) [VL ac-
cordre 'be heart-to-heart with' < cor, cordis], concord-
III.5.2 29θ

(ant) 'together(ness) in heart/mind, agreeing', cordate

'heart-shaped', cordial 'hearty', cordiform 'in heart-form',
core, disoord [discordare 'be dis- apart (= differ) in
heart/mind, disagree'], (dis-len-)courage(ous), misericord
[misererZ 'have mercy' + cor(dis)], record(ing) [recordärZ
'bring re- back to heart/mind, remember']; θ-grade cardiac
[KapôiotKOQ 'pert, to the heart' < KOtpôfa], cardio-(gram),
carditisj dexi-lmegal-lmy-ocardia, diplocardiac, endo-lepi-l
veri-cardium &c. Words like the following do not belong in
this family: (1) coronary 'pert, to the heart' (from coro­
narias 'pert, to a corona garland/wreath/crown' < kr- 'turn,
bend, twist'; here belong words like corona [L < KOpuvri
'smth. curved'], coronation 'act of crowning', coronet 'small
crown', corolla [dim. of corona], corollary lit. 'little
crown given as a gift', cornice 'projection that crowns a
building/wall' [It < coronis 'anything curved'], crown [ME
croune < OF corone < corona], curve [curvus], curvi-('linear),
recúrvate 'bent back(wards)', curb(stone) [OF courbe 'smth.
curved, horse's bit' < curvus], crease 'bend, fold' (from kr-
-eis-; v. next three entries), crest 'tuft on a bird's head'
[L crista < kr-is-t-]± crisp [L crispus 'curly' < kr-is-p-],
crinite 'hairy' [L crinis 'hair' < kr-is-n-], crate [crätis
'wickerwork'], creel 'wicker basket' [OF < cräticula9 dim.
of crätis], cricoid lit. 'ring-shaped' [KPÍKOQ 'ring'], cir­
cus [L < KÍpKOQ rring'], circle [L circulus, dim. of cruras],
circuit('ous), circul-ar/-ate/-atory, circum-(vent) '(go)
around', cyrto- 'curved' [ 'curved, bent' <fo?r-£-]&c;
from this root are also R words like KRIV, CËRSTV, KRUT; the
common metaphorical extension of roots with this meaning (n.
35) is apparently not used here), (2) credence 'belief' (from
credentia < credens < credere 'believe'; here belong words
like accredit(ation), credent(ial), cred~ible/-ibilityy cred­
it [F credit < creditium < PRT of credere], credo [credo 'I
believe'], (in)credulous [(in)crëdulus '(not) ready to be­
lieve'], creed [OE crêda < L], miscreant [OF < pej. mes- +
PRT of croire 'disbelieving, unbeliever' < L] &c), (3) car­
dinal (from cardinalis 'chief, principal' < cardo, -inis
'hinge, pivot, whatsmth. turns on', ooo), (4) hear(ken),
hearsej hearth &c.
{khl- 'shine'}: e-grade yellow (OE geolu, G gelb); -
 291 III.5.3

grade gall 'bile' (OE gealla, xo\f\), choler(a) ( bil­

ious1 < °~ ), melancholy lit. 'black bile' [OCS zlato, zo-
LOTO 'gold']; i~-grade gold (from #wZ- < gl~; OE , Gth,7~Z~
< Gmc gultham), ~ 1 (from gul-d-i; OE gyldan < gold,
ON gylla 'gild' < #uZZ 'gold'), guilder.
'enclose'}: o-grade horticulture, garden, yard
(OE geard, h o r t u s , ~ ~ GOROD 'city, town'); θ-grade gird
(OE gyrdan), girdle (n. 193), girth, all three with umlaut.
fan- 'think'}: e-grade mental (unless, like mind of
n. 102, this is also θ-grade), mentor, memento, dement('ia);
o-grade monitor, admonish, remonstrate, man 'thinker'; θ-
grade amnesia, amnesty, mind, mathematics (n. 218), auto-
mat(ic) (n. 228), mania(c) &c.
{p"l- 'make noise'}: e-grade bell(ow) ; o-grade bawl,
balderdash, poltergeist [G, 'noisy ghost'].
{ph-frh- 'dig'}: e-grade bed; tf-grade fossil [fossilis
'dug up' < fossus = PRT of fodere 'dig'].
{sd- 'sit'}: e-grade settle(ment); a-grade saddle, soot(y);
Ø-grade nest 'place to sit down in', nestle.
{swp- 'sleep'}: e-grades o m n o l e n t (from s w e p - n - ) ,
insomnia; c-grade soporific (from - -) ;Ø-gradefe/p-
nosis -(froms w p - n - , n. 251).
A root like {pn- 'suffer'}, which apparently has no
o-grade forms in E, appears in e-grade nepenthe 'drug of an­
cient times to remedy grief and pain; anything to eases u f ­
fering' (ne- from n- 'NEG'). θ-grade forms are reminiscent
of {bl- 'throw'} because of thesimilar (but not identical)
behavior ofsyllabicsonorants; thus pathos < pan-Q- < - -9
pathetic, patho- 'suffering, disease', apathy, sym-lem-
pathy &c, with n behaving here like NEG n-. A parallels e t
of words includes bathos, isobath, batho-, bathy-, and ben­
thos, from bn-v1- 'deep'.

5.3 Haplology: pacifism and formic(ide).

"Haplology" is defined here as merging of twosegments
which are repeated {coco ~ & ) and contiguous (i.e. no s
be erased during haplology (c-o-eo > & ) . The repetition
must be identical; at least onesegment must be a vowel.
III.5.3 292

These restrictions on haplology are verysevere, per­

haps toosevere. Degemination (sim-pl-ly ~ simply), for
exámple, does not count as haplology. If amphora Mar with
two handles' is from amphi- (PFX.2) + a-grade of {p~r-
'carry1} by the path amphi-phor-a ~ amphora, then haplology
is not used in its derivation. Nor in the derivation onom-
at-o-mancy ~ onomanoy 'divination by names' (6voya, gen.
ôvoyorrOQ; onomato-poeia; hydro-mancy). Haplology does not
apply in the derivation of Poland from Pole Land (cf. Pol
pole 'field', Polak 'field-man', Poljane 'field-dwellers',
Polsko 'field-country'); haplology may apply in the deriva­
tion of England if from Engla-land 'land of the Angles', but
not if from Engl-land. Thus we may want to revise our de­
finition when we have collected more exámples and understand
better the nature of haplology. But for now we accept the severel
results follow.

Examples of haplology include tragicomedy (F tragico-

rnedie) < tragic-o-comedy (c-o-co ~ ; L trágico comoedia),
mineralogy < mineral-o-logy (l-o-lo ~ lo, as also probably
insymbology <symbol-o-logy; contrast tri-logy, tetra-logy,
genea-logy), monomial < mon-o-nom- 'one name' (n-o-no ~ no
or on-o-n ~ on; cf. mono-phthong, -arch), stipend < stip-
-i-pend (ip-i-p ~ ip; cf.s t i p - u l - a t e [Lstip>s,s t i p i s 'pay­
ment'] and pend- '(cause to) hang (down), weigh (out), val­
ue' in related words like compensate, dispense, expend
(whence aphetics p e n d ) , pension, recompense &c), paranoid
'resembling paranoia' < paranoi-oid (with -oid 'like, resem­
bling' as in cycl-oid, fibroid, android, humanoid &c;s e e
my 1978c), idolatry (n. 69), formic < formic-ic and formic-
ide ~ant-killer' < formic-i-cide (ic-ic/ic-i-c ~ ic; cf.
formica 'ant', E formicary 'ant-nest'), ands o on.
The two words pacifist 'peace-maker' and pacifism
'peace-making' are haplologic and pose a problem in analysis.
They are compounds with the L connective vowel i (as ins t i ­
pend, art-i-fice 'smth. made by art', hom-i-cide, horticul­
ture, cordiform, manicure, part-i-cipate, mun-i-ficent &c),
from pak- [päx, päcis 'peace'] and ƒak- [faceré 'do, make'].
In an opensyllable of compounds, a of -fak- is weak­
ened to i , as in artifice < art-i-farrk-e (n. 106). Another
 293 III.5.3

exámple is o f fie- < of-farrc-, as in office, official, of­

ficious; here, the first element is op- 'work' [opus, op-
eris, cf. copious in §3.4]; a typical derivation is thus
op-fak-ial ~ of-fank- ~ official. In the exámples under
consideration, weshould have pak-i-fa"k- ~ pas-i- ~ pasi-
-fink- 'peace-make'. And this derivation indeed occurs, in
words like pacification [paesafik-].
With the two words pacifism, pacifist, there is an
added detail: just as of - assibilates before i , so
too of fik- before i of -ism, -ist. Wes e e thisshift
clearly in pairs like cynik °o cynisism~ critik scritisism~
ascetik aseetisism, skeptik ~skeptisism, ethik(s) s e t h -
isistj physiks , physisist; tactic(s) stactician &c. The
derivations thereforeshould be pak-i-fink-ism ~ *pasifis-
ism and pakifik-ist ~ *pasifisist. We do not find thestar­
red forms because haplology merges isis to is, thus gener­
ating pacifism, pacifist.
The problem is as follows: --
It may be we cans a y that oioi ~ oi in derivation of
paranoid, that coco ~ in derivation of tragicomedy, that
ipip ~ ip in derivation ofs t i p e n d , ands o on, but we can­
notsimplys a y that isis ~ is in the derivations of paci­
fism, pacifist. If we were unqualifiedly to require isis ~

Thus the question that arises is this: why does isis

merge to is in the derivations of pacifism, pacifist, but
not in the derivations of criticism, skepticism &c?
One might be tempted to answer this question on the
basis of the fact that asimilarsequence (even though in
reverse order) lies before f: pas±fis-ism/-ist. That is,
one might be tempted tosuggest there are just too many
closelysituated i's ands's here: with threesequences of
is ors i , haplologic merging applies; but with only twos u c h

This does notseem, however, to be asuitable view of

the problem. In the first place, we would like to have a
one rule for all of coco ~ co, ipip ~ ip3 oioi ~ oi, isis ~
III.5.3 294

(that isis ~ is only if the word also containss i ) , it is

not clear how to write the one general rule for haplology.
In thesecond place, the above approach does not reach
even the level of observational adequacy. Exactly thesame sequ
physicist, moreover, there are three contiguous occurrences
of is (i.e. phisisist), but no haplology (*phisist, *phist).
I leave the problem in this unsatisfactory state.
What is required is a reasonably exhaustive collection of
exámples of haplology in E, together with a similar collec­
tion of counterexámples. Only in this way can we rationally
approach the questions raised here concerning haplology. It
would seem to be a task designed for data-processing equip­
ment.
It is worthwhile, however, to consider here one further
exámple of haplology._ We mentioned above that formic 'pert,
to ants1 is from formica 'ant'. The L word is actually from
mor-mic- (cf. -mire in E pismire fantT), but to demonstrate
this would lead us too far afield. Here we are interested
only in showing that in E the stem is formic-, that haplo­
logy is involved in derivation of both A formic and N formi-
cide, and that formal derivation leads to an ordering para­
dox of the type referred to in III.4.2.
We can see that formic- must be a N-stem wholly in
terms of E, i.e. without having to allude to L words like
formica. The N formicary 'ant-nest' e.g. must be from
~formic-, not *kform-ic-, because As in -ic do not under-
N A
lie Ns in -ary 'place for1: apiary 'place for bees', avi­
ary, infirmary, vespiary 'wasp-nest' &c, not *apicary,
*infirmicary, *vespicary &c. More generally speaking, Ns
in -ary 'place for' are not formed from any kind of A-stem
(for self-evident reasons); thus e.g. we have A vespine
'pert, to wasps', but vespiary 'wasp-nest1, not *vespinary.
Under the proposed view, infirmary < infirm- < infirm-.
But if N formicary is from formic - 'ant', then A
formic must be from formic- -ic-k, i.e. from formik-ik-,
N AJ

by haplology. Similarly, one can argue that formicide

 295 III.5.4

'ant-killer' must be from formic-, i.e. from formik-i-kid,

by haplology: Ns in -icide are also not formed from A-stems,
but from N-stems.
We ask now whether assibilation of applies before,
or after, haplology. To formik-i-kide, haplologic merging
could apply before assibilation (ikik ~ ik); but it could
equally well apply after assibilation (isis ~ is in formis-
-i-side). Thus formicide is not a probative exámple. In
formic, however, haplology must apply before assibilation
(i.e. formik-ik- ~ formik- by ikik ~ ik), because after as­
sibilation the repeatedsequences are no longer identical
(formik-ik- ~ formis-ik-); that is tos a y , the formerly re­
peatedsequences are no longersubject to haplology.
Earlier, however, in discussion of pacifism, paci­
fist, wes a w that haplologic merging must apply after as­
sibilation (i.e. pak-i-fik-ist ~ pas-i-fis-ist ~ pasifist
by isis ~ is), because before assibilation there is no re­
petition of identicalsequences. For formic, therefore, or­
der must be (1) haplology, (2) assibilation; for pasifism,
the reverse. Thus we face an ordering paradox. Either we
must employ a notion of ordering moresophisticated than
linear-ordering, or else we must revise the notion of haplo­
logy insome (apparently undesirable) manner.

5.4 OY in a n o i n t , join, destroy, toils, royal &c.

We alreadysuggested in 1978c that E [oy] need not al­
ways be derived from underlying Ö, as maintained in SPE; in
particular, weshowed there that -od is not the most reveal­
ing UPR for -oid 'like, resembling'. In thissection, we
discuss a half-dozen ors o forms whichsupport that earlier sugges
presented.

Astep important for analysis might be to notice there

are relatives with velars, asshown with exámples from three
families in (108) on the next page.
Because words with [oy] in (108) give little informa­
tion about UPR, we will have to derive that primarily from
III.5.4 296

(108) Ol with vetar without vetav

1. anoint, unguent, unction,
ointment unctuous
junct-ion/-ure,
2. (ad-/con~/dis-)- juxta(pose), ad-/
join(t), con-/dis-junct and
(re)joinder (of. derivatives in
II.2.1), -ion/-ive {also
zeugma préfixât in-/sub-),
conjug-al/-ate/
-ation(al), subjug-
ate/-ational; yoga,
yogi; zyg-odactyl/
-oma(tic)/-osis/
-ote, azygous 'odd,
not one of a pair1
{the azygous músete
of the uvula), syz-
ygy; yoke

3. destroy destruct-ible/-ion/ construe,

-ive,structure, construable,
construct(-ible/ industry, in­
-ion/-ive), in­ strument (al),
struct (-ion/-ive), obstruent
obstruct(-ion/-ive)

forms with a velar.

Group 1 of (108) is apparently from a root (orstem)
from L in-, through F.
In group 2, yoga and yoke suggest the firstsegment
is a palatal glide. Forms with [g] are L; we already men­
tioned (II.3.2) the Lshift y ~ g. Remaining wordss e e m
to be Gk, with z < y. The second segment of forms in this
group is w9 always syllabified: yw- ~ yu- or gu-• This
 297 III.5.4

vowel must be lowered and M-lengthened for Indie and Gmc

words in yd-; E yoke [OE geoc 9 Gth yuk], however, does not
undergo GVS, opposed to a word like foot < fut- < fot- <
fot-. Gk forms in zyg- must also have an M-lengthened vow­
el. In Gk, is fronted to u9 and in n. 251 we discussed
derivation of [ay] from Gk u\ thus, roughly, yw- ~ zu- ~ zu- ~ zi- ~ zay-. The
serted according to n. 64. Thus the third underlying seg­
ment here is not n9 but g, as in con-Qug- , yoga, Gk zyg-,
and Gmc yoke. Hence, the root (orstem) of this group is
presumably ywg- flink, unite'.

Nasal-insertion in the junct-forms (mandatory, unless

we want to claim an underlying N is dropped in all remaining
forms)suggests the first group in (108) might also display
i~-insertion; the root for these words would then bespelled si
forms without N9 we will not be able to determine whether
its phonetic N is underlying or inserted until we under­
stand more clearly the nature both of the ~-insertion rule
in n. 64 and of P constraints governing the possibleshapes
of lexical entries.

In group 3 of (108), contrasts like construe vs con­

struct suggest the velar issuffixal. Because it always
lies before t, however, it might bespelled either or g--
there is no way to decide which.
Let us consider now the forms with [oy]:--
The most straightforward (and least interesting) word seems
Presumably this word requires Gk-specific rules not only
for y ~ z9 but for ew ~ oy as well.
It seems to be oin in ointment and anoint which is de­
rived from wng- (i.e. ung-), regardless of whether the nasal
is underlying or inserted. It is unlikely that t < g here
(in which case we would have to derive oin- < un-). But
even oin- < ung- seems an unlikely derivation.
In group 29,oin is from ywng- (i.e. §ung-), or pos­
sibly from gewng- or govjng-* Strange: one would expect
[gAn] or [gUn], rather than [goyn].

There is a helpful distributionalsimilarity between

groups 1 and 2: except Gk zeugma, already analyzed, words in
III.5.4 298

these two groups with [oy] nevershow a phonetic velar.

Perhaps there is a P correlation between [oy] and the un­
derlying velar, the g. Yes, that must be the answer:
here (as also in nn. 168, 249s.f.) we have g ~ y--and
metathesis as well. Thus for 2, gung- ~ guyn-9 withs u b ­
sequent lowering to [goyn]; for 1, ung- ~ uyn- ~ [oyn-].
If thesuggested analysis of 1 and 2 is correct, the
velar in 3 must be g, devoiced ins t r u c t . Presumably,
therefore, derivation of destroy is -strw-g- ~ -stru-g- ~
fore y, as above in join, ointment*

Actually, the last paragraph is not quite right, even

within terms of the rough, outline framework of P we are
presenting here. This can bes e e n from one of the cited
forms, industry (cf. de- 'to' under genesis in II.1.6).
The question at issue is theshape of the root (the lexi­
cal entry) underlying words in group 3 of (108). Apparent­
ly the root means 'build1: obstruct 'build [a wall, ob­
stacle] ob- against', destroy 'to f!de-nbuild' (with de­
beré expressing reversal, as in deface~ decalcify 3 decel-
erate3 deflate~ demagnetize, deplete~ devitrify &c), con­
struct 'build/pile up con- together' &c. Industry [from F
industrie < L industria], indus tri-al(ize)/-ous, in our
view, belong to this group, meaning (roughly) 'build indu-
into', with indu- from thesamesource as indi- of indige­
nous 'born into, native' (obv. different from Indo- 'Indi­
an' in Indo-Europeanj Indonesia &c). But if this interpre­
tation of industry is correct, W in the preceding paragraph
cannot be radical: elementarysegmentation (= the technique
we have relieds o heavily on throughout this book) requires
morphemic divisions indu-str-y3 con-str-ue3 ob-str-uenty
in-str-ument3 de-str-uction3 de-str-oy &c. Thus destroy,
e.g., must be from de-str-w-g-m
The analysis proposed for OY in these words--thes u ­
perficiality of our P treatment notwithstanding--mirrorssom
of (θ)F origin. Thus, anoint < OF enoint (PRT*of enoindre)
< L inunguere < unguere 'smear'; join < OF join-, joign-
(stem of,oindre') < jüngere 'join' [cf. jugum, Çuyov, Skt
yugam, IGO (from jugo), Gth juk 'yoke', usually with n of
 299 III,5.4

. 64 in the verb: Ceuyvüvou, Skt yunakti, Lth jimgti],

conjoin < F conjoindre, joint < OF < jûnctus (PRT o f , ­
) , juncture < jünctüra~ conjugate < conjugätus (PRT of
conjugare 'join/yoke together, marry1), zygo- < Cuyo-., structur
construe < construere 'heap/pile together1., destruction <
dëstructio(nem) < destructus (PRT of destruere), destroy <
OF destruiré < VL *des trugere < dëstruxi and/or des truere.

Derivation ofs t r u - ,struct-, stroy from radicals t r - s

cated up to now. Its meaning might be more general (perhaps
prostrate 'spread out pro- before', consternation~ street
(froms t r a t a via), stray (from OF estree 'road' <s t r a t a ) , stratum
'lead'),s t r a t e g e m ( 'act of a general'), anat.

Another exámple of OY is toit 'snare' (freq. pi., as

in the toils of despair) from MF toiles 'nets' < L tela
'net' < tek-s-l-a (the velar appears in texere~ textus
'weave', cf. E textile3 (con-/pre-)text3 technical (from
tek-s-n-), architect &c). Thesynchronic P development of
toil in E is unclear because we do not know how much P of
F has been borrowed by E. An easy (but diachronically in­
accurate) route would use θ-grade of the root: tg-s-l- ~

Royal (from MF roial < rêgalis) presents a problem simil

method of using radical <,-grade here, however, then royal
and regal wouldsynchronically not be the doublets they
are diachronically; thesame remark applies to phonetic­
allysimilar pairs like legal <\, loyal(ty), both from L
legalis, but along different paths, involving S as well as
P distinctions.
Due to our ignorance of how great a role F plays in
the DM of E, the P of all words cited in thissection is un­
certain. These words (and others like them) therefore in­
vite further investigation; it is evident what direction
III.5,5 3θθ

the inquiryshould follow. Also, it is manifest that the

UPR of [oy] here cannot be o (orsome other blindshot in
the dark): however the P details are best to be dealt with,
the most descriptively adequate analysis of these words
will employ no underlying vowels. Notice, incidentally,
that a word likes t o i c h i o m e t r y isscarcely "from" G Stochio-;
there is an earliersource in OTOl~eiV 'element'.
Tosummarize, we havesuggested in thissection--with
very fewsupporting exámples--that closerscrutiny of the
data will demonstrate F fulfills a noteworthy function in
both DM and P of E. To cite but one instance,s o m e related
pairs whichseem to display (o-alternations of II do not il­
lustrate Grimm's law, but the regular F development of Latin
θsm Because of p * ƒ in ply sfold, e.g., it would certain­
ly be erroneous tospecify -pi- in triple 'threefold' as Gmc
in hopes of therebysomehow "explaining" s p in treble striple--th
been arguing against throughout this book, the approach based
on the aberrant metaphilosophical view "Anything that works
is right." If that view is allowed to predominate, asseems
to be the case, linguistics needs help.

All things considered, further investigation of the F

contribution to E grammar wouldseem a worthwhile pursuit to
engage in.

5.5 Star, Anecdote, and the Path to the Future.

Thissection is oriented around three criticisms to my
1979a paper on the "star"-family.
The first is that the previously well-defined and use­
ful word "etymology" was being used improperly there. This
criticism is entirely valid. I have not used the word that
way here, and hope no one mistakenly follows my earlier,
ill-advised usage of the word.
Thesecond and third criticisms are more directly rel­
evant to the present work and are more difficult to answer.
In that paper, the C-frame - was proposed as the UPR
fors t a r ,stellar, astr-, where (1) the morpheme-boundaries
must be asshown (or else the proposed rules do not apply
 3θ1 III.5.5

apply properly) and (2).Xa represents a hypothetical

consonant of unknown (perhaps laryngeal) nature. The
two criticisms concern (1) unverifiability of morpheme-
boundaries (what morphemes do -t- and - - represent?)
and (2) apparent restriction of underlying laryngeal con­
sonants to the "star"-, "tooth"- and "name"-roots (for
the last two, v. my 1978a).
I cannot answer either of these criticismssatis­
factorily. But the objections aresubstantial and, taken
together, make the proposed analyses look like adroit
manoeuvres restricted to very few forms of E. Aslightly
more cumbersome, but more intuitivelysatisfactory analy­
sis ofs t a r , astr- &c, for exámple, wouldseem to be from
a rootspelleds t r - , withspecial V-insertion rules (an-
laut for astr-, inlaut for s t a r ) .
If these objections cannot be easily disposed of,
they can be alleviated, at least, by exámining another
word-family within thesame context of the earlier papers.
This will helps h o w the analyses there are of widerscope
than might have been apparent.
Consider, then, how thesynchronic grammar of E
ought to treat a word like anecdote. On first view, the
wordseems isolated from the rest of E. If this is true,
the most revealing analysis would apparently require a
tripartite lexical entry,s m t h . like /œnekddt~ 'short
account of a humorous incident1, N/. Such a lexical en­
try, however, would involvesubstantial reworking not only
of the earlier treatments for the "tooth"-, "name"-, and
"star"-families, but of all the word-families we have dis­
cussed here. The most obvious lexical disparity is that
P the latter entries areshort (two--or at most three--
Cs, and no Vs), whereas this entry is long, containing
both Cs and Vs. It will pay us to look more closely for
words related to anecdote: if we can find even two or three,
the proposed entry (merely asurface presentation of P,
S, andsyntactic properties) iss u r e to be wrong because
it will conceal, rather than illuminate, linguistic cor­
respondences.
The final -dote of antidote 'smth. given to counter­
act (a poison, e.g.)'suggests possible relationship to
III.5.5 302

anecdote. Moreover, antidote might be easier to analyze

than anecdote because its first elementseems to be the
reasonably frequent prefix anti- 'against' (cf. PFX.2).
If this were the case, we would be left with -dote to
analyze.
By chance, we may already havestumbled onto a di­
rection to follow in analyzing -dote when we glossed anti­
dote at the beginning of the last paragraph. That gloss
can now be revised to read 'smth. -dote given anti- against
(a poison, e.g.)'. This analysis makessense S, and there
are in addition a fair number of E words displaying both d
and the meaning 'give':
Donor 'one who gives', donate 'give', condone 'for­
give', dose 'amount (of medicine, e.g.) given at one time',
dosage, data 'things that are given', dative case 'the case
of giving', date 'a given point of time &c. We return to
theseshortly.
To now, we have been guessing, first looking for a
word with phoneticsimilarity to anecdote, and then (be­
cause that word, antidote, was transparent) for words with
combinedsound-meaningsimilarity. If the guessing was
correct, we might now be able to make headway with anec­
dote : if parallel to antidote 'smth. -dote given anti-
against', anecdote ought to mean 'smth. -dote given anec-
(?)'.
Although anec- isstill opaque, this is not a bad be­
ginning: the immanentstructure of quite a few words is slowly
line of inquiry, because if it is right, the lexical entry
first proposed for anecdote will have to besignificantly
revised.

From the prefix anti-, wes e e that antidote is Gk (the

L form of this prefix isspelled ante- and means 'before').
Thus if anecdote is parallel to antidote, it tooshould be
Gk, in which case an- might be the Gk form of the NEG pre­
fix ft-. Then -ec- could only be the Gk form of prefixai
ex- 'out (of)' before (cf. PFX.2 and 4).
With this view, anecdote properly means 'smth. an not
dote given ec out' or, a little less literally, 'smth. un-
released (as for publication)'.
 3θ3 III.5,5

Until a better analysis of anecdote is proposed,

what we haves o far must be accepted. It issurely bet­
ter than the original proposal, which fails to make ex­
plicit anysound-meaning relationship between anecdote
and the NEG prefixft-,between anecdote and the prefix
ex- 'out' (pronounced ec- before C), between anecdote and
antidote (or any of the other words in d- meaning 'give').
Our first proposal was thus grossly inadequate in linguis­
tic terms (that is, in terms of elucidating overt rela­
tionships betweensound and meaning).
Let us now look briefly at the root.
The -ative in dative is likely to be thesame as
-ative in nominative, accusative, ablative, cooperative,
augmentative, causative, connotative, demonstrative, enu-
merative, explicative, promulgative, superlative &c. In
other words, -ative in dative issuffixal, doubtless con­
taining the A-suffix -ive (as in cooperat-ive, conduc-ive,
disruptive, factive, genit-ive, passive, reflexive, sup­
portive &c). Although we will not argue for this here,
we can at least plausiblysuggest that -at- in d-at-ive
is thesame as -at- in date, data (cf. App.1.9s.f.)- Then
certainly for dative, and most likely for date, data, the
root has the phenomenalshape d-. Probably vend Tsell! al­
so belongs here, with ven- as in venal 'mercenary'; ven-d
would thus lit. meansmth. like fgive for money' (cf. L
venum dare).
For the other words listed {-dote, donor, donate,
condone, dose, dosage), ashape of the root is equally dis­
cernible. If t in -dote is PRT in origin, this would cor­
respond well with "-n" hypothesized for the gloss of -dote,
i.e. 'give-n' (cf. also App.1.9s . f . ) . What these words all
have in common is do- 'give': long does notseem to be a sepa

If the above reasoning is correct (I can think of no

arguments against it, and the data certainlyseem tosuggest
none), the root displays an alternatingshape d- o. do-.
Now, however, we are in even more desperatestraits
that whenstudyings t a rsastr-, dent- s dont-, -s
"give", however, not only is the vowel long (i.e., a pho-
III.5.5 304

netic diphthong [ow]), but also it manifests itself after

the radical consonant (i.e., not in anlaut position, as
was the case for theshort vowels of the other three roots).
Oursolution to this problem postulates the repre­
sentation {dX- 'give'} for the root.
After a C, laryngeals drop. Hence the forms from θ-
grade: dX-ative, dX-ate, dX-ata-, ven-dX.
After a V, laryngeals assimilate completely to that
V if followed by C. Hence the forms from o-grade: -doX-t,
doX-n-ate, doX-s-age ~ -doo-t, doo-n-ate, doo-s-age. 2 6 3
The long o in none of these forms undergoes GVS.
Except vowels lengthened in opensyllables (fantà"sïa
vs fantœs,rtie~ 1 " " vs Irœn &c (and also in auslaut:
poTfgo"j vu,rdu" &c), or in a few other highlyspecific posi­
tions (tooth/teeth vs dental, feet vs fetter, e.g.), lar­
yngeals are usually the deepersource of twin vowels (as
in our exámple here, d- sdoo-).
Thus laryngeals are nots o highly restricted either
in occurrence or in function.
That is the bestshort answer I can give to the ob­
jection that laryngeals are of very limited distribution.
In essence, it is a demonstration the objection is based
on insufficient exámination of the data.
Our briefstudy of the "give"-family also throwss o m e
light on the other objection (that postulated morpheme-
boundaries are unverifiable).
For o-grade forms like (aneo)do-t, do-n-ate, do-s-age,
it is clear there are threeseparate C-morphemes, -t-, -w-,
-S-; the boundaries here are verifiable by means of ele­
mentarysegmentation; these boundaries, in other words, are
indisputable. Nevertheless, we may fairly ask: what mor­
phemes do -t-, -n-, and -s- represent? An answer to this
question will be forthcoming nosooner than an answer to
thesuperficially more difficult question: what morphemes
do -t- and -Z- (ins t e l l a r ) represent? For moreexámples,seeApp.2.0

We are at the beginning of thisstudy called "deriva­

tional morphology". We are beginning to notice distribu­
tion of elements and various kinds of distributional con­
straints on elements. To determine what morphemes certain
 305 nn. 219-22θ

elements represent is part of the ultimate goal of the study.

give answers tosophisticated questions. But from our
inability to answersuch questions, it does not follow
that the work we have done (the work which fosters those
questions) is wrong.
In conclusion: of the two "objections" in the third
paragraph, one is invalid; the other is valid, but not an
objection.

NOTES
219
Here also belong pairs with E [iy] because GVS
has failed to apply: Augustinnian (cf. AugustEne), capri"-
oious (cf. caprEce), Castirrlian (cf. CastEle), (re)citrpi-
ent (cf. -cEpt) [-cipere, -ceptus < capere, aaptus 'take1],
prestigious (cf. prestEge) &c, parallel to ambEdextrous sambivalent~ antEque antiq
ment [all from ligare fbindf], naiEve [F < L nätivus] *
nativity, niootEne -tlnic, polE-(glot) \~ poll-('gamy),
polEce [a doublet of policy < F < L < <
f
cityT] apolitical, (metro)polls, vis-a-vis [vEzsvE]
lit. 'face to face' visage &c and to aphrodEsia(c) sAphrodite, bEtle 'little bi
pEous ' pious, (im)pErial empire, (pro)phecE < -phesl,
(ap)prEciate price, a prEori prior, (réqvEem \~ quiet,
RhEnish sRhine, sE(n) sight, Gmc sEm(stress) 4 Gk
hlmen, sEt (re) side, (e)spEonage spl, varE(ous) °o va­
riety &c. [235]

220
Cf. Bulgar [bivlgàr] vs vulgar [vulgar]. It is
worth pointing out that--in addition to Amazon, Babylon,
 . 220 306

Iran mentioned above--a few other Ns in phonetic -VC# dis­

play terminalstress; in the followingsample, F after an
entry {cravat F, e.g.) means the word came into E from F;
etymology (F cravate e.g. is from Slavic): Aesop, Afghan,
Agamemnon, albacbre, albatross, (barr-/gar-/mas s-/pot-)âge,
( fl-/espion-/fus el-/sabot-) , alcohol, Amsterdam,
anisette Y, (Marie) Antoinette F., Arafat, argbn, asphodel,
avatar, axon, Azerbaijan, Aztec, bacchanal, bagatelle Y,
Baghdad, baguette Y, Baikal, Bangkok, Bangladesh, basinet,
bassinet, baton F (cf. batten from the same root)., bayonet
Y, bechamel Y, benefit, Bengal, Berlin, (kleene)boc, Bogo­
ta, (spring)bok, boron, boycbtt, Brazil, Brunette Y, cadet
Y, caftan, calabash (F < Sp < A)., calumet, canal (L canal-
is ; cf. channel~ OF chanel < canalis), Canton, capon,
carafe [A gharräf < gharafa 'he drew water'], caramel Y,
caravan (F < Pers), caravel (F < Sp < A),, carousel Y, car­
tel Y, cassette Y, catamaran (Tamil), cayenne, Ceylon,
Cezanne Y, chagrin (F, ooo), chabs, chiffon (F < A), chor­
a le [ 1]3 cigar (Sp), cigarette Y, cinnabar (F cinabre),
citadel Y, clarinet Y, clientèle Y, Conrad, coquette Y,
coronet, corral (homophonous with chorale ; cf. coral),
Cortes, corvette Y, eossack (R < Trk)., coupbn Y, crampbn Y,
craspedon, (demo)erat, cravât Y, crayon Y, crevasse Y,
croquette Y, croûton Y, cuirass Y, culotte Y, cuspidor, da-
crbn, Dakar, Vayân, despot, dinosaur [-sorb (masto)dbn,
dryad, echelon Y, Ecuador, electron, eon, epithet, Eros,
Ethibp, Evonne [-an]., Fillmore, finesse Y, flannelette, for­
mat Y, fourchette Y, furor, Galahad, galôsh(es), garrotte
(Sp)., gastropod, gavotte Y, gazelle (F < A)., gazette Y,
Georgette Y, gewgàw [ooo]., Gilyâk, giraffe (F < It < A).,
gonad, goulash (Hung)., (ideo)gram, grandâm, (phono-/photo-/...)-graph, graylag 'kind o
< Sp < A)., habitat, haggaddh (H)., Halicbre, haversàck (F <
G), heehàw, hemlbck, hollyhbck, hotel Y, Hottentbt (lit.
'hot and tot1), Huguenbt Y, Hurbn, icbn, imarêt (Trk < A).,
impasse Y, imperator (cf. ), inlet, insomniac, Iraq,
Japan, kayak [Eskimo]., (shish) kebab, kitchenette (a hy­
brid), kopeck (R), Korân (A), Koryâk, krypton, lacrosse Y,
Lafayette Y, lagniâppe (Amer Sp la 'the gift')., lapel,
 307 n. 220

largêss (ME < OF)., Lautrêc F* layette F, leatherette (a hy­

brid)., Lebanonj leprechaun [-an]., lexicon* liaison F* lo­
cale F., lorgnette F* luncheonette* mackintbsh [named after
the inventor of waterproofing], macron* Madame (cf. Madam).,
Madrid* Magyar (Hung)., mahjong (Chin)., majorette~ Mandarín*
mandolín~ maniac* marathbn* marionette* marmoset* mayhem
(related to maim)* metaphor* Milan* minaret* Minotaur [-or].,
minuet Fj mishmash, Mohawk [-ok]., Montreal [-ol]θ morale F.,
morâss* morons motel* motet* mouton F (cf. mûtten)* muscat
Fj muscatêl* musicale* muskrat* mustache* myrmidon* nabob
'a rich man1 (A)* naiad* napalm [-am]., neon [veov 'new'].,
Nepal* neuron* neutron* Nimrod* Nobel* Noel F., noisette (F
noix < nux* nucis < knw-k-* cf. OE hnutu* NE nucleus* nuci­
ferous &c)., nomad* Nouakchott* nutmeg* nylon* ocelbt F.,
(ethan)ol; Omaha* Oman* omicron* Pakistan* panache F., Pan­
ama* panthebn* paragbn, parallel F., parapet (F < It)., para- sbl F* parsnip* Partheno
patois [-wà] F., pavân F* Pavlov, peacbck* pecan (F < Algonq).,
peignoir [-war] F., peon* personnel F., (phen)ol* phenomenon*
photon (coined)j pilaf pinafore (lit. 'pinned in front').,
pirouette T* pitbn F., Pleiad* pogrom R, Polak* polliwbg*
poly gibt* polygbn* pompom F., potash* powwow [Algonq]* Poznan*
Procybn (v. fifth entry in II,1.3), pylon* python* quadrille*
quadruped* quahbg [Algonq], quartet F., quasar., Quebec* quet­
zal [Náhuatl]., Quezon* radar* rappel F., rapport [-or] F~ ra­
tionale* rattan [Malay]., Ravêl F (contrast ravel)* rayon F.,
rebuff* Renoir [-war] F., rial* riel* riffraff* Riyadh* robbt*
Rodin F., roomette* Rorschach* rosette F., roulette F* sabo­
teur F., salaâm (A; cf. shalom), Salkbff* salon F., samovar
(R < Trk)., Samoyêd (R)., sampan (Chin)., sassafras* satrap* savant F* scalawa
rock* Shangrild* shantung* shellac* shibboleth (B.)* shindig*
Siam* silhouette F., silicon* Singapore* Slovak~ sonar* soph-
ombre* soupçon~ Soviet* (photo-/fthermo-/...)-stat* statuette
F* succotash* Sudan* Suez* suffragette F* Surinam* surplus* synonym* Taiwan* Talmud (R)* T
psichore* Tibet* tom-tom* topaz* trepn* triad [L trias,
triadis]* Trinidàd* troubadour [-dor] F., Tubatulabal* Ulan
Bator* usherette* Uzbek* Vietnam* vignette (F dim. of vigne
nn. 220-223 308

vine'), vinaigrette, violîn, wagonette (a hybrid)., warlbck,

wigwam [Algonq]~ xebec, xenon, Yucatan, zigzag, zircbn F &c.
In the same way, one can remark that N-N compounds may have
heavier stress on the first N than on the second (sky-Vtght, smoke- , apple
hbme-pldte/-rûn, lïne-drtve, base-hit, skïd-rôw, tïn-fo'il,
Muskrat-Râmble, virgin-forest/-Islands/-Mary &c). With
materials, e.g., one often finds the 1-2 pattern for pro­
duction/manufacture of the material, but the 2-1 pattern for
articles made from the material (sîlk-wbrm, côtton- ,
paper-mill vs s'blk-shtrt, cbtton-towel, paper-napkin, maple- sugar/-syrup 3 bèef-stew &c). A
Bernhardt, Jerzy Kurylowicz, Cape Cod &c). Here (as else­
where in linguistics), it is foolish to write rules before
the factual data have been gathered (or at least before one
hass o m e kind of rough idea what the data might turn out to
be). [235]
221
Thus angora [aengora] < angOra, opposed to am­
phora [âÉmfara] < am-phor-a, the,»-grade of {p~r- 'carry'},
with stress as in ephemera (< epi-hemer-a 'for a day', cf.
hemeralopia). We already suggested smth. along these lines
in n. 6 of the Foreword by writing ignore [-or] with a long
final vowel (now we would write n#gn-o-r-, with the -o- also
in gnomon [yvuiuoov], noble [ndbilis < OL grid- 'knowable'],
know [OE cnäwan] &c, but questioning its source). [236]
222
θther exámples include: cœ"meo, cœ"nyon, cœlrviar,
chœ riot, clœ"rion, clœ"vier, compœtrnion, gœnseous, geri­
n

atric, (hyper) gr œr,phia, hellion (or is this with geminate

III) [ooo]j Itœ"lian, o"nion, pœ"geant, pœntio, retœ"liate,
(Czecho-)SlovaÎTkia(n), Spœuniard (cf. SpAn), spœ"niel (ori­
ginally, 'a Spanish dog'), spe"cial (cf. spEcious from the same root,
TPhoenEcian, TunEsia, pslkiatry. It is no doubtsignificant
that of the exceptions, those with the vowel œ predominate.

223
For exámple: acEtic, amEbic, analgEsic, aphAsic,
 309 nn. 223-229

bAsic, brOmic, chrOmic~ clclic ~ clic~ ('ortho) drOmic3

(graph-/morph-/phon-)Ernie (v. Lehmann 1962: 225 for inter­
esting comment on -ematic), (an-/septic-/UP-)Ernie (all
from hem- 'blood')., encyclopEdic, GAlic~ gnOmicy helio-
trOpie ' -tropicy micrObic, nitric, orthopEdie, (Franco-/
hydro-/xeno)phobic, (para)plEgic (cf. related apoplexy),
pslehic, scEnicy sísmica stratEgic3 strOphic (but cata- strophic), VAdic sVEdic &c. Also i
vironments: nicety, obEsity~ probity &c. [236]

224
I mean "most frequent" literally. Thus for the
first exámple (A in §3.1), we find other alternations as
well (archAic ' archEology, domAn sdominion~ HebrAic °o
EebrJJy tAle stell stOld talk &c), but the "most fre­
quent" is A sœ. [240]
225
Pairs are listed alphabetically, except that al­
ternating matter is usually parenthesized off: (punctu)œl-
i t y ~ (de)bAte, (ex)hAle &c. Entries do not represent in­
ventories of all words derived from any root (or affix).
226
If the dim.suffix in aileron is thes a m e as in
Alison (from Alice), there will be a problem instress-as­
signment: [Alaron] vs [áélasan] • [240]
227
But [sêrabik] for expected *[aráebik]. The stress
is as in A politic, but perhaps not for the same reason.
[24θ]
228
Not fromsuffixal -ate (there is no autom-), but
from {mn- 'think'} of n. 81: mn-t- underlies Gk mat-, L
ment-(aldty)) {mens, mentis}, Gmc mind [Gth ga-mund-s]
&c. [241]

229
From krs-n-; the Gk anaptyctic vowel (in privative
an-, (auto)mat-y cardiac &c) sometimes follows the syllabic sonorant, as
words here are related to cerebral < krs-r-, which shows a shift (pecul
permost part of the body'} of n. 85. [241]
nn. 23θ-235 31θ

23θ
From fak- 'make, do'; note the triplet lique-
-fAcient 'causing to become liquid' ' -fœction ' -ƒ#•
Ef-fic-ient/-Acious show a ~ i of n. 106. See also nn.
238, 24θ. [241]
231
From pap- 'equal', also thesource of (dis)par-
ity3 peer 'an equal', peerless 'without equal', umpire
[from ( ) numpire] 'non-equal', par(lay), pari-mutuel,
nonpareil &c. Forms with gain or loss of n- due to mis­
takes in word division (umpire, adder, apple pie bed [F
nappe pliêe], apron, auger, newt, nickname, nonce, notch
&c) are familiar enough not to require exhaustive list­
ing. But related pairs like -ron nap-kin, nonce '
once &c pose a problem in synchronic analysis. [244]
232
From sta- 'stand'; stoend, (circum)stœnce, stœn-
chion (with N-insert of n. 64) also belong here. [245]
233
From str- 'spread out' [sternere, stratus 'spread/ stretch out',
'breast(bone)', axopvovai 'spread out'; OE strewian 'scat­
ter', strêaw 'straw', streon 'progeny']. A number of re­
lated' NE words (not all relevant to A ~ œ) belong here:
consternation [constemätionem 'confusion, dismay' < con- stemätus 'spread out (
strue/ -struable/ -struct/ -struction/ - s t r u c t i v e , destroy [ME
destroien < OF destruiré], prostrate [prosträtus 'spread
out pro- before, overcome'],s t e r n u m ,strain 'ancestry,
lineage',s t r a w 'what isspread out',s t r e e t [strata (via)
'paved (way)'],s t r e w 'spread out,scatter',s t r u c t u r e &c.
See obstruct under ob- in PFX.l, and fourth from last par­
agraph of §5.4 [246]

23It
From tag- 'touch', the last two forms (tangent,
tangible) with N-insert of n. 64. [246]
235
From {kn- 'new'}; words like recent belong here.
Cf. also NACAT', OCS 'beginning'; these forms with
nasalized vowels (OCS za-cïnq s-5g£ï) were not mentioned
in 1.2.3. [247]
 311 nn. 236-243

236
But recEpt f\j recipient (n. 106); all from copio
'take'. [247]
237
The -ev-*s are perhaps fromsomething like aiw-
T
age, eternity1. In L forms (like these), W ~ V9 but W
drops in Gk forms (like eon < aiw-on). [247]
238
From fak- 'do, make' (n. 23θ). For a ~ e in
de-/ef-/in-/per-/pre-fectj L dê fee tus &c, n. 118. The ƒ
in fak- is from £", and when the root is constructed pro­
perly itshould be possible to derive words like Gk theme
'smth. done/made', antithesis 'smth. done/made anti-
against/opposite, opposition',s y n t h e s i s , and E do9 deed
&c from it. [248]
239
Here also belong a few recent F loans: arrière-
pensée, derrière, dernier ressort. [250]
240
From fak- 'do, make'; for a ~ i, n. 106. See
also nn. 23θ, 238. [251]
24l
Million = aug. of mille 'thousand' (in millen­
nium, millimeter &c); cf. F merci mille fois vs E thanks
a million. [253]
242
All compounds of tri- 'three' and pw- 'be': L
tribus orig. meantsmth. like 'a third of the Roman peo­
ple'. [255]
243
The root of -oc- is okw- 'see' (n. 176), from
which are derived words like L oculist~ (bin)ocular (cf.
bin-ary &c < bin- < dwisn- < dw- 'two'; -bine belongs
here), inoculât(ion)j monocle, inveigle [cf. F aveugle <
ab oculis--historically, the prefix is not in-] 9 antlers
[L ante oculo s ; hence the meaning '(horns) before the
eyes', cf. G Augensprossen], Gk optics ophthalmo-9 opto-9
(syn)opticy Ethiopia~ antelope (cf. \;θ [? from cívOoc
'flower'?]), Gmc ogle, eye [G Auge], window [ON vindauga].
The first root is atr- 'black' (cf. med. atrabilious 'black
bile'). Thus atrocious means 'black-looking';similarly,
nn. 243-247 312

fevooious 'fierce-looking', velocity 'speed-look1 &c.

Forms like philanthropy 'love of those with the -op- [- -]
eye/face of a man', aut-op-sy 'view with one's own eyes',
hemeral-op-ia 'day-blindness', Cyclops lit. 'circle-/
cycle-eyed' are perhaps less obv. exámples from ö F - 'see'.
[256]

From 0-grade of {pkw- 'cook'}, which also under­

244

lies cuisine [F < L cocina < coquina], culinary, concoct-

(ion)3 cook, pepsin 'a "cooking" [digestive] enzyme', dys­
pepsia (from pej. Gk dys- 'bad'; hence 'indigestion' < 'bad
cooking') &c. In L (but not Gk), the assimilation p--kw ~
Ill; cf. also PEKÛ 'I cook'). Thus pre-coc-ious means
roughly 'pre-cooked'; noticesignificant difference in
-ociousI-ocity here and in n. 243. Kiln, with PR [kil(n)],
is also from this root, roughly from kilne < kuine < kuline
[cf. OE cylne, cylene] < kulina [cf. L culina 'kitchen' and
E culinary] < kukwlina < kokw-lina [cf. L coqu-ere 'to cook']
< kwekw- < pekw- [cf. dial. L with the inverse assim­
ilation] < pk -. Brief historical discussion of L p--W1 ~
lation is prkw- 'oak' [L quercus 'oak'], from which are de­
rived both(1)cork(perkw-~kwerkw-~kworkw-~korkw-~kork-)and(2)firfrom0-gradeprkw- [OE furh]. [256]

2I+5
The S change here is apparently by folk-etymolo­
gy; cf. Weekley 1912: 102. Clear exámples are pOst-(date)spas

246
This [-asatE], although homophonous with the
[-asatE]'s of atrocity and precocity, has no relation with
either of them (except insound). But the linguistic in­
terest ofsound appears only when it is conjoined with
meaning, and then "sound" has to be interpreted metaphor­
ically, as we have been interpreting it here. [258]
21+7
Initial of tusk (as in tooth) must have under­
gone Grimm's law. But in E words,s k ~ s , resulting in
pairs like L piscatory s E fish (App.1.19). Perhaps the
problem can be resolved P, by tusk < tusk [OE tuse] <
 313 nri. 247-249

tnd-sk- < dnt-sk-. [260]

From curve' [OE bugan 'to bow down'].

Gmc e-grade beug- ~ bug-; see .. 249. [260]

249
Another exámple is crowd < orüd [OE crüdan] scurd(le), with deriva
(1.3.1) ~ [kard]. In E, g tends toshift to glides (w
around back vowels, y around front vowels). The repre­
sentation bug- of to bow (n. 248)shifts to bawg-, to
[baw]--OE bugan, ME bugen, bogen, bowen; N bow (in to take
a bow &c) is deverbal. Buxom, on the other hand, while
undergoing a specific S development (from 'flexible, pli­
ant, submissive'), is P only devoiced and shortened: bug-
-sm ~ buk-sum ~ buk-sum ~ [bAksam]; the final affix, -sm
'tending to be', in buxom, incidentally, also occurs in
words like (burden-/ful-/glad-/gl -/hand-/win-)some, and
is the root of words likes e e m ( l y ) , semblance, simile, similar, (veri)similitude,
'occurring at one time/together' (t ins i m u l - t - a n e o u s per­
haps by analogy to t in instant-Imoment-aneous), single-
(ton), singular(ity), same &c. Ns (rain)bow, elbow are
from 0-grade (reg-n-)bwg- ~ (reg-n-)bug- ~ (reg-n-)bog-
~ [(reyn)bow], with g*s showing development to both glides;
cf. OE (regn)boga, ME (rein)bowe, G (Regen)bo gen &c. Per­
haps -bO in akimbo belongs here as well. If there is hes­
itation regarding the synchronic shift g ~ y in E rain,
cf. L irrigate from the same root, but with inner g intact.
Another exámple is ungual 'pert, to nails/claws' (F ongles),
ungui-(form), ungulate, unguli-(grade), onyx, onychoid,
paronchia (med.) [unguis 'nail, claw, hoof', ôvuÇ, ovuxoç,
NÔGOT' (related to NOGA of II.2.2)] ' ( )nail [OE (ang)-
nœgl, G Nagel], Further exámples of g <\J y (not all re­
stricted to the Gmc component) include dign-ify/-itysdeign,d i s d a i n ;flagellate°oflail
(from flag-m-); regulate srail(road); viceregal sviceroy ; sign-al/-ify (de)sign &c (see also
there are words with historically well-founded g which ap­
parently cannot be motivatedsynchronically for lack of rel-
nn. 249-252 314

evant E forms: hail [OE h œ g l , G Hagel], maiden [OE -

den, G Magd], may [OE magan, G mögen, MOGUT 'they can/are
(physically) ableT], rye [OE ryge, G Roggen, ROZ'/RZI, Lth
s] &c. Sometimes there are infrequently used words
as alternants: brain <\, bregma, for exámple; while discus­
sing -g in §2, we mentionedwages g a g e . [261]
250
U apparently fails to undergo eithershortening
or GVS inseveral "shortening" envs.,s u c h as before -ic 9
-ity: acUstic, cherUbic, cUbic, cUpric (cf. copper; L
cupr-), pharmacUticaly pUbic, PUnic, rUnic, sulfuric sulfur [-far]), t
nity, pUrity, scrutiny, security &c. For the proper in­
terpretation of these data, compare the moresophisticated
treatment in SPE (opposed in Guierre). [262]

251
As in derivation of five: fnf-i ~ funf-i ~
in E, all front, rounded Vs are unrounded, not only those
of Gmc origin; for exámple, the root V in Gk hypno- (cf.
1.5 s.f.): swp- ~ sup- ~ hup- ~ Gk hüp- ~ hip-. Naturally,
hypn- does not have to stand first; it is second in med.
agrypnia 'sleeplessness; sleep in the field', from agr- +
-hyp-n-i-a (Gk h drops after C, but will first aspirate a stop, as in
not strong enough to prevent truncation of i in epi-hemer-;
incidentally, the shifts ph ~ p" ~ f might be an indication
we were right in assigning "aspiration"to x in II.3.1).
Another exámple of unrounding long ü is Gk gyrate, gyro-
vs Gmc cower: gür- ~ Gk gür- ~ gir- ~ [gayr-] vs Gmc gür-
~ kür- ~ [kawr]; in these exámples, thestem gw-r- 'bend,
curve' is in e-grade, gew-r-0 For unrounding 5 to ,s e e
(99), (101) below; an exámple of unrounding long is in
(102). [263]

252
Similarly, lose [luwz] < Ids; the problems here
are not with quality, but with vowel-quantity and voicing
of s (cf. lost, loss); ult. we may have to propose more in­
direct analyses. In pairs like cupric < copper, food <\,
fodder, goose sgosling, shoe ~ shod, shoot shot, typhoon
 315 nil. 252-254

r\j typhonic &c, the alternation is U a because short ~ a

(cf. III.3.4). [264]
253
0bjective case of 1 pi. pron. provides an inter­
esting exámple of thisshortening, with derivation ns- ~ ns
~ uns ~ us ~ us ~ [as] (cf. 0E us and Gth, OHG, MHG, G uns);
E short is dropped in let's, but not in let us 'permit
usf. The poss. pron. our(s) undergoes not shortening, but
GVS: ns-r- ~ ns-r- ~ uns-r- (cf. G unser) ~ üs-r- ~ ür- (cf.
OE ure) ~ [awr]. The -r and n- in our appear also in you-r
and nostrum 'our own [medicine]' (cf. noster, nostrum 'our'
< ríos 'we'). The -ter in noster (also fiyexepoc 'our') is
thesame as the -ther1s of n. 108, about which Meillet wrote
"Lesuffixe *-tero-, *-toro-, *-tro- sert dans toutes les
langues indo-européennes à marquer l'opposition de deux
qualités" (1950: 114). In gloom * glum ' glower, wes e e
three types of w. [265]

Itshould not be necessary to repeat that we have scarc

give but one exámple of problems arising from closerscru­
tiny of E, consider some of the F words in E from L rota
'wheel' (cf. rotary, rOtate, rOtund(a), rOti- &c). This ex­
cludes unrelated Gmc Roderick, rod [OE rodd, ooo], and Sp
rOdeo, dial. Ital rodomontade &c. In addition to F roue
[from rouer 'break on the wheel' < roue 'wheel' < rota],
rUlette [from roue + dim. -I- + dim. -ette], rAWel 'pointed
wheel in a spur' [OF rouele], and (en)roll, control [from
VL rotulare < rotula 'little wheel', a dim. of rota], are
the forms we are primarily interested in here: rAWnd vs ron­
do, rondeau, rondure (all four ult. from L rotundus 'round',
lit. 'wheel-shaped'). Without damaging the first-mentioned
forms (which we are putting aside) or the rest of E, the
most advantageous analysis of round vs rond- is not immedi­
ately obvious. If westart from rot-und-, needed in any
event for rOtund(ity), we cannotsimply drop -t- and coa­
lesce the then-adjacent vowels: this works for round (<
rund < ro-und), but not for rond-, with ashort vowel and
hence presumably not from rund- < ro-und. Nor can we
(without an additional device) postulatesome treatment of
nn. 254-256 316

the V-cluster (momophthongization or deletion, e.g.) because

of the identical result: we must (somehow) distinguish round
from vond-. One possibility, which we will not elaborate
here, is more liberal use of features like IE, L, Gk, Gmc,
F;s u c h a proposal is doubtless corroborated by -d- in ro­
deo and rodomontade, both ult. from rota (for t ~ d, cf.
also desperado, ult. from desperabas = PRT of desperare,
&c). Then for round vs rond- we could perhaps take advan­
tage of lengthening before E nd, mentioned at the beginning
of §4.1. The difficulty with proposingsolutions tos u c h
isolated problems is that analyses givesatisfaction only
after exhaustive exámination of the raw data, and for Esuch
exámination hasscarcely begun (so far as I know, e.g., we
do not yet have even a complete list ofstrong Vs availa­
ble). [265]

In fact, one might be tempted to refer to this view

that the brain applies the rules of language in linear order
in derogatory terms: "oversimplistic", naïve", ands o on.
But it would be wrong to dos o , an a posteriori judgement.
After all, the only way we canshowsome proposals wrong is
by testing them. And the proposal of linear ordering is a
perfectly natural proposal tosuggest: no doubt it is the
first one that comes to mind. Moreover, this isstrictly speakin
of SPE enriched it by requiring the P linear order apply
"cyclically" with reference tosyntacticstructure (at our
present level of understanding P, one is reluctant to use
terms like "oversimplistic" to characterize a few of the
derivationssuggested in SPE;see also my 1972, where the sa
inappropriately--to describe certain aspects of R conj.; similar
O (CÊRTI ~ ZORT, FÊDJA * FËDOR & ) mentioned briefly in I.
2.3); the cyclic model, moreover has the potential of lead­
ing to further ordering paradoxes (see my 1975 forsome ten­
tative exámples). [276]

256
Actually, this difficulty is not restricted to OE:
in general, our framework does not allow for 5, except as re-
 317 nn. 256-257

alizatiori of another segment (Gk n, Gmc O &c). See nn, 106,

118, and §3.1, however, for some exámples in which a seems
basic. And we cannot deny the importance to E of pairs like
rodere 'to gnaw/eat away' < radere 'to scrape away/off'.
But in L it is not clear how to derive any Vs (some doubt­
less have a diphthongalsource, but--one of the drawbacks to
Lockwood 1973b--this will not derive them all), and an ~ä
alternation like that just citedseems to defy analysis.
This pair is important to E, however, not only because of
the ' ä alternations it provides (rodent, rostrum < rod-
-trom, corrode, corrosive, erode, erosion &c raze, razor,
(tabula) rasa, abrade, abrasive, erase &c), but also because
ofseveral less apparent forms like radical (fromsmth. like
wrad-), eradicate, ramose 'branching' (from wräd-m-), rami­
fication, Gk rhizo- 'root', root (cf. (103), OE rôt, G Wur­
zel), deracinate (cf. F racine), wort 'kind of plant' &c.
Seemingly, the root must be wr- withsuffix -<5-. But the
problem of vowels remains: if there is no radical insertion,
there must besuffixal insertion (= wr-Vd- ~ rod- < rad-);
yet itseemsstrange to find thatsuffixal vowels may have
not only different quality but also different quantity from
radical vowels. And in general this is not the case: if
there is no radical insertion in {pt- 'fly, fall upon'} of
(78), e.g., insertion to the followingsuffix is e (whence,sometimes,<e
pten-, ptosis [o of -osis 'diseased condition' is always M-
lengthened(-oxnç):diagnosis, neurosis, psychosis, sclerosis
&c],symptom &c). [280]

257
Cf. PENA < poin-; since e does notshift to o, this
V must be long; cf. OCS pena. No doubt spume [L spüma] is
related to foam. Thus the forms seem best derived from smth.
like spoimo-, that is to say, from 0-grade of radical (s)py-
'foam' extended with a suffixal nasal. Notice, incidentally,
that we have already mentioned several times derivation of L
< oi, as in mürus 'wall' < OL moiros, lüdus 'play, game' <
OL loidos, cura 'care' < OL coira &c. Thus Espume < Lspüma
<spoim- isstraightforward, involving merely a previously
motivated monophthongization of oi. [281]
nn. 258-263 318

258
Cf. CÉLYJ < k o i l - ; see my 1972: 266, 271. Re­
lated heat 9 from koil-y-9 undergoes umlaut. [281]
259
That is tos a y , we do not derive NE 0 [ow] from
OE a. The UPR for both NE and OE is thesame; it is the
rules deriving PRs which have changed. [282]
260
Since thereseem to be no Gk derivatives from
this root in E and no derivatives in stVr-, we could say
t was epenthetic here; cf. n. 90 on serum oj hormone ' stream and STRU

261
In doing S analysis,s u c h a fact might well give
insight into what thrill means. [284]
262
To give one exámple of what I mean by "hidden11,
it might not occur to one analyzing t in nostril tostart
with an underlyingstop, open it to 0, and then close it
back to t, but--disregarding all diachronic, non-E data--
wes e e from the E words alone presented above that this
roundabout derivation is the most descriptively adequate
analysis, just as was the roundabout derivation of length-
ten) in (95) of II.5.5, of men in (99) of III.4.1. [287]
263
There are a few more words from the "givefl-fami-
ly, not mentioned earlier because they play no important
role in determining the immanent shape of the root; some of
the words, in fact, require sophisticated P techniques in
their derivations. I give an (unfortunately non-exhuastive)
list in alphabetical order:
Add(ition)3 addendum~ betray (a hybrid)3 commande ),
(re)commend [(re)commendäre]~ countermand~ demand [deman­
dare] s die/dice3 dowager~ dower (cf. G Mitgift), dowry, ed­
it (or), endow (ment) ; extradite~ heredity mandate 'give in­
to smb.'s man- hand'., mandatory s pardon [per donor e\y re-
mandj render [cf. F rendre < L red-dere 'give back', with
that peculiar dissimilatory Romance shift d ~ ri\, rendez­
vous y rendition y rent [ult. from L reddita 'what is given
back'],, surrender (sub-), tradition [trans-dit-idn-], trai­
tor [trans-dit-dr-], treason(ous),...
 319 . 263

It is interesting to notice that phenomenal corre­

spondences insound and meaning between anecdote andsome
of these words (rent, betray, treason, e.g.) are quite
indirect. But if one wants to claim any words listed
here do not belong to the "give"-family, he must be ready
to propose a different, more plausible analysis for those
words, an analysis which does not "jar11 with the rest of
E. It is not easy to reject analysis, e.g., of pardon from
F par- < per- + do-n- 'give through(out)/wholeheartedly',
alongside donor (from OF doneur < dönätörem < ddntus = PRT
of donare, cf. E donat(ion)) &c.
There is an amusing,supplementary problem, related to
identification and analysis of morphemes. Historically,
the,"give"-root underlies -do-r- in the proper names Doro­
thy 'gift of god', Eudora 'good gift', Isidore 'gift of the
Egyptian goddess Isis', and Theodore. Synchronically, how­
ever, -dor- in these proper names poses a problem in iden­
tification. Why should these dor4s be from do-r- 'gift'
and not from dor- 'sleep' (cf. dormant, dormer (window),
dormitory, dormouse [ME dormowse 'sleeping mouse'], dorter
&c)? ~ from dor- 'back' (cf. dorsal, dorsi-, dorso-, dor­
sum, endorse 'put en- on the back of' &c)? Why should
these dor1s not be identified with Dor- in El Dorado (Sp
el dorado (pais) 'the gilded flandj')? Or, finally, why should the dor1s
roots (or parts of roots)? Perhaps Pandora (Ilavooipa 'giver
of pan- all') can help to solve the problem. Despite the
difficulty of these questions, they are not terribly impor­
tant: at our present level of understanding DM, nothing very s
[304]
 A part is only a parts o far as itsees
itself in relation to the whole, and the whole
is the whole as itsees itself in relation to
a part.
Kosuke Koyama, Waterbuffalo Theology.

Yes: but the color of the heavy hemlocks

Camestriding.
And I remembered the cry of the peacocks.
Wallace Stevens, 1916.

Divine inspiration hides from

the light,
Insane desperationstrikes in
the night,
Harder to figure fiction from
fact,
Go down the alley, getshot in
the back.
B. Wilkinson (for Lennon).

Full of highsentence
Eliot, "Lovesong"

APPENDIX

The three goals for this book given in §11 of the

Foreword have been achieved: motivating need for rules
which reflect IE ablaut, a Gmc obstruentshift, and a ME
vowelshift in thesynchronic grammar of E. The book,
therefore, is finished. But the reader must have noticed
320
 321 App.

that in addition to hiding internalstructure of E words

(because of their extreme P effects), those three rules
call also for inclusion of other rules in E grammar.
These rules form the basis of E phonology.
A few of them were mentioned briefly in the text; in
this Appendix aresome (non-exhaustive) lists to help mo­
tivatesome. We begin in §1 with Consonants and then turn
in §2 to Vowels. Explanatory comment is minimal, and in
ization e.g.) the lists have been purposelyshortened. As
elsewhere in this book, here too orthography is intended to
represent PR. With few exceptions (canescent ' hare to il­
lustrates ~r is one), entries in the following lists were
determined phonetically (by "sound"), not phonologically.
This willsometimes coalesce exámples of different phenom­
ena (rhotacism in L with rhotacism in Gm with a peculiar
exámple, cuss ' curse, e.g.) and may have other deleterious
effects the reader will have to contend with as best he can.
Section headings and page references for §1 are as follows:

1.1s s 322 1.8 9 ~ 3 337 1.15 r\j s 351

1.2s - '~ h- 325 1.9 d ~s (z) 338 1.16 t < s 351
1.3 s v 328 1.10 t ~ s 341 1.17t, 355
1.4 p s v 329 1.11 ~ s 345 1.18 d ~z/g 356
1.5 h s 0 330 1.12 g ~g ~ 347 1.19 sk s5 357
1.6 ƒ s v 331 1.13 ~vi '~ 1.20s ~£ 358
1.7s s z 332 g/~ 348 1.21s / z ~z 361
1.14 < 349

In the App., the colon is used as aspace-saving de­

vice meaning 'the form to the left is also thesource of the
form(s) to the right'; thus, "*ghl-es- : glow, gleam,..."
means *g"l- is also thesource of glow, gleam,....
Chomsky has occasionally expressed interest in attain­
ing a level of explanatory adequacy in linguistics. Such
emphasis is as unrealistic as many of his other directions
(failure to use computing devices, failure to grasp the val­
ue of typology &c). One who uses the phrase "explanatory
adequacy" ought to realizesuch a level cannot be reached
App.1.1 322

without first attaining the lessscintillating level of ob­

servational adequacy. I believe to haveshown in the pre­
ceding, however, that in linguistics we are nowhere even
approximately close to a level of observational adequacy.
What follows is furthersupport for that belief.
It is hard to comprehend how one could go about try­
ing to understand the meaning andstructure ofsentences
before understanding--at least getting the general drift
of--the meaning andstructure of words that compose the sentences.
crete and dull--not at the flashy, abstract level ofs o m e
recent works in linguistics--we nevertheless consider it a
necessary introduction to higher goals that might be afford­
ed by the field. A glance at our Problems (1972) willshow
the problems raised here are not restricted to E.

1. Consonants.

1.1s ~ r.
acoustics h e a r (n. 116)
arbus-cle/-cule/-tum~ arbor(-aceous/-eal/-escent/-etum/
-ize) [arbor < arbos-, ooo]
auscultation saur-al/-icular, ear [auris < aus-is; OE eare,
G Ohr9 Gth ausd; ouç, 'ear1 < ous-os, ous-at-os :
ot-itis/-o-(laryngology), parotid (< para- 'beside');
UXO; possibly cf. H ?oz-en 'ear']
canescent O/ hare, harrier (TX..2.3)
chaste ' caret 'proofreading mark to show smth. missing'
[carere, castus 'be without, be wanting, abstain from']
corpus 'body', corpse, corpuscle 'little body' ~ corporal
'bodily', (in)corporate, corporeal [corpus, -poris]
crus scrural (anatm\ crûs, cruris 'leg', ooo)
cuss O/ curse, accursed [OE curs, ooo] (not the usual rhota-
cism)
east(er-n) 'v aureate 'golden', aurora '(goddess of) dawn'
[L < aus-os- < aws- 'shine'], oriole
 323 App.1.1

esteem fvalue, appraise' (lit, 'cut [< tern-] the ore') '
ore [ooo]
Etruscan ' Etruria [ooo]
(mass)-euse ' -eur [F -eur < L -or, freq. -tor (e.g. actor),
cf. - ) , -TTiP]
festival, festive, feast (ft. 159) ferial 'pert, to holi­
days', fair 'gathering for buying and selling goods'
[feriae 'holidays, festivals' < OL fesiae]
frost(y), freeze, froze(n) ' fröre 'frosty, frozen' (arch.)
[*preus-]
funebrial (< funes-rial) ~ funereal (< funes-eal) [fünus,
funeris]
gest(-iculate/-ure/-ate) <\, (belli-/vice-)gerent [gerere,
gestus 'carry', ooo]
glass(y), glaze glare (from krl-es- 'shine' : glow, gleam,
glimmer, glisten, glitter)
(ad-/co-)hes-ion/-ive ' -here(nt) [haerêre, haesus 'stick,
cling', hence coherent 'clinging together', inherence :
freq. haesitare 'stick fast, hesitate']; for [z] in hesi­
tate, §1.7; for [z] in -hesion, §1.21
honest shonor [honor (honds), honoris, ooo]
is sare (from es- 'be'; for [z] in is, §1.7 under essence)
just(-ice/-ify) °o jur-idicial/-isdiction/-ist/-or/-y [jus,
juris 'law, right, justice']
last r\j learn, lore, deliri-ous/-um (ft. 35 s.f.)
lose, loss s(for)lorn 'lost' (V. loss in §1.7; cf. OE for-
leosan/forloven 'lose/lost', G verlieren 'lose')
(dor)mouse [OE mus] ~murine [mus, mûris]
nasal, naso-, nose(gay), nostril ' nares [riäsus 'nose', na­
ris 'nostril', OCS nosu, Lth nôsis] (for [z] in nasal
&c, §1.7)
onus 'v~ onerous, exonerate 'free ex- from a burden' [onus,
oneris 'burden']
opus(cule) 'a (small) work' (opus, operis, dim. opusculum;
dim. -culel-cle also in molecule 'little mole- mass'
(ehem.), manacle 'little man- hand', cubicle 'small space for lying dow
tle biter', perhaps knuckle 'little bone' [G Knöchel
'knuckle', Knochen 'bone'] &c; these dim. -(c)le suf­
fixes may be confused with the homophonous instrument-
App.1.1 324

suffixes--for complete lists, one would need an a tergo

dictionary) soper-a(tic)/-able/-ate/-ation(al)/-ative/
-ator/-etta, oeuvre
os-citant/-culate ~ or-al/-ifice/-otund [ds, oris; orotund
< abl. ore rotundo 'with a round mouth1 ~ 'sonorous';
usher < MF uissier < ostiärius < ostium 'door, en­
trance']; in orotund, orig. inflectional endings have
been "lost", but this is not always the case:_cf. abo­
rigine 'orig. inhabitant of a region' < ab origine;
from Gk, we already mentioned (II.1.3) -cyon < K\3wv in
Procyon 'before the dog' and cynos- < gen. KUV6Q 'of the
dog' in cynosure, lit. 'dog's tail' {-ure here, inciden­
tally, is not the act-/process-N suffix in connect-/
eras-lfig-llect-ure, but from oupá 'tail' < ors-w-a,
cognate with vulg. arse, which is--despite the conjec­
ture of one of the MITscholars on rhotacism--unrelated
to ass (the historical data are quite well known); thus,
cynosure < Kuvocroupa 'dog's tail'
plus splural(ity) [plus, plüris 'more'; G viel; v. complete
in §1.16]
pus(tulant) ' purulent, suppurate [pus, püris]
question, (con-/in-/re-)quest (as in quest for the Holy
Grail), ac-/dis-/in-/re-quisition, per-/re-quisite, ac-/
in-quisitive, conquistador, exquisite 'sought ex- out'
query, inquiry, ac-/in-/re-quire, conquer [quaerere,
quaesitus 'seek, ask', ooo]
rise, raise o~ rear [OE roerán 'raise' (= caus. of risan
'rise') < Gmc raiz-y-an]
robust scorroborate [robur, -boris 'strength; oak'; related
to ruber 'red', ruf us 'reddish']
rustic(-ate/-ity/-ism/-ize) ' rural(-ism/-ist/-ite/-ize)
[rus, rüris, OE rüm, G Raum, OCS ravïnu 'level']
sis(sy) {-sy also in prissy, a blend of prim and sissy), sis­
ter ~ soror-icide/-ity (soror, -oris < swesor- [G Schwes­
ter, Skt svâsar-] < swe- 'one's own' + -ser 'woman' [SE-
STRY 'sisters', gen. SESTËR]; cf. also voc. eop < sweor-
(intervocalic Gk s drops--in perhaps more than one step;
if there were no w, the result would be *heor); cousin
and consobrinus (with L b < s before r, as in fûnus sfuneris fünebris above) a
 325 App.1.2

distantly; ai-, so- thus have the same source as e in

eth-ic(s)/-nie/-os ; as s in custom [OF costume < consu-
etudinem; cf. sue below], bask [G sich]; as se in a-/
per-seity, seZ/ [G selb-]; as si in sib (ling) [OSÔBA,
SÔBSTVO], gossip [ME godsib]; as so in so [OE ], sol-e/-iloquy/-itaire/-itcœy/-i
in soi-disant; as su in sue/ [OE swyle < Gmc swa-lik-
'so-like'], sullen; as sue in as-/con-suetude; as sui
in suicide, sui (generis); as in swadeshi* swami;
the £ in sister~ SESTRA is epenthetic (as in stream,
ÔSTROV &c, n. 90); from the above we see that sister~ soror- mean '
all foreign cognates, underlying w in sister~ soror-
is well motivated on grounds merely of elementary seg­
mentation: either one postulates underlying w in sister
or else one gives up the study of linguistics; also in
this group are G sein (< s w e - i n - ) , Ls i b i , -SJA (OCS sg),
recently by various authors in a vein different from
ours)

tempus, gram, tense [MF, OF tens (F temps) < tempus, tem­

poris 'time'], contretemps tempor-al [temp-os-äl-is]/
-ary/-ize, contempor-aneous/-ary, extempor-al/-aneous/
-ary/-ize (it iss ofsuffixal -os- which undergoes
rhotacism; thestem of these words, temp-, is from a
root {tn- 'stretch'}, mentioned also under pretense in
§1.20)
Venus ' venereal, venerate [Venus, Veneris; venerari]
vestry, vesture, travesty l i t . 'disguise', (di-/in-)vest-
(ment), transvestite (PFX.4) swear (all from {ws-
'clothe'}; wear from o-grade with umlaut, cf. OE werian
< Gmc waz-y-an)
was ' were [OE wœs wœron < *wes- 'dwell, stay', cf. Vesta
'Roman goddess of the hearth']

1.2s - ~ h-.
redup. histo- 'tissue' [IOT6Q <s i s t - o s ] , NEG n- in biol. an-
histous (more intensive exámination than we can present
here is liable tos h o w the root of these words is {stX*2-
App.1.2 326

'stand'}, which underlies not only ïaxrililfI (cause to) stand', sto,
Gth/OE standan &c, but also numerous technical words in
E, such as paleon. Actinistia 'order of fishes', a com­
pound from actin- + hist-ia, with actin- 'ray' as in
chem. actinium 'radioactive element used as a source of
alpha rays' [aicrfe, 'ray'] &c)

sagacious, presage, seek, (for)sake shegemony, exegesis

[eCriyriaie 'explanation, interpretation, show(ing of) the
way']; from sag- 'track down, trace, seek'; unrelated to sage '
sal-ine/-t , hal-ogen/-ide (from sal-: sal, salis, ôcÀç,
&ÀOÇ, OCS solt, slanu 'salted'; for -,Z-enlargement in salt, cf. Gt
E words like sal(-ad/-ami/-aried/-ify), saltine, sauce(r)y sausage~ souse
sal-utary/-váge/-vation sholo-(caust) 'whole, entire (burn­
ing/destruction) ' [OÀoç < sol-u-os; here belongs safe <
OF sauf', salf < salvus 'healthy, uninjured']
Gmc: same [ONsamr], seem(ly), some [OE sum] 9 -some 'tending
to be' (fulsome) [OE -sum]; [from this root in G are
words like sammeln, samt, zusammen &c] ; F & Li sem-
blance/-per-/-piternal, sim-ilar(ity)/-ile/-ple(x)/
-ulate/-ultaneous, sin-gle/-gular, as-semble/-sembly/
-similate, dis-similar/-simulate, ensemble, resemble
[from this root in L are words like assimiläre 'make similar to',
plus 'simple, folded once/together', simul (OL semul
'together'), simulare 'make like', singularis 'solitary,
alone', pi. singuli 'separate, single' < sem-gol-]
haplo- 'simple, once' < srp-pl- 'folded once/together'
(cf. L simplus), hapax 'once', hecatomb (v. under hEn-o-
in III.3.2), hen- 'one' < sem- (as in hendeca-, heno- of
III.3.2), hetero- '(an)other, different' (from sm- 'one'
+ -ter- 'alternative' of III.5.1; the form ought to be
*hatero-, cf. < earlier --see also hecatomb
for *hacatomb), hom-al-o- 'even' [ôyaÀOQ 'even, level,
 327 App.1.2

of the same degree' < ôyOQ 'one and the same' < som-;
cf. anomalous below], hom-eo-(morphous) 'similar
(form)' [oyoioe 'like' < ôyog], hom-o- '(the) same'
[ôyoç] (as in homologous 'agreeing, of one/the same
-log- word/mind'), hyphen [û(j)êv 'as one (word)' < ûïï-
'under' + ev 'one']; all the above from {sm- 'one, to­
gether'}; also from this root are Gk words like the
following, without h: adelpho- 'brother' [
'brother', lit. 'from the a- same - - womb'], an-
-alous 'not of one/the same type' ~ 'irregular' ~ 'abnormal', Atl
a- < srg- (cf. an-a-col-uthon (NEG an-), smth. like 'a
non-following'; the root (appearing here as -col-
'move fast') may be used also in 0-grade med. Gk clon­
us 'spasm', e-grade L cel-erity/-ebrate/-ebrity, -/
de-celerate [L celer 'swift'] &c),

sedentary s(poly)hedron 'figure with (many) seats/bases'

semi- shemi- [semi-, -, Skt sami 'half', OE sdm-(cwicu)
'half-(alive)']
serpent [serpens < serpere 'creep'] sherpetology [ -
TOV 'creeping animal']
(con)serv-e/-able/-ation/-ative/-atory [servare 'save,
guard, keep'], observ-e/-ant/-ance, preserve(s), re- serv-e/-i
-ism) [ 'protector', cf. " 'the protectress' < ser-w-ä]
seven(th), Septembrist, septuple 'seven-fold' [F < L septu-
plus < sept- + -pi- by analogy to diuplus 'two-fold'] <
heptagonal, hebdomad [ 'seven' < septrg-; eßooyac,
-aôoQ < eßooyoQ 'seventh', with -ad as in tetrad, pent­
ad &c (also -ade in decade)]
silly [OE sœlig 'happy', G selig] o~ hilarity, exhilarate
[tÀapoç 'cheerful'] (v. §1.5 for loss of h in exhila­
rate [egzil-], with voicing of préfixai ks)
six, sextet ~ hexagon(al) (a in hexa-, as also in penta-
and octa-, by analogy to a (from N) in hepta-, ennea-,
deka-)
solar, parasol (para- here 'against') ' helio-(centric)

sow, swine [G Schwein, L sus, SVINJÁ] hyena [\5Q, 6

'swine' + fem. -cava], hog [OE hogg] may be a Celtic
App.1.3 328

loan (all fromsw-'pig1)super-' hyper-sweat(from s w o i d - y - ; OE swœta

(from s w o i d - ; sudare < sudor) hidrosis [lôpwç
'sweat'] (all from sweid- fsweat1; exude [ex(s)üdäre]
also belongs here, cf. §1.7s.f.) sweet ' hedonism (§1.1

1.3 ~ v
bib(ulous), imbibe [bibere 'drink'] a/ beverage [OF bevrage
< bibere]
Bulgar(ia) 'V Volga
Cordoba *\* cordovan
diabolic ' devil [OE deofol < L diabolus < ôiagoÀOQ; for
the root, v. III.5.2]
febr-i-fuge f\j fever [febris 'fever', caus. fovere '(keep)
warm' < dheq~- 'burn' : ZGÛ 'burn', Lth dagas 'burn­
ing, harvest', OE doeg 'day', G Tag, but L dies is unre­
lated]
gubernatorial ~ govern(or) [OF governer < gubernare 'direct, steer']

liber-al(ize)/-ate/-ty o~ deliver(anee) [ 'free', pro­

bably from Zeudl1- 'people']
libid-o/-inous ' love(lorn) [OE lufu, LJUBIT' < leub~1-]
mobil-e/-ity/-ize [mdbilis < ~movibilis by contraction, cf.
movere 'move'] mov-able/-e(ment)/-ies [movere]
Sabine < savin
scribe « scrivener, shrive [OE sorb fan 'prescribe penance' soribere]
tabernacle ' tavern [OF taverne < taberna, ooo]
umbilical snavel [G Nabel]
web [OE webb] ' weave [OE we f an, G weben < webh- 'move back
and forth' : \ 'web']
 329 App.1.4

1.4 p ~ v.
capric 'pert, to goats1, caprine, Capricorn 'goat-horn' o~ cheveril
(con-/...)cept(-ion/-ive/-ual) [capid, captus 'take'] *
-ceive [OF -ceveir; v. except in §1.16]
(de)crépit(ude) , craven [ME cravant < OF crever < crepäre,
crepitus 'crack(le)']
(con)cupiscence, cupidity [cupid, -ere 'desire'] ~ covet-
(ous) [OF coveitier]
hyper- (from wp-r-), up [OE up, upp 'up', uppe 'on high';
G auf] 4/ over [G über; perhaps cf. Ar, H 'ßr '(ac)-
cross, over'], above
opus(cule) 'a (small) work' ~ oeuvre, chef-d'oeuvre 'chief
work', hors d'oeuvre 'outside the work' (hors de as in
hors de combat), manoeuvre 'work manu by hand' (abl.
manu also in manufacture 'make by hand', manumit 'lib­
erate, release from one's hand', manuscript 'smth. writ­
ten by hand', amanuensis 'secretary', lit. '(servant) a
manu at hand (writing) ', maintain [ult. from tenere
'hold in/with the hand'])
dis-/se-parate s(dis)sever(anee), several [OF sevrer < se­
parare]
pauper o~ poverty (ft. 272)
rape, rapine sravish(ing) [F ravir < rapere 'seize']
recuperate srecover(y) [OF recovrer < recuperare]
sapient Oj sav-ant/-oir-faire/-vy (v. sapid in §1.13)
shape a* shave
wasp [Lth vapsa] sweave(r) ; about *web"'~, the source of
weave, Meillet remarks "On ne voit pas comment le sens
de cette racine s'appliquerait à la «guêpe»" (1950: 20)
Except over, savvy, shave, weave, the forms above with
V . all F or OF: chevrele, deceivre 'deceive'., cravant, -
veitier 'covet'j coveitos 'covetous',, s e v r e r ,sevrance, po-
verte (¥ pauvreté)j raviss-, recovrer, savant, savoir; cf. n.
190. In III.4.3 we pointed to F savon 'soap' beside E sapon­
ify 'make into soap' (L sâpo(nis) 'soap' is a Gmc loan).
App.1.5 330

1.5 h ~ Ø.
habiliment o, dishabille [F déshabille]
( -/in-)habit, inhibit 'hold in, restrain' sexhibit 'hold
ex- out, display'
hapteron, haptic, hapto- s-aphia, aphtha, paraphia, peri­
apt, synaphea, synapse (all more or less technical words
from the root in ôajnç, Ionic âtyîç 'fastening', &(|)Sv
'touch')
harmon-ious 'in joint'/-ic/-ize/-y / arm(istice), arthro-
'joint', articular 'pert, to joints', ( )articulate
(all from or- 'joint')
harp(sichord) ~ arpeggio
haughty [hotE] shauteur [Otör], altitude, exalt [albus
'high' < aleve y albus 'nourish']
he, him, his, her(s) o~ it(s) [OE 3 sg. m. be, f. Irièo, n.
hit]
hegemony sexegete, exegesis
hemal, hem(at)o- (leuk)emia (ft. 223) [oàya, aïyaxo
'blood']
nemer(alopia) <\~ eph-emer-al 'lasting only for a day' [fpepa
'day']
herb(-aceous/-al/-arium/-ivorous) * arbor 'shady garden'
(unrelated to arbor 'tree', ooo)
herd ~ shepherd [from kerdh- 'herd': OE heord, Gth hairda,
Lth kerda, OCS oreda]
hermit < eremite [OF (h)ermite < eremita < épnuíxriS 'one who
lives in the desert' < epnuia 'desert' < 5priUO£ 'soli­
tary']
heuristic(s) [eùpfciKeiv 'find'] ' eureka! [ \ | 'I have
found'], arytenoid
hilar-ious/-ity ' exhilarate
Hindu Of India
hodiernal 'of this day' [L hodie 'today' < abl. hoe die 'on
this day'], haecceity 'thisness', hie jacet 'here lies' sencore
[OF, 'language of oc\ with oo < L hoe], langue d'oïl
[OF, with oïl < L hoc ille]
horde [F < Trk ordu 'camp'] sUrdu

horography a~ hour [OF (h)ore < hora < upa 'hour, season, spring, year'
 331 App.1.6

nus 'of this year' < hd-yor-in-os), OCS jara 'spring1,

Gth yër, OE gear, NE year]
horrid [hórridas] < ordure [OF < ord 'filthy~ < hórridas]
hortat-ionZ-ive/~ory * exhort(ation) [hortäri9 hortätus =
freq. of horiri 'urge, incite, instigate, encourage' <
g~er- 'desire' : OE georn 'desirous', G gern(e), Gier,
NE yearn, charisma]
hostler sostler
house scaboose (if from kœb-hus 'cabin-house')
humer-al/-us [L (Wjamerus 'shoulder'] omo-(plate) 'shoul­
der (blade)' [ 'shoulder']
humid, humor, hygro- [(h)wnidus, (h)wnor, -oris, ] oj
ox [OE oxa], uxorious [ , -oris], wake (of a ship)
[ON wfe]
humus, inhume sexhume (from o-grade gr'om- 'ground' : homo
'man', humilis 'low', °~ 'on the ground', ZEMLJA
'land', NE zemstvo 'R provincial council')
hyper- sover
hysteria [ûcrrepa 'womb'] suterus
inherit, heredity, heritage sheir [OF (h)eir < heres, hë-
rëdis 'heir', perhaps fromme- 'lack, (be) empty, go
without, go' : 'lack, want', xa~velv fgaPe~ yawn'
(chaotic in §1.10), go]
prohibit (ive) Ou prohibition, exhibit
vehicular svehicle [from vehiculum < vehere 'convey' <
wegh- 'go, transport' : VOZIT']

1.6 ƒ ~ v.
V, N beef: pi. beefs ' beeves, bovine (from g ow- : bös,
bovis, ßoöe, ßooc, OE , G Zu/z, Latv guovs, Skt #aus)
belief(s) ' believe [prefix ge- changed to be-: OE gelêafa
t
belief', gelëfan, belëfan, G glauben, Gth galaubyan
'believe'] ~ N brief(s) ~ abbreviate, brevity
[brevis 'short']
calf spi. calves, V calve [PIE g~elb~1- 'womb' (cf. &ôeX-
'brother' in §1.2 s.v. same, s.f.); G Kalb]
(mis) chief < -chievous
foot strivet 'three-footed stand' (cf. tripod)
App.1.7 332

grief(s) ' griev-e/-ance/-ous [OF grief, L gravis 'heavy1,

ßapOQ fweight1]
half ~ pi. halves (cf. behalf), to halve [G halb]
V, N hoof: hoofs ' hooves [OE hdf]
V, N knife * pZ. knives [OE /]
V, N leaf ' pZ. leaves [G Laub ffoliage1]
life spi. lives, V live, alive, liver [OE lif, libban, li­
fer < *leip- 'remain, continue1: OE lœfan 'not to take
away, leave', G bleiben 'remain', Leib 'body', leben
'live', NE to leave--unrelated to ) 'leave' from
likw- in n. 92]
(re)proof(s) i* prove (V proof < proofread)
relief(s) ' relieve [ l e v i s 'light' : lever, elevate &c]
safe(s) save [OF sauver~ salver < salvare 'save' < salvus
'saved, safe' < OL sollus 'whole, entire' < sol-w-os ;
cf. OXOQ 'whole, entire' under salutary in §1.2]
-self Oj pi. -selves, selvage [G selbst]
sheaf <\~ pi. sheaves; Vs sheaf, sheave [G Schaub]
V, N shelf oj pi. shelves, to shelve [*skel- 'cut' : scalp-
(el), sculpt(ure)]
V, N staff: pi. staffs ~ staves [G Stab]
strife (s) <\, strive [OF es tri f * estriar]
theft, thief spi. thieves, to thieve, thievery, thievish
[G ]
wharf: pi. wharfs ' wharves, wharfage [from erp- 'turn',
cf. 'wrist', whence E carpus, carpal]
wife <\J pi. wives, to wive [OE wif 'woman, wife', G Weib]
V, N wolf / pi. wolves, wolverine [Gmc has a p-variant of
*wlkw-9 as in Lth vilkas]

1 . 7s ~ z.
assess < assize [ £- + sedêre 'sit near by']
brass(y) sbraze(n) [non-IE]
casein scheese [cäseus]
choice r~ choose, choosy (from geus- 'taste', cf. gust-
(atory), disgust &c)
(in)cisive 'cutting into, penetrating, trenchant' sincise
'cut into' [caedere, caesus]
 333 App.1.7

close(ness)s(dis-/en-/fore-)close, closet [claudo, clau­

sus 'shut', cf. E con-/ex-/in-/se-clude]
complacents(dis)please(d) [placeré 'please', placare
'soothe']
(a)cross, crusadescruise(r) [crux, crucis, ooo]
N (ex)cuse sV -cuse [ex- + causa 'reason, motive', ooo]9
cause
essence, essential, absent [absëns = pres. PRT of abesse 'be
ab- away'], interest [interesse 'be/lie inter- between'] ~
present [praesentäre 'put/place prae- before' < praesens
= pres. PRT of praeesse 'be before'], is [Gth ist, L
est EST' &c; voicing of s took place after loss of t in
E] (all from es- 'be')
fac-ade/-e(t)/-ile/-ilitate/-ility, de-/ef-/sur-face, arti-/
of-/ori-/suf-fice, (magni)-ficent, deficit sfeasible,
malfeasance [facia]
glass (es) o~ glaze (v. glass in §1.1)
goose sgosling
grass - , graze (cf. brass sbraze, glass sglaze; from khr-
'grow, become green' : grow, green)
grease ' greasy [s z] [L crassus 'fat']
(ad-/co-)hesive shesitate (cf. §1.1)
house s[z] in pi. houses, V house, N housing
loss, loose(n) ' lose(r) (the UPR must have s because of [r]
in (for)lorn; the root is apparently lew- 'separate' :
, lud, solvö < se-luo 'untie'
louse ' lousy 'infested with lice' [OE lus]
Malthus <\j Mai thus ian
nostril snose(gay), nasal, nozzle, nuzzle 'push gently a-
gainst with the nose' (the UPR must have s because of
[r] in nares)
opposite [s sz] [ob--\- pond, positus; cf. E opponent; pono
< pozno < pos(i)nö]
(holo)-phrasis, (para)-phrastic *\J phrase [F < L phrasis <
, ooo]
precise: v. (in)cisive

price ' praise, prize [pretium 'price, value, worth'] semblance, asse
App.1.7 334

site of scan, lawn in n. 36; a similar -d appears in

words like bound ?headed forf (ME boun 'ready to go1),
pound 'strike, beat' (ME pounen 'bruise'), round 'whis­
per' (OE run 'mystery, secret'; cf. NE rune) &c; a cu­
rious d appears also in jaundice < OF,aunice < jaune
< L galbinus 'greenish yellow'; for t, cf. tirant, an­
cient 3 peasant pheasant in III.3.3, simultaneous in
n. 249, ego(t)ist in II.1.6; cf. also I in syllable;
returning to L sonus, it is from swon-os: the w appears
phonetically in Gmc c-grade swan [OE swan], lit. 'the sounding
w is sopor (if ) < swop-, cf. Gk hypno-)
spouse sespouse, espousal [spondëre, spdnsus 'promise': F
époux]
(de)sultory 'jumping from one thing to another, haphazard',
insult 'jump in- on' sresult 'jump back, occur as a
consequence', exult [-gz-], and their derivatives in
-ant, -ation\ resilient 'jumping back'; all from sal-
'jump'_: as sail(-able/-ant) [OF asalir (F assaillir) <
ad-salire], assault [OF asaut < ad-saltus], salacious
'fond of jumping', sall¡,, saltante saltigrade 'with
feet for jumping' [gradi 'walk'], saltimbanco 'mounte­
bank, charlatan' (It, lit. 'one who jumps on a bench'), saute l
bove'], transilient 'jumping trans- through/from one
thing to another'
usage, N (ab)use(s) sV use (uti, usus : E util-ityI-ize)
vase [s sz]
N (ad-/de-)vice sV -vize [video, visus; cf. my 1978c, al­
though I did not mention there the possibility of rela­
tionship to H wyd(-w/-r) 'know']
Specification of voice for continuant obstruents in E
(souQ, soudern, souQbound &c) supports the hypothesis that
the physiological basis underlying many phenomena in natural
languages is not so important as some linguists may suppose.
Also, it is difficult to understand how exceptions to voice-
assimilation could be maintained in O-clusters if the basis
for assimilation were purely physiological: a word like Az-
 335 App.1.7

tec would not retain [-zt-] long within the confines of

that doctrine. Under very weak assumptions, the indepen­
dence of language from physiologyseems clearer for E even
than for R. One can add, however, that R voice-assimila­
tion in O-clusters is also unusual from a physiologicalstand
would expect voice of the 0 being articulated to govern
that of the following 0 (i.e., application from left to
right); with the physiological view, we would expect POD
STOLOM 'under the table' *[padzdalom] &c.

Returning to E, realization of préfixai ex- gives a

good illustration of the complexity of voicing. I list some
planation are needed. All PRs are from my own idiolect;
they differsometimes from the PRssuggested in ARB. Al­
though it may ult. turn out to be relevant for voicing, I
have nevertheless marked neither reducedstress nor "reduc­
tion" of e- (to [i-] or [ -]) in any exámples below0 Ex-
is always realized as [eks-] or [eks-] before a consonant
(other than h): before (in excavate [eksks-]), (in ex­
change [eksc-]), p (in expectorant [ekspe-]--cf. pectus,
pectoris 'breast, chest'), t (in extol 'praise, place on
high' [ekst-]--cf. tollere 'lift/carry up'), possibly k~
(in exquisite 'sought ex- out'--cf. quaerere 'ask, seek',
ooo\ the only exámple), and s (in exceed 'go ex- out/be­
yond' [eksEd]--cf. cederé 'go'; exsiccate 'dry out'
[êksa-]--cf. siccus 'dry'; extant 'standing out, existing'
[ékst-]--cf. stare 'stand'; and so on, all with degemina-
tion of -SS-); these are the only exámples because before
other Cs, ex- itself undergoes deformation (to ef- or e-).
Therefore we give no illustrations of this (expected) be­
havior of ex- before in the list which appears on the
following page.
Someone interested in writing rules to govern the
voicing of obstruents in ex- will notice exámples in the
VOICED column of the following list always have post-pre-
fixal main stress--on the vowel immediately following ex-.
Because of exhale *[egz-, egz-, eksA-, eksÁ-] and exume
[egzy- 4/ eksh-], treatment of voicing seems related (some­
how) to behavior of post-prefixal h~ Realization of U
App.1.7 336

VOICED VOICELESS ALTERNATES

exáct execrate exácerbate
exággerate execute exile
exált exegesis existentialism
exám(ine) exercise exit
exámple exhale [ékshAl exume [egzyuwm
exásperate ~ ekshÄl] <\j ekshyuwm]
executive exhibition
exemplify [eksa bisan]
exempt exigent
exert exodus
exhaust [egzost] exorcize
exhibit [egzibst] exothermic
exhilarate exudate [éksyu-]
[egzil-]
exhort [egzort]
exist
exonerate
exorbitant
exotic
exuberant [egzú-]
exude [egzu-]
exult

(with or without preceding [y]) may also be pertinent to

voicing of ex-. Examination of degemination seems to be
apposite, for we have exceed [eksiyd] 'go out/beyond1 [from
excederé] opposed to exude [egzûwd] 'ooze out, emit1 [from
exsüdäre 'sweat out']. Words with alternate realizations
--[-ks- ~ -gz-]--suggest some forms (but which ones?) may
best be treated as exceptions. Related pairs like execute,
execution executive~ exhibition exhibit &c are of in­
herent interest.
Also of interest is the relative implausibility of the
first rules that come to mind: (e)ks- ~ (e)gz- is surely an
unlikely rule, esp. when one considers that s ' +z elsewhere
in E; a (perhaps prefix-specific) rule s ~ z followed by
regular voicing of before zy while superficially more pro­
mising than the preceding, runs afoul of the fact thats is
 337 App.1.8

nowhere else voiced in E after k; asimilar negative com­

ment applies to a rule ~ g followed bys ~ z--before s
in E, is not voiced. The roughsimilarity of whatever
phenomenon is occurring here reminds one of Verner's law;
but we never find z ~ r here: *egrample for exámple.

1.8 θ ~ .
bath: pi. ba6s ~ ba9s, bathe (from p~e- 'warm' : bake)
booth: pi. booös < boo3s
breath(s) sbreathe(r) [OE brœp 'odor, breath1] (from p~p-
'boil, cook' : broil, brew, broth, (fire)brand, bread,
breed, brood, burn, barm; ferment(ation), ferv-ent/-id/
-escent/-or, fry [L fr-lgere]9 fricasse [F frire + cas­
ser 'break'], fritter [F friture < frit = PRT of
frire])
cloth: pi. clo9s scloBs, clothe (from gley-t- 'paste,
stick to(gether)' : L gluten; NE glue, gluten, gluti­
nous 'sticky', ölay, olammy 'sticky', cleave to
'stick', clover, clever 'sticking to'; G Kleid, Klei,
kleben 'stick', Klee; OE clïdan 'stick to')
heath o~ heather
loath < loathe [OE lad 'hateful', G leid, Leid; F laid is
a Gmc loan]
mouth fx, pi. mouBs, V , foulmou3ed [G Mund]
moth: pi. mo0s ~ moos
north (ward) ' ( )
path: pi. pa0s spa8s (OE pcêp, G Pfad; non-Gmc, cf. related
L pontoon, punt, Gk peripatetic, Gmc find 'come upon'
(for S, cf. NAJTÍ); the UPR of the stem is pnt- ; his­
torically, -put- in the R loan sputnik belongs here)
sheath: pi. shea6s ' sheaSs, sheathe (from s~- 'cut'; v.
ab-scise in PFX.l and cf. G scheiden, Wasserscheide
with its E calque watershed)
sooth(sayer) ' soothe
south(bound) ~ southerly
swath * swathe
tooth, teeth ' teethe [OE top, G Zahn]
truth: pi. truQs ' truBs (from drw- '(be) firm,solid' :
App.1.9 338

worthsworthy (n.b. G wert)

wreath: pl~ wrea3s, V wreathe (from {wr- 'twist, turn'})
youth: pi~ you0s ' you9s

1.9 d~s (z).

ridiculous, derided f [rïdêre Tlaugh']

al-/.../e-lude 1 [lûdere fplayT]
cor-/e-rode I _ _. J [rodere 'gnaw1]
de- i de J [caedere 'cut1]
de-vide I I [IE *dwis-wi-dhX~]
e-/in-/per-vade j [vädere fgof]
(similarly,
.. ~,.. J ex-/in-/ob-;
pro-trude
r thrust forward ' -s-ive <T, -,
\L trudere
]j thrust')
con-/ex-/in-/oc-/pre-/se-clude [claudere 'shut1; after pre­
fix, -cludere/-clusus] s-clus-ive, recluse (sluice also
belongs here [a<?t,a ö#eZusa 'water shut out' < OF escluse
< exclusa])
f (plaudere 'clap' :
ex-/im-plode ./.,-, 1 plaudit, applaud.
- i J -s-ive/-ible < n 'TSI n
dis-/per-suadej ] plausible [-z-]);
([suadere 'advise']
ap-/com-/re-pre-hend s-s-ive/-ible, prehens-ile
de-/of-fend~),.,.,. \ [-fendere 'strike']
, < -s-e/-ive/-ible \ r j t J \.n
ex-pand J \[pandere 'spread out']

{ -s-e/-ive, (in)dispensable, compensate,

recompense, pensive (but
qui-)poise
(counter-Ie-
in [-z], from OF pois < VL
pesum < pension 'weight' < PRT of penderé
'cause to hang, weigh')
ab-rades-s-ive, erase [rädere 'scrape']
 339 App.1.9

tend(ency) at-/j - - /-1 /-1 1 /- ) ([tendere.../super-m-

' •/ extens-ometer/-or -,,,,
tend(-ant/-ance)J ((cf. extender) J \. stretch j
,, A f-s-~-ive/-ible/-ory~ f dëre
(cor-)re-spond ' J sponsor, spouse V J Í. n
1/í~. i\ Í i promise J
I (but espouse m [-z])J L r

(de-/retro-)grade,l fag-/.../trans--) /[grodï

grad-ation/-ient, L - , J ... f 4 t ». nn
ingredient ƒ V8ress(-lve) ƒ l'step, walk']

(ac-/.../re-)cede ,.,.,_,, -,..,

,- /, ' -cess(-ive/-ible/-or(y) [ go']
ex-/pro-/suc-ceed J wy J
candle, in-cendiary o~ -s-e, cens-er [candëre 'glow']
, t,,..., fmorceau, mor-Y r -,-.,.. -.
mordant Siting' s1 V [moraere 'bite J
~ sel, remorse j
edible sobese [edere/esse 'eat1]

iridescent o~ iris
(tri-)pod ' (platy-)pus f(flat-)foot'

Except Gk irid- siris (cf. ipi£, îplôoc 'rainbow1),

--pod ' -pus (cf. TTOtJQ, 7TOÔ0G 'foot'), and Gmc lad * Zass
(if this is a b~na / exámple), these words are all L.
The L s is probably not formed by direct rules of the type
d ~ s I ive/-ible &c. Indeed, while we have responsible
&c with s, there is also incredible with d intact, we find
both persuadable and persuasible~ both extender and exten­
sor ~ and so on. L forms underlying the E words with s are
all derived from L PRTs: compréhensible (comprehendere/
-hensus), corrosive (corrodere/-r5sus), decisive (dëcldere/
-cïsus), defense (dëfendere/-fënsus), derisive (dërïdëre/
-rïsus), divisive (dïvidere/-vîsus), elusive (ëlüdere/-lü- sus), erase (ërâ
-census), inclusive (includere/-clusus), intensify (inten-
dere/-tensus), morsel (mordere/morsus), obese (obedere/
-ësus), occlusive (occlüdere/-clusus 'shut/close up/off' <
App.1.9 340

ob- + claudere 'shut, close'), persuasive (persuadiré/

-suasus), pervasive (pervädere/-väsus), protrusive (pro-
trüdere/-trusus), regress (regredi/-gressus), responsible
(respondëre/-sp5nsus), success (succêdere/-cessus), sus­
pense (suspendere/-pënsus) &c. We will need these PRT- stems from
Ns in -ion like recession (-cidere/-cessus), erosion (-r5-
dere/-r5sus), devotion (-vove5/-votus), promotion (-movere/
-m5tus), compulsion (compellere/-pulsus), salutation (sal-
ûtô/salûtatus) &c. The forms with t no doubt point to the solution
-ätio, -ationis, derived from 1st conj. PRT in -ätus).
Thus s in evasive, evasion e.g. is from a PRT-stem ex-vad-
-t-,. with L development of the C-cluster roughly d-t ~ t-t
~ t-s ~ s-s ~ s (actually, the derivation is slightly more
complicated because the root ends in an aspirate [cf. d in
related Gmc wade, waddle], and perhaps one will want to
postulate an intermediary affricate stage (ts-t), but the
above gives the general idea. Serious consideration of the
question, however, would require us to exámine treatment of
dental-stop clusters in the Gk and Gmc components as well
(alternations like -pod s-pus are not quite apposite be­
cause s here is from d-s); Meillet gave a brief, but good,
discussion of the problem in historical terms (1950: 57-61)
--I have not looked at the synchronic data of E closely
enough to know whether his diachronic conclusions are re­
levant here or not. We note that while s in L protrusive
'thrusting pro- forward' is expected from d-t (cf. protrude
'thrust forward' [-trüdere, -trüsus]), st in E thrust [from
ON prysta 'thrust'] does not follow the suggested develop­
ment for Gmc if from 0-grade of treud-t-: that would result
in *thruss. Etymologically related threat(en) [OE prêat, G
verdriessen, Gth priutan, mentioned by Meillet in a differ­
ent context, op. cit. 22], however, are derived directly
from treud-. Thus thrust must be from trud-s-t-, which
raises a question concerning the morphemic status of -s-.
A similar problem arises with rust, from rewu1- 'red':
there is no difficulty with Gk erythro- 'red' [êpuOpóe], L
rubicund [from rubere 'be red'], rufous [rufus 'reddish' <
Osc-Umbr], Gmc ruddy [OE rudig], but for rust we cannot
postulate underlying rutr--t-, because that would result in
 341 App. 1.10

*russ; the UPR of rust must therefore be rut -s-t-. Ear­

lier, we required a similar derivation of dentals in best
from bet-st; cf. (55) on p. 102.
Finally, we observe from the above that -at- in -ate
(L -at-us), -ative (F -atif < L -at-Zv-us), -ation, data
(L datum, pi. data), date (III.5.4) &c can scarcely be
monomorphemic: -£- here (as also in Gk anee-/anti-dote) re­
presents the past PRT morpheme. Doubtless this -t- in the
final analysis must be related to the E regular PAST- and
PRT-endings -ed of 1.3.2, which will have to be exámined
with more care than was given them here (cf. also 1.3.4 s.f.).
Additionally, we will have to question more seri­
ously the source of -t in nouns like pursuit, portrait
(from portray), weight (from weigh), exploit (from {pl-
'fold'}) &c.

1.10 t ~ s.
chaotic schaos (xctoç < yß.fOQ < X-w- 'gape' : Gk chasm,
L hiatus, Gmc gums, yawn; cf. inherit in §1.5)
heretic, cata-/epi-/nympho-leptic, ecstatic -sy (Gk ec­
stasy 'standing ex- outside oneself' < {stX?- 'stand'})
ana-/electro-lytic(al) s-lysis {but: -lyze)
utility 'v use [utZ, usus 'use']
emphatic, hypo-/syn-thetic(al) ~ -sis, -size {thesis &c from
'do, make, put, place'})
affluent, Florentine, fort(ify), patient, romantic, scien­
tific, ab-/pre-sent, substantive 'standing under' (from
{stXf2- 'stand'}), equi-/mono-/...-valent s-ce {Flor­
ence, city of N Italy, from Florentia < PRT florens
'blooming' < flôrere 'flourish' < fids, floris 'flower'
< pH-X- ' flourish, blossom' {X lengthens an immediately
preceding vowel) : Flora, Roman goddess of flowers, flo­
rad), F Floréal 'month of flowers', florence 'anything
made in Florence', florescence < florescent < fldrescêns
= PRT of florescere = inch, of florere, floret < dim.
of OF flor (F fleur, as in fleur-de-lis 'lilly-flower,
iris') < ace. florera, flori- (cf. agri- &c), floriate(d),
florid < floridas 'abounding in flowers', F l o r i d a , flor-
App.1.10 342

in < It fiorino < It fiore fflower1 < ace. fldrem, flo­

rist, -florous 'having flowers1, F floscule < fldseulus
= dim. of fids (E dim. -cule/-cle < L -cuius : molecule,
manacle < molécula, manicula &c), flour = variant of
flower but different through S specificity, flourish <
pres. PRT of OF florir < florere, flower(y) < ME flour
< OF flor, cauliflower < F chou-fleur < L caulisy colis
'(cabbage) stalk', defloration < deflorâre 'deprive of
flowers', effloresce < efflorescere 'blossom, flower ex-
out'; foil < OF < folium 'leaf', foliage < F feuillage <
feuille < pi. folia < folium, (bi)foliate 'having (two)
leaves', defoliate, (port)folio 'leaf (carrier)' < foli­
um, F foliole < foliolum = dim. of folium, folióse <
foliösus; (chloro)phyll (coined from x~POC 'green' +
(jnJÀÀov 'leaf'), (a)phyllous 'having (no) leaves'; Gmc
blade < 0E bloed 'leaf' [G Blatt], bloom < ON blom [G
Blume], blossom < OE blös(t)ma [G Blust], blow '(cause
to) bloom' < OE blowan 'blossom' [G blühen]; fort <
fortis 'strong' < OL foretis < pher-kr-- 'high' : burg-
(ess), bourgeois (a Gmc loan in F), borough, G Burg
'castle', Gth baurgs 'city', OE burg 'fortress, forti­
fied town', beorg 'mountain'. BEREG 'bank of a river',
BREZNYJ--all perhaps from_{p~r- 'carry'}; patient <
patiëns 'suffering' < pati, passus 'suffer' : paene 'al­
most', E penance/penitence (from paenitens < paene),
penitent(iary), penult(imate) 'almost last', penumbra
'almost shade' (coined by Kepler), penury (from paenuria
'want, need'), peninsula 'almost an island', passion
'suffering', passive '(willing to accept) suffering',
compassion(ate) 'fellow suffering~, compatible 'able to suffer with'; prefa
{ph-Xa- 'speak'} : phone3 aphasia~ euphemism~ prophet
'one who speaks pro- for another'; profess < profitera
-fessus 'speak pro- openly', confess(ion), fable, fib,
(de)fame < fama 'talk, reputation', (in)famous, infamy
'not spoken of, disrepute', infant, multifarious 'which
can be said multi- many ways', nefarious; ban(-ish/-al/
-ns), boon 'favor, request', contraband, abandon &c)
abbot, accurate, adequate, bankrupt, candidate, celibate,

(idiosyn)cratic, delicate, democrat, diplomat, fluent,264

frequent, intricate, (necro)mantic, moderate, occupant,
 343 App.1.10

pirate, politic(al), president, private, prophet(ic), secret, urg

rate < ad-cür-ätus 'prepared carefully' < cura TcareT <
OL coira, ooo : cure 'care for, take care of', cur-able/
-ative/-ator/-ette/-ious/-iosity, assure < ad-sëcurâre, secure < së-cïœ-us 'free from care
MF < sëcürus, surety < MF surte < secüritätem (a doublet
of security), mani-lpedi-cure, procure < procurare 'take
care of/manage pro- for smb. else', procurator, proctor
[contraction of procurator], procurer, sinecure 'employ­
ment with salary but sine without cares'; adequate <
adaequätus 'made equal to'; -cracy < - 'rule' <
'power, strength' <J<r-t- 'hard' : Gth hardus
'hard'; intricate < intrieäre 'entangle' < treik-
'turn, twist' (cf. E extricate); -money < \iaVT\Q 'seer,
prophet', related to yavia 'madness, frenzy' < {mn-
'think'}; moderate < {md- 'measure, consider'} ; medi­
tate y medic-alI-ate I-ine, remedy, mete 'allot, deal out'
[this and the next two are Gmc; cf. 0E metan 'measure',
G Mass 'measure', messen, gemäss 'suitable'], meet 'suit­
able', must [G müssen], mode < F < modus 'measure,
boundary, manner', mod-el/-em/-est /-ieum /-ify/-ulate/
-ule, accomodate, commode, commodity; occupant < oc­
cupons < occupo 'take possession of' < copio 'seize';
politic < 'city, state' : police, cosmopolitan,
aero-/metro-Inecro-polis; private < prZvus 'pert, to
an individual, not the government' : deprive, (de)priva-
tion, privy, privilege; secret < secrëtus = PRT of sëcernere 'set se- apart' : secr
dis-cern, (as)certain, cert-ifyl-ificationl-itude, de­
cree < decretum = PRT of decernô 'decide, determine',
discern, discriminate 'separate, distinguish', excrete
< excerno, excrêtus 'sift/separate out' &c--the non-
prefixed verb is cerneré, cretus 'separate, distin­
guish', ult. from {kr- 'cut'}; urgent < urgêns < ur-
gere 'press, drive' < wrg- 'drive, push' : wreak, wreck
wretch, wrack--rack 'torture instrument' does not belong
here, related to rego 'stretch, extend1, ôpêyeiv 'stretch
out, reach', but R o-grade VRAG 'enemy' is from the same
root as 0-grade urge)
App.1.10 344

apocalyptic, ecliptic, invert ' -se {eclipse < <,KAeiireiv 'leave ex- out' < l
relic(t), delinquent, relinquish)
aphetic, (sym)biotic, critical, exeg-ete/-etic(s), (tele)-
kinetic, (syn)optic, (hypn)otic, (anti)septic s-sis
(poly)glot / gloss < , Att 'tongue, language'
in-/re(tro)-/genu-flect (in)flexible, reflex(ive), (re-
tro)flex (cf. fleksion); fromflectere, flexus 'bend'

hermetic sHermes < 'EpurÍQ, OOO

pancreat-ic/-itis ' pancreas < , lit.
'TTOÎV- all flesh'; cf. cognate crüdus 'raw, blood-
y', cruor 'flowing blood', OE hrëaw 'raw', KROV'
'blood'
putr-id/-efaction ' pus(tule) [cf. pus, püris 'pus', pu-
tere 'be rotten']
thalatto- sthalasso- < , Att 'sea'
galactic * galaxy 'the Milky Way' [cf. , ;
'milk']
tactic(s), syntactic s-tax < auVTaKTlKOÇ, auvxaÇiQ 'order­
ing/arranging together (of words)'
permit Or-miss-ible/-ive, emissary [cf. mitto 'send']

sent-ient/-inel/-iment(al) ~ sens-e/-ible/-itive/-or(y), sensat(io

'sense, mind']
divert o~ -vorce 'turn/go dis- apart/different ways'
botany < ßoxavri 'pasture, plant' sproboscis < - + ßoa-
K£lV 'feed'
white sedelweiss [cf. G weiss]
lentoid 'like a lens' slens [-z] [L lens, lentis 'lentil']
Some of the words cited are from stems of L PRTs: in­
verse (invers-us < invertere), reflex (reflex- < reflectere),
permiss- (permiss- < permittere), sentient (pres. PRT senti-
ëns/-ëntis < sentiré), sense (sensus < sentiré); cf. §1.9.
 345 App.1.11

1.11 k ~ s
practic-able/-als - i c - e
(anti)septics-ic-emia
index, vertex, cervic o~ -ic-es [index, -dicis < dik- 'point
out'; vertex, -ticis 'whirl(pool), summit1 < vertere
(also vortere) fturn, twist1; cervix, -vZcis 'neck']
(med)-ic-als-ic-ine
ascet-/crit-/cyn-/s-ept-ic(al) -ic-ism
(phys)-ic-al ~ -ic-ist
(ex-/im-)plicate s-ic-it [implicare 'fold inT; explicare
'fold out'; same root as next entry]
(com-/du-)plicates-ic-ity
appendix *\J -ic-itis
(electr-/ethn-/publ-/synchron-)ic < -ic-ity
(crit-/Gall-/publ-) ic Oj -ic-ize
codex -ic-es, -ic-il [codex, codicis 'tree trunk, writing
tablet']
faculty, factotum 'do tdtum everything', dif-fic-ult ' fac-
-ile/-ilitate/-ility [facio < {dhX- 'do, make, put,'
place'} : T10£VCU, G tun, Tat, L -fie- in next two en­
tries]
magnification -fic-ent
specific(ation)s-fic-ity [species <spek- 'look at']
caecum, cecalv
opaque s-ac-ity [opäcus 'shady, dark', ooo]
thorax < -ac-ic [thorax, thoracis < 0 , , ooo]
bacteria bacillus [coined from gaicrnpiov 'little staff]
decadent 'falling de- down' s-ciduous (from cadere, casus
'fall, happen' : case 'instance, exámple; form of de­
clension')
dec-or(-ate/-ative/-ous/-um)s d e c - e n t [decere 'be fitting,
-n-os, dexter, docere 'teach']
defecates f e c e s
-duc-ts-duc-e [ducd, ductus 'lead']
faucals f a u c e s (from fauces 'throat', ooo : s u f f o c a t e )
Frank, Franco-s F r a n c e (cf. French)
fric-ative/-tion, affricatesdentifrice '[powder for] rub­
bing teeth' [fricare, frictus 'rub', friar e 'crumble,
rub away' : friable 'easily crumbled', frivolus]
App.1.11 346

calcareous, calculate, chalk ' calci-ferous/-fy/-um [all

ult. from L calx, calcis 'lime(stone), pebble, c h a v ,
not thesame word as calx, calcis 'heel', which wes a w
in calk, inculcate]
Greek, Greco-s Greece (cf. Grecian)
Keltic The Boston Celtics [s-]
mercantile, market a~ com-merce, mercenary
-cult scon-ceal121
plac-ate/-ables p l e a s e , plac-ebo/-id, complacent
pork -cine [L poreus, Lth parsas 'pig1]
rank 'offensive in smell' <\j rancid 'foul-smelling'
reciproc-al/-ate r\, -procity
vic-arious f\j vic-issitude, vice(roy, versa) [vicis 'change,
alternation']
(equi)vocal o~ voice [OF voiz, vois < vox, vocis 'voice' <
wkw-; cf. 'word, song']
candle in-cense, censer [candëre 'shine, glow with heat']
myco-(logy) 'fungus1 ' mycelium, terramycin
mucus f\, -ilage
Damascus ' damascene

Precise envs. of velar softenings need to be worked

out with care and will undoubtedly refer to the category la­
bels proposed earlier (cf. Fudge 1969: 25 and refs. there).
To give one exámple, from a root like ky- 'move', ~ s in
all L derivatives [cf. ciere, citus 'set in motion' and its
freq. citare 'provoke']: (ex-/in-/re-)cite, resuscitate [ - sAS9tAt] < re-sub-ki-t-
'yawning, sleepy' (from PRT oscitäns < ds 'mouth' + citare),
and in all F derivatives (regardless of source): solicit-
(ous) 'wholly move(d)' < F solliciter < soll-i-ciixire (cf. sollus 'whole, entir
ent' < NEG n- 4- sollicitàre, cinema(tography) 'motion pic­
tures, movie(s) ' (coined from \) | - - -) & . In de­
rivatives directly from Gk, however, both the lit. meaning
of the root and the velar are retained intact; thus from
Kiv- 'move' are kin-ematic(s)/-escope/-esis/~-esthesia/-et-
ic(s)/- - and a few technical compounds like med. akinesia,
hyperkinesia, telekinesis &c. Note S (but not P) retention
in cinema above.
 347 App.1.12

1.12 g ~ ğ
(prot)agonist sagent (v. under aot in §1.16)
alga(l) 'X/ pi. algae [-gE]
algor 'cold1 . algid fcoldT
allegation allege(dly)
argon, erg(on), organ(-ic/-ism/-ist/-ize), orgasmo~ all-/
en-/syn-erg-y/-etic, dramat-/thaumat-urge, dramat-/
lit-/metall-urgy, org-y/-iastic, surgeon
drag(net) dredge [both from OE dragan 'draw', perhaps
cognate with tronere 'pull, draw']
flog ~ flagellate
fragment(ary) s-ile/-ility, frangible, infringe, suffrage-
it te) [frangö, fräctus < p"reg- 'break']
fugue, (centri)fugal, fugacity o~ -ient/-itive, centri-/feb-
ri-/subter-/re-/vermi-fuge [from p~-eug- 'flee', cf.
(f~öyeiv 'flee' : aeron. phygoid 'flight like']
galantine a. gelatin(ous), jelly, gelid
galbanum 'yellowish gum resin' sjaundice [OF jaunisse]
gaud(y) joy(ous), enjoy, rejoice [OF joie < gaudia]; no­
tice the same palatal reflexes here in E and F as for
y of II.3.2: [g-] in E joy, [I-] in F joie
gony- 'knee', diagonal a. genuflect
gregarious, ag-/con-/se-greg-ate/-ation(al) ' egregious(ness)
gurgle O/ regurgitate (more exámples in second entry of §2.6)
gynecology misogyny [yuvfi, OE cwên, ZËNY]
hang o. hinge
impetigo o~ -ginous (from {pt- 'fly, fall upon'})
largo (mus.) * large(ss)
leg-al(ize)/-ate/-ation/-uminous, ana-/dia-/epi-/mono-/
pro-/trave-logue, ana-/homo-logous, elegant (e- < ex-),
prolegomenon o. leg-end/-ible/-ion/-islate/-itimate,
log-ic(al)/-ician/-istic(s), ana-/apo-/eu-/homo-/tri­
logy, apolog-ize/-etic, college, diligent (n. 106),
eligible, intelligent (prefix inter-), negligent, re-
lig-ion/-ious, sacrilege, syllogism (from { - 'choose'})
longer,linger,e-/pro-longations-evity/-itude,lunge
mag-n-animous/-ate/-ify/-ificent/-itude/-um -isterial/
-istrate, maj-esty/-uscule/-or(ity)
Magus O/ -i
(eso-/xylo-)phagous s-phage(al), -phagy [(¡>ayeiv 'eat' <
App.1.13 348

trag- 'distribute1 : BOG 'God', BOGAT 'rich1, UBOGIJ

unfortunate1]
plague ~ (para)pleg-ia/-ic
plangorous o~ -gent (cf. 1.3.1 s.f.)
reg-al(ia)/-nant/-ular(ity)/-ulate/-ulative, ab-/de-/inter-/ sub-/s
<\j reg-ent/-ency/-icide/-imen(t) /-ina/-ion(al), corri­
gendum, dirge, dirigible, (in-/re-)surgent, (maha)ra-
• - 56
jah, surge
rigor(ous) s(f)rigid(ity)
sagac-ious/-ity < hegemony, presage, exegesis
thong ~ twinge (from twenkh-; cf. 0E twengan 'pinch, squeeze1,
pwang 'thong', G zwingen 'force, compel')
(con)tig-uity/-uous, in-teg-r-al/-ate/-ity o~ tangent, con-
tag-ion/-ious, contingent, (in)tangible, integer (from
{tg- 'touch'})
(in)vestigate * vestige [vestigium 'footprint', ooo]
vigor(ous), invigorate, ravigote (ra- < re-ad-) s-il(ant)
[L vigil 'awake, alert' < weg- : reveille, surveillance,
(a)wake(n) [OE wac(i)an, nihtwacu 'night-watch'], wait,
watch [OE weeccan], G wecken, wachen, wacker]
(lar-/phar-)yngo-(scope) s-eal/-itis
Some of the E words listed have their source in L
PRTs: fugitive (fugit- < fugere 'flee'), congregation (con-
gregat- < congregare), leg-ate/-ation (lëgât- < legare),
legitimate (légitimât- < legitimare), prolongation (pr5-
longât- < prolongare), regulate (régulât- < regulare < re­
gula 'rule(r)'), interrogate (interrogât- < interrogo),
-prerogative (praerogât- < praerogô), integrate (integrât-
< integrare); cf. App.1.9.
1.13 b , v , ~ ğ/z (only in French).
abbreviate ~ abridge (ment). [OF abregier < abbreviäre 'short­
en']
cambium * change [OF changer < cambiare]
cave [L cava] ' cage [F < L cavea]
(ante)diluvian ' deluge [diluvium]
 349 App.1.14

fabricate ' forge [OF < fabrica]

lever, lévitation, levity, elevate ' legerdemain [levis
'light']
plumbum (more exámples in 1.3.2.6) plunge [OF plongier <
VL plumbicare]
rabies, rabid o~ rage [OF < rabia < rohere 'be mad, ravef]
rubefacient, rubicund, rubric, ruby * rouge Tred powderT
[rubeus 'reddish1 < ruber 'red' < rwaf1- : red]
safe [OF sauf, salf < L salvus 'healthy, uninjured,s a f e ' ] ,salutary[salu
varsan [coined from L salvare + G Arsen 'arsenic'], salvation, sal
[salvia, lit. 'the "saving, healing" plant'], sagebrush
sapid, sapient, desipient, insipid 'tasteless, dull' sa­
vant, savoir-faire, savor(y), savvy ~ sage (from sa-
pius < sapere 'taste, know'; not related to last entry
or tos a g a c i o u s in §1.2)

serve [servare 'be a slave'], servant, service (able), (sub­

servient, serviette, servile, servitude, serf(dom) \~ concierge
(serv- in serviré < servus 'slave' not related to serv-
in servare 'save, guard, keep' of §1.2 s.v. conserve)
suave [suävis 'sweet, pleasant'] * assuage [OF asuager <
ad-suävis; suävis < swäd-w- < swäd- : dissuade~ dis- suas-ion/-ive, persuad-e(r)/-able, pe
-ive, hedonism [f]6ovf\ 'pleasure'], sweet; the last word
from swäd-y- ~ swöt-y ~ swët (Uml) ~ [swiyt] (GVS)]

1.14 ~ č.
baccalaureate ~ bachelor
bake ' batch (from ph>è- 'warm' : bath)
blank, blanc ~ blanch
(kleene-/spring-)bok, buck [OE buc 'stag', bucea 'he-goat']
~ butcher [OF bouchier 'one who slaughters and dresses
bucks' < bouc]
break sbreach
calcareous, calci-ferous/-fy/-um, calculate [all ult. from
calx, calcis 'lime(stone), pebble, chalk'] chalk [OE
cealc < L calx]
App.1.14 350

caldronschowder [F cltaudiere]; both palatal continuants of

F correspond to affricates in E: s, z of F to E 5,c,f
calefacient 'warming's chafe 'warm by rubbing'
camera, bicamerals(anti-)chamber
candleschandler
cant (ata), recant, incantations (disen)chant, charm
cares chary 'careful'
i l «

caressscherish
carnage, (re)incarnates charnel (house)
caseins c h e e s e
catchs c h a s e
(con)catenates c h a i n
cattleschattel
circum- 'around', circa, circle(t), circuit(ous), circulate,
circuss (re)search [OF cerchier < circare 'go (a)round'
< drawn; F chercher < OF by assimilation]
clucks c l u t c h 'brood'
cock, coxcomb s chick(en)
cool, colds c h i l l
crook(ed) 'bent, curved, hooked' * crutch
cymbals chime(s)
dike sditch [die] (v. s w in §2.3)
drink * drench
Frank, Franco- s French (cf. France)
hike s hitch
lick °o lecher [from OF lecheur < techier, a Gmc loan]
make °o match (cf. bake < batch)
mercantile, market smerch-ant/-andise
rack, reck-less/-on sreach (from {rg- 'stretch, extend;
rule'}, whence reg-al/-iment/-utar/-ulate, royal,
reign &c)
sack '(large) bag' satchel 'small bag' (cf. sachet)
shriek <\J Screech (§1.19)
speak ~ speech
stick ~ stitch
stinks s t e n c h
tack 'small nail's a t t a c h , detach (ON taque 'nail', F at­
tacher, detacher are Gmc loans)
truncate 'cut off' [truneatus < tronk-] s trenchant 'cut­
ting'
(peri)winkle 'snail with a cone-shapedshell's w i n c h (from
 351 App.1.16

{wg- 'bend, curve'})

Except Gmc chary, cheese, chick(en), chill, the listed

words in ch- are from F or OF: chaufer, chandelier, chanter,
charm(er), cheris s-, charnel, chacier, chaeine, chatel,
chimble; the L sources of these words are all in k- (see n.
190): calefacere 'make warm1, candëlàrius 'candle-maker',
canto < cano 'sing1, carmen 'song1, cärus 'dear', carnälis
'carnal', capto 'seize', catena 'chain', capitale 'property',
cymbalum 'cymb a1'.

1.15 ~ š.
camisoleschemise
candleschandelier
castleschateau [castellum = dim. of castrum 'fort(ified
place)', pi. castra 'camp']
cavalier, cavalry, cavalcade scheval(ier) (as in chevalier
sans peur et sans reproche) [caballus, KaßaAXne 'horse',
KOBYLA 'mare'; possibly cf. Sem gml, A Carnal &c, whence
camelus, F chameau, E camel &c]
delicate (ssen) o~ delic-ious
Greek, Greco- * Grecian (cf. Greece)
(pediatr-/phonet-)ic -ic-ian
mechan-ic/-ism/-ize/-o- smachin-e(ry)/-ist (both ult. from
Gk dial. yriXavn, yaxavá the forms with [s] through F,
with [k] through L; from the same stem, mak"- 'be able',
are Gmc may [OE mœg, G mögen], main [OE mœgen' strength']
might [OE miht, G Macht]; cf. MÓGUT 'they are (physical­
ly) able')
sack '(large) bag' ~ sachet 'small bag containing aromatic
powder' (cf. satchel)

1.16 t ' s(g).

(com-/op-)pos-ite -it-ion [ , positus 'put, place']
(con-/in-)volute s(e-/re-)volution
App.1.16 352

act, complete, connect, construct, contort, contract, cor­

rect, corrupt, devote, edit, emit, except, execute,
fict-ive/-itious, (in)fleet, gener-/separ-ate, (in-
/...)hibit, institute, (e-/...)jeet, (de-/...)mote, na­
tive, opt(ative), observat-ory, prostitute O/ -ion (act
< actus /action = PRT of ago 'do, drive1 < ag- 'do, drive,
lead, act'; this root (probably best spelled ~g-) un­
derlies a large family whose DM will have to be worked
out with care; I list some possible candidates for mem­
bership: act-ivate/-ive/-ivity/-or/-ual(-ityI-ize)I
-uary/-uate9 agenda '(list of) things to be done', a-
gent(ial), agile, agility, agitate (from agitare, agi­
tabas 'drive/force into constant motion' = freq. of
agere), (dem-lped-)agogue 'leader', (ant-/prot-)agonist,
(ant)agonize, agony 'extreme pain (áyoavía 'struggle
f for victory in the games,)' < ayeiv 'lead, guide'), agr-
-arianl -iculture / -d) o- Çcger, agri, aypoç, Gth akrs, OE
œcer 'field'), acre, aileron (dim. of ala 'wing' < ag-s-
-l-a), aisle9 alar(y) 'pert, to wings', alate(d) 'wing­
ed', aliform 'wing-shaped', aliped 'wing-footed', am­
biguous lit. 'driving ambi- both ways' (a ~ i by n.
106), axilla 'armpit' (cf. -s- in ala 'wing'), axiom
(from aÇlOQ 'weighty', hence 'worthy'), axis, (co)axi-
al9 axle, coagulate (from coägulätus = PRT of coagulare
'curdle' < co-agere 'drive/press together'), cogent 'con­
vincing' (from cogens = pres. PRT of cogeré 'drive to­
gether, compel'; the past PRT of cogeré is coäctus), co­
gitate (from cögitätus < co-agitäre < freq. of agere),
ex-1 re-1 trans-act, exámine (from ex-ag-s-min-), exigent
'urgent' (from exigens < exigere 'require, demand, drive
out'), exigencies, exiguous, intransigent 'not transact­
ing', peregrinate 'travel' (from per- 'beyond' +
'the field', with a ~ e by n. 118), pilgrim (from pere­
grinas 'foreigner'), prodigal {from prodigere 'drive
prod- away, waste'), strategy (from 'general'),
stratagem 'act of a general', synagogue 'a leading/bring­
ing together', castigate 'punish' (from castus 'chaste,
pure' + agere), navigate 'drive a ship', navigable; com­
plete < complere 'fill up' from {pi- 'fill'}; another
large family, some of whose possible members we list
 353 App.1.16

here: plebs fthe common people, multitude', pleb-ef-eian/

-iscite, plenary 'full', plenipotentiary 'invested with
full powers', (re)plenish 'fill (again)', plenitude
'fullness', plent-y/-iful/-eous, plenum 'a full meeting',
plethora 'superabundance, excess', pluperfect 'more than
perfect1, plural(ity), pluri-, plus, poly-, hoi polloi
lit. 'the many', accomplish(ment), com-1im-1sup-plement,
compliment, comply, de-lre-plete, expletive, supply, full,
fill (from full, with umlaut; cf. 0E fyllan, PGmc, Gth
fulljan, G füllen), fulfill, fulsome; contract < con­
tractus = PRT of con-trahere 'draw/pull together'; some
members of this family (mostly not listed here) have un­
dergone extended phonological deformation through F:
tract (-able/-He/-ion I-iv e /-or), train (OF trahiner),
treat (from OF < tractäre 'drag, handle, treat'), treat-
-ableI-ise/-y, abs-/at-/de-/dis-/ex-/pro-/re-/sub-tract-
-(ion), en-/re-treat, subtrahend; corrupt < corruptas =
PRT of com-rumpere 'break to pieces, destroy, ruin' :
rupture 'a breaking (open)/bursting', rote 'routine'
(from via rupta 'a broken way'; also route 'a broken
path/road/way1), routine, rout \>ut to flight', lit. 'break
(the ranks of a troop)', ab-/bank-/dis-/e-/inter-/ir­
rupt (ion), dis-/e-/inter-/ir-ruptive; devote < dêvotus
= PRT of devovere 'vow, devote' : devout (from OF devot <
dêvotus); from vötum (< vov-êt-om = PRT of vov-êre) are
derived vote, votary, votive; vow is from OF < votum
(cf. F voeu), but vowel and avow (prefix ad-) are from
the root in voco 'call', vox, vdcis 'voice'; edit(or) <
êdere 'give out' (cf. III.5.5); emit < emitto, omissus
'send ex- out' (cf. emissive, emissary 'one who is sent
out' &c) ; except 'exclude' < MF excepter < exceptare =
freq. of excipere, exceptus 'take out' < capio, captus
'take' < - 'seize, hold, contain'; another important
family, with some of the possible derivatives through F
listed here: cap-able 'able to grasp'l-acious 'holding
much' '-acitanceI'-acitate 'render capable'l-acity 'abil­
ity to hold', capt-ionI-ious 'faultfinding' (captiosus
1
ensnaring')l-ive 'taken (prisoner)'l-ivity/-ivatel-or/
-ure, capstan 'pulley for hoisting anchors', capsule,
case 'box', caisson 'chest', casement, encase, cash [OF
App.1.16 354

casse 'money-box'], cashier 'person in charge of cash',

casket (not from cask, which is unrelated, but from OF
cassette y a dim. of casse), cassette, chassis 'frame-
(work)' < F < L capsa 'box', catch < ONF < VL *captiäre
< captare 'strive to seize' (cf. chase < OF, a doublet
of catch, and its derivative purchase), ketch (from
catch), slang cop(per), accept(-able/-once/-ation/-or),
anticipate 'take anti- beforehand', anticipant, (ap)per-
ceive 'seize wholly' (from OF < percipere), perceivable
percept(-iblel-ion/-iveI-ivity), con-lde-fre-ceive and
compounds in -cept(ion), con-1de-ceit, receipt, probably
discipl-eI-ineI-inableI-incœyI-inarian, e-man-cip-ate,
forceps lit. 'fire-tongs' (from form-i-cap-s < formas
'hot', cf. furnace &c), mercaptan 'what seizes mer(cu-
ry)' (ehem.), municipal(ity) with - 'gift, reward'
also in munificent (lit. 'gift-making') and remunerate
'repay, reward', nuncupative < nuncupatus < ndm-o-cap-os
'take by name', occupy < MF occuper < oecupäre < ob-cap-
-ere, occup-ant/-ancy/-ation, participate 'take part,
partake' and its derivatives in -cip-ant/-ation/-ator,
participle '[verb] taking the part of [a N or A]',
-cipial, prince(ss) < prbneeps < -capus 'one taking
- first place', principal (ity) < prlncip- + -äl-,
principia 'first principles', principle (from the pre­
ceding; I is intrusive [F principe], as also ±11 partici­
ple, syllable, the latter from MF syllabe uit. from OUÀ-
Aaßf) 'a gathering syn- together [of letters]'), recepta­
cle 'device to receive things', recept-ive/-ivity/-or,
recipe, recover(y) 'get back', recuper-able/-ate/-ation/
-ative, sus-cept-ibleI-ive 'take sub- up'; execute < ex-
secutus = PRT of exsequZ 'follow ex- out (to the end)' <
sekJJ- 'follow' : execut-ant/-ion/-or(y), ex-1 obsequies,
sequ-ell-elal-entl-ence, second 'following', sect 'group
that follows' (unrelated to section < {skw- 'cut'}), non
sequitur, (en-/pur-)sue, suit(or), pursuit, suite, F
suivez, consecutive, consequ-ent(ial)l-ence, obsequious,
per-/pro-secute and secut-ion/-or- subsequ-entI-enoe,
extrin-1 intrinsic 'following f rom with-out/-in' ; apt-
don) < optare < op- 'choose' : op-ineI-inion, optative,
adopt (ive), co-opt (ation))
 355 App.1.17

(ad-/...)mit r\, -miss-ion

(con-/di-/in-/.../per-/re-sub-)verts-version [-z-]
(nutr)-it-ive r\, -it-ion, -it-ious
(in-/...)fect(ive) -ion, -ious [fació]
(bene) fits - i a r y [bene faction 'well done;]
(bene)fit, part, potent o~ -ial
Egypt, Haiti ' -ian
different -iate [differêns < dis-ferre]
(p)resid-ent * -ent-ial
inerts - i a ( l )

The L sources underlying many of these words are PRT

stems: act(ion) (act- < ag5), completion (complet- < complë-
re), connection (connex- < connectere), construction (con­
struct- < construere), contract(ion) (contract- < contrahe-
re), correction (correct- < corrigere), corruption (corrupt-
< corrumpere), devotion (dëvot- < dëvovëre), edition(edit- <
ëdere), emission (erniss- < ëmittô), exception (except- < ex-
cipere), execution (exsecut- < exsequi), gener-ateI-ation
(générât- < generare), inhibit(ion) (inhibit- < inhibëre),
instit-uteI-ution (institut- < instituere), eject(ion) (ë-
ject- < ëicere), promote/-motion (promot- < promoveré),
optative (optât- < optare), contort(ion) (contort- < con-
torquëre), oppos-itel-ition (opposit- < oppönö), convoZ-utel
-ution (convolût- < convolvere), nutrit-ive/-ion (nûtrït- <
nutriré), defect(ion) (defect- < dëficere), differentiate
(differential- < differentiate); cf. App.1.9.

1.17 t ~ č.
aspect, contract, fact, instinct, rite s-ual [trahere,
tractus 'pull, draw'; f acid~ ĥactus ; Znstinguere, -
stinctus 'instigate, incite' < stïgare 'stick, goad,
urge']
site f\j situate
habit, event -ual, -uate [ëvenZre9 ëventus 'come out, hap­
pen']
act<\J-ual,-uate, -uary
App.1.18 356

gest-ate/-iculate, literate, (dis-/inter-)rupt, sculpt(or) ~

-ure [literatas 'one who knows (the) letters1; rumpere,
ruptus 'break'; sculpere, sculptus 'carve1]
cults - u r e , -ural [colère, cultus 'cultivate']
nat-ive, innates - u r e , -ural(ize)
Pasteur ~ -ize
pastor(al) [pastor, -oris 'shepherd, feeder' < pas tus = PRT
of pâscere 'feed'] o~ pasture [pastura < pästus] (cf. re­
lated pabulum in II.1.1)
satis(fy) o~ -uration [satis 'enough']
centi(grade)o~-ury
constitute, status ' constituent, statute [statuere, statü-
tus 'cause to stand, establish', cdnstituere, constituties
'cause to stand, set up']
right srighteous [ME rightwise]
post- 'after', postdate, posterior ~ posthumous [pase-] (not
cognate with humus, humiliate, humble, exhume, inhume
&c; cf. L SUP post(h)umus, COMP posterior)
eat ' etch (cf. PFX.3, under for-, s.f.)
foot < fetch
bastille ~ bastion

Some of these words are from L PRT stems: aspect (as­

pect- < aspicere 'look ad- at'), event (eventum < evenïre),
gestation (gest- < gerere 'carry'), site (sit- < sinere 'set
down, leave'), situate (situât- < situare), and others.

1.18 d ~ z/ğ.
(pro)ceed -ure [(pro)cedere, (pro)cessus 'go (forward)']
(de)cide s-cisión [decedere, decbsus 'cut off, determine' <
caedere, caesus 'cut' < kaid- 'cut' : de-lin-cisive
'cutting off/in', (matri)-cide 'cut down, kill', caesura
'a pause, "cutting", in verse', chisel (OF cisel < caes-
-ell-us < caesus), Vs circum-lex-lin-cise 'cut around/
out/into' and the nomináis in -cisión, incisor (( )in­
cide (nt), from (co)incidere < cadere 'fall', is unrelat­
ed), As con-lpre-cise 'cut up/in front' and the nominais
 357 App.1.19

in -cisión9 F precis, scissors]

(in)credible -ulous [credere 'believe']
(con)found s-fusion [(cdn)fundere, (cön)fusus 'pour (to­
gether) f]
(de)fraud , -ulent [fraus, fraudis 'deceit']
gland -ular [glans, glandis 'acorn' : ZËLUD']
judicial, prejudice sjudge(ment) [judiccœe < judex, judicis
< yous-dik- 'one who shows right' < jus (OL jous), juris
'right, justice']; here again, E has affricate g, but F
continuant 2 in juge(r), jugement
(al)lude s-lusion [alindere, allüsus 'play ad- to/with' <
Indus < OL loidos : col-1 de-1 e-1 il-1 inter-¡pre-lude, the
Ns in -lusion, the As in -lusive, ludicrous]
pendant, (im)pending ' -ulum, -ulous [penderé 'hang (down)']
(de)ride ' -rision [dêrldêre, derbsus 'laugh de- down/at' :
ridiculous, risible]
(e)rode ' -rosion [(e)rodere, (e)rosus 'gnaw (away)' : ro­
dent &c]
(pro)trude s-trusión [(pro)trüdere, (pro)trusus 'thrust
(forward)']
(e-/in-)vade 'v -vasion
(di)vide -vision [cßvidere, dZvZsus]

1.19 sk ~ š.
alfresco 'in the fresh air', frisk(y) (re)fresh
ambuscades(am)bush [OF ernbuscher 'lie em- in the boscus
bush']
curt(ail)s s h o r t (from (s)kr- 'cut' : G kurz)
disc, disk, discoid ' dish ['what is thrown' < ôlQKOQ < Ô1K-
- -oQ < ôiKeiv 'throw']
-esque [a Gmc loan] o~ A -ish (v. -ish in AHD)
kudos ' show (v. SÚDO 'wonder' on p. 67 of 1.2.3)
piscatory 4/ fish
scallion ~ shallot
(land) scapes s h a p e
scattersshatter
scavage, scavengers s h o w , sheen
schism(atic), schizo-, skis t o shed, watershed (G Wasser-
App.1.20 358

scheide), sheath, shingle (from s~- 'cut (off), sepa­

rate1; v. abscise in PFX.l)
scintilla(te) ' shine (cf. take a shine to), shimmer
scoop sshove (1)
scoot, scuttle, skittle * shoot, shuttle
screech ' shriek
scribe, scrivener ~ shrive, shrift
scrub 'stunted trees, shrubs' sshrub(bery)
scuffle ~ shuffle
skiff <\J ship
shirt ' shirt

1.20s ~ š.
convuls(ive), discuss, (con-/pro-)fess, (com-/...)press s-ion
(fall)-ac-y, (ten/viv)-ac-ity, (fer)-oc-ity, pre-coc-ity,
auspice, malice s-ious (fallacy < fallada < f allere
falsus 'deceive', ooo : false, fals-ity/-ify~ fail (OF
faillir < *falliré < f allere) ~ (de) fault (OF faute <
fem. PRT *fallita; in fault we see reappearance of an
original Z, as also in vault < ME vowte < OF (F wute)
< VL volvita < L wZwtws = PRT of volvere 'turn, roll',
falcon < ME faucoun < OF faueon < L falcdnem &c) ; < -
'omen' < auspicium < avis 'bird' + spek- 'look at')
pretense -ion, -ious (from praetendere 'stretch out, hold
forth as a pretext' < {tn- 'stretch'} : tend 'stretch in
a certain direction, be inclined', attend 'stretch ad-
to(ward)', contend 'stretch out, strive with', distend
'stretch dis- apart = expand, swell', extend 'stretch
out', intend 'stretch (one's mind) toward, have in mind',
portend 'stretch forward, be an omen of', superintend
'stretch over, have charge of'; these Vs directly under­
lie a number of derivatives, in a seemingly random pat­
tern, as shown in the table on the following page. The
display in that table invites further investigation and
calls for more comment than given here, restricted to
the non-prefixed forms:--
 359 App.1.20

prefix'. 0- at- con- dis- ex- in- por- pre- superin-

-ant: X
-ent: X

-anee: X
-ence: -y X

-er: X X X X X X

-se: X X

-sible: X X X

-sion: X X X X X

-sity: X

-sive: X X X

-sor: X X

-t: X X X X

-tion: X X X X

-tional: X

-tious: X X

-tive: X

-tous: X

Tender represents both N 'one who tends1 and V 'offer

(< stretch, hold out)1, but not A 'soft, delicate' with in­
trusive d (from L ace. tenerum < tener); anat. tendon has
a romantic story based on Achilles' heel; A tense 'stretch­
ed' [tendere, tensus 'stretch'], but N tense (gram.) is from
tempus 'time'; tensible 'capable of being stretched'; ten-
site 'involving force that produces stretching'; tension
'act of stretching' or 'condition of being stretched'; anat
tensor 'muscle that stretches a part'; tent 'portable shel­
ter', lit. 'smth. stretched' (L tenta = fem. PRT of tendere);
tenter 'frame for stretching cloth' (mostly in on tenter-
App.1.20 360

hooks with metaphorical extension of n. 35); there is

tense, in-/pre-tense, but only intensify Tmake intense1.
Additionally, the following are from {tri- ' stretch1}:
tenuous 'thin'; thin (OE pynne, G dünn, orig. 'stretch­
ed out1); at-lex-tenuate; tenuity; Gk zool. tany-
T
stretched out, long1; from OF teniv 'hold' are tenable,
tenacious, tenacity, tenant, tenement Ta holding1, tenet
'smth. held (to be true)1, tenure, mus. (sos)tenuto, and
numerous prefixed Vs in -tain with their derivatives,
like abs-lcon-lde-lve-tention, con-I(im)per-tinent, con­
tent, continu- I-anceI-ationI-eI-ityI-ousI-urn, enter­
tainment (F entre- < inter-), coun-lmain-tenance, obtain­
able, pertinac-iousI-ity, retentive (interesting S con­
trast with attentive above, achieved through DM), reti­
nue, rein (from OF rene < resne < retina < retiñere 'hold
back, retain'), sustenance (from sub- 'up') &c; with
suffixal -p- (= temp-) are words in -er, -erament(al),
-erance, -erate, -erature, -est(uous), - , -late, -o
-oral (from tempus, temporis), -orary, -orize, -t(ation),
attempt, contemporary, extemporaneous; perhaps antenna
(ooo); hypotenuse 'side subtending ("stretching under")
the right angle' (cf. hypo- 'under' in hypodermic &c);
ostensible (obstendere 'stretch out obs- tofwardj'), os­
tentation, ostentatious ; standard(ize) from OF estandard
(F étendard) < extendere; tennis; tenor; redup. Gk
tetanus 'disease characterized by rigidity (through be­
ing stretched out) of voluntary muscles'; détente 're­
laxing (= de-) of tension'; in <9-grade are tone (L to­
nus 'a stretching, sound, pitch of the voice, musical
note' < TOVOQ), intone, (a-1 cata-)tonic, de-1in-tonat-
(ion), monoton(ous), bary-foxy-tone, peritoneum 'what is
stretched peri- around, enclosing'; and quite a few oth­
er words, of which the following is a short sample in
alphabetical order: astonish [ME astonien < OF estoner
(F étonner) < ex-tonäre], astound [ME astouned = PRT of
astonien], stun [OF estoner], tape(s try), thunder ('ous),
tienda 'shop' (Sp, 'tent'), tonite, t o n i t r u o u s , tune
(ME < F ton 'tone')
capricescapricious (cf. capriccio)
fissile 'capable of being split'~ fission, fissure [fin-
 361 App.1.21

dere, fissus]
gas -eous
face, province (ooo), race s-ial
Greece ~ -ian
palace ~ -at-ial
Horace ~ -at-ian
Saccharin, sucrose ssugar
sense, (in)sensate * -ual(ity), -uous (s~nse < OF sens <
sensus = PRT of sentiré 'perceive by the senses, feel,
think' (ooo) : sentient, sentiment(at), sentence (L
sententia 'way of thinking, opinion' < sentiens -
pres. PRT of sentiré), sentential, sententious (sen-
tentiosus 'full of meaning, pithy'), sentineI 'guard'
(from sentiré 'perceive, hear'), sensi-, sens-ible/
-ibilityl-itive/-itize/-ory/-ual(ize)/-uous scent (ME
senten), as-/con-/dis-Ire-sent
(contro)versy s-versial (from vr-t- 'turn', cf. controvert)
Except gas ('eous), these words are all basically of L
origin. Thus, tenac-ity/-ious (tenlx, tenäcis), fallac-y/
-ious (fall-â"x/-àcis), f er -ity/-ious (fer-5x/-5cis),
precoc-ity/-ious (praecox, -cocis), auspice/auspicious
(auspex, auspicis), mal-iceI-icious (malitia), face/facial
(facies), palace/palatial (palâtium), Greece/Grecian (Grae-
cia), Horace/Horatian (Horâtius). Remaining words are de­
rived from PRT stems: convuls- (convuls- < conveliere),
discuss- (discuss- < discutere), confess- (confess- < con-
fitêri), compress- (compress- < comprimere), pretens-
(praetënsus < praetendere), sens- (sens- < sentiré).

1.21 s/z ~ z.
braze ~ brazier
confuse >\~ -fusion
glaze sglazier(y)
(ad-/co-)hesive'v-hesion(§1.1)
hoseshosier(y)
pleasespleasure
seize ' seizure
App.2 362

thesaurus 'treasury [of words]' ~ treasure (the r remains

unexplained)
us-u-al [usualis < usus = PRT of uti 'use']

2. Vowels.

We mentioned several times in the text apparent dif-

ficulties with the proposed analysis, which suggests no
underlying vowels--in particular, forms containing a (cf.,
e.g., n. 257). In 1979a was suggested use of a reflex of
Saussure's consonantal coefficient to account for - '~ 0
in astr- ~ s t a r , stellar and, by extension, to account for
appearance of a elsewhere in E (stand < stxa-, act, agent,
antagonist < Xag-, fame, fable, aphasia < phXa-, pabulum,
pantry, companion [compäniö(nis)], food (from fd-d- < pa-t-)
< pXa-, and so on). Analysis of the "star"-family from a
stem Tas-t-l- was based in part on Benveniste's suggestion
the PIE root is biconsonantal. But there is an obvious ob-
jection one can raise to that analysis by asking what mor-
phemes the putative suffixes -t- and -l- represent.
These questions are not restricted to the "star"-family.
Under Benveniste's proposal, for example, the verbs
(for)swear (with for- a Gmc prefix cognate with L per-,
prae-, pro-) must arise from a root sw- 'speak' with suf-
fixal r. There is o-grade of the root, vowel-insertion in
0-grade into the suffix: sw-r- ~ sw-er- ~ sw-or- (note
swore ; cf. 0E inf. swerian and G schwören, indicating um-
laut). 2 6 8 The only other E word from this root is answer
(with an- < and-, a Gmc prefix cognate with avxi-, L ante-),
roughly 'swear against', whence 'reply'. Here again, we
may fairly ask: what suffix does r represent?
In fact, this question arises frequently. Bite, bit,
bitter, bait 'cause to bite' are apparently from py-d-;
but what suffix does d represent? Weapon(ry) seems to be
from wb-n-; but what suffix does n represent? From {wr-
 363 App.2

'do, work'} are derived several words with -g-: erg, work,
energy, organ, argon &c; but what suffix does g represent?
What suffix does th in word and verb (n. 166) represent?
A similar question was raised in §1.9 concerning -s- in
t h r u s t , r u s t , in §1.16 when aileron, aisle [ayl] were de­
rived from ag-s-l-, and earlier in III.3.3 when final, fin­
ish &c were derived from fig-s-n-. In n. 123 we derived
words like hill < kl-n-, full < pl-n-, fell < pel-n-; but
what suffix(es) do(es) -n- represent?
Further examples would be easy to cite: we are a step
beyond seeing dep. -rel in wastrel and then attributing it
to words like scoundrel. Without either some new notion
for "suffix" or some still deeper insight into morphophono-
logy of E words, questions like those in the last three
paragraphs remain unanswered, suggesting we must search
more intensively for the meaning (or perhaps "function")
of these putative suffixes, or else be willing--at least in
some (many?) cases--to abandon the bold hypothesis of bi-
consonantal roots, together with Benveniste's perspicuous
concept of vowel-distribution in roots and suffixes.
Although comparison and segmentation have played a
great role in our determinations of morpheme-boundaries, I
do not want, incidentally, to be thought guilty of mechan­
ical (that is to say, "blind") application of these pro­
cedures. One might, for example, feel obligated to a tri-
morphemic analysis of Gmc under (from - v , cf. L infra)
by arguing along the following lines : (1) comparison with
L inter- (from n-tr-, presumably COMP of n- f in f , cf. nn.
108,253) shows n morphemic in un-der, (2) comparison with
colloq. pl. undies 'underclothes' reveals r morphemic in
un-d-er (L infra shows d of under cannot be intrusive).
But this analysis overlooks the possibility that undies
could be a variant of under(clothes), shortened without
regard to morpheme boundaries--that variant suffixed with
dim. -y (thus the non-occurring sg. would be *undy).
The nature of the structure of the root and of mor­
pheme-structure rules is of import to determining the char­
acter of E morphophonology. There is no restriction to E:
understanding the structure of the root in R, e.g., might
give much-needed supplementary evidence for derivation of
App.2.1 364

SEL from the same root underlying XOD- (1.2.3). Questions

about constraints on possible shapes of morphemes seem to
have been abandoned recently, apparently due to lack of
systematized data from which to draw coherent conclusions.
What follows gives an introductory indication of a
few V-alternations in E; some were discussed in the text,
but some are new and need analysis (cf. also (84) in 1.4).
The lists, easy to supplement with help from a computer,
are of course not exhaustive. They indicate not what has
been accomplished here, but hint at what remains still to
be done. In the text we gave suggestions for treating some
E vowel alternations, but to derive correct PRs of vowels
in all E words is a far from trivial task. It is perhaps
appropriate to notice here that SPE, with its failure to
consider any aspect whatever of DM, says nothing about
vowels.

2.1 ~ :
E ~ 1 ~ 0 ~ U ~ æ~ e ~ i: faith [ME feith < OF fei(d) (F
foi) < fides 'belief, trust'], bade (past of bid) ~ fe­
alty 'loyalty' (a doublet of fidelity, both from fide-
titas), bead(le) [OE (ge)bed 'prayer (bead)'; cf. G
Bitte(n), beten] ~ bona fide, confide [fidere 'trust'],
defy, (a)bide [OE bidan 'remain, (a)wait'] ~ bode 'be
an omen of', abode~ Buddha ~ bad ~ federal, confeder­
ate ~ (for)bid, forbidding 'unfriendly', fidelity, fi­
duciary, diffident, perfidy 'breach of faith', perfid­
ious, pistology (all from pheith- 'trust, compel, per­
suade'; cf. OCS o-grade Veda 'need'--for the Slavic
monophthongization of oi, cf. v [payot] 'sings' ~
PEL 'was singing')
~1'~'~~ae~'~u:wave(r)269~weevil, weave(r) ~
hypha {bot.) ~ gopher 'NA burrowing rodent' ~ wobble ~
wasp ~ beeswax 'wax secreted ("woven") by bees' ~ web-
(bing), weft, vespiary~ woof 270
~1~~e~~0:repair, prepare [parare 'prepare,
get ready'] ~ imperi-al/-ous ~ empire ~ spar 'box', ram-
part [OF re-em-parer 'fortify'] ~ parry, para(-sol/-pet)
~ imperative ~ empress
 365 App.2.1

E'Vl'bU'be'bu: pain > penal, subpoena o,_(re)pine ' pu~-

nitive [F punitif < pünitus = PRT of < poena 'pe­
nalty, punishment1] * penalty ' punish(ment) (the stem
is kVy-n- 'honor, punish'; cf. iroivri 'penalty', Tiveiv
'punish', OCS cena 'honor, price', Lth kaina 'value,
price')
E'Xil'baB'be'bi: (lique)facient ' feasible 'capable of
being done' [OF feasible], malfeasance 'wrongdoing' i~ suffice (pre
ile, factory, manufacture ~ (per)fection, affect (pre­
fix ad-) O/ efficient (ex-), office (from op-i-fae-
'work-doing'; cf. opus, opera, opulent), official, of­
ficious (these examples all L, from {ifrx- 'do, make,
put, place'})
' ' ' ' : ware(house), a-/be-ware, wary271 [OE
wcer 'aware, cautious'] ~ weir [wEr] 'dam, fence' [OE
wer, G Wehr 'defense', OTVORIT' 'open', VRATA 'gates']
AJ garnish [OF guarnir 'fortify; adorn'], guard(ian),
regard ' garret, garrison ~ warn (from 0-grade war-),
ward(en), reward cover(t), curfew, 2 overt(ure), ap­
erture, and perhaps Edward (with Ed- also in Edgar,
Edith, Edmund, Edwin)
E ~ I ~ 0 o~ i : raise ' rear o~ (a) rise < (a) rose ~ risen
[OE roerán 'raise' = caus. of risan 'rise']
El H a ~ ae: pair, compare ' peer(less) ~ umpire ' -
(1 ) ' (dis)parity
E / I ' e o~ i: bait 'cause to bite' ' beetle 'little bit­
er' ' bite ~ abet [OF abeter 'bait, cause to bite',
with prefix ad-], vent 'slit in a skirt/coat' [OF fente
'slit' ' fendre ~ findere, fissus 'split'] ~ bit 'piece
bitten off; mouthpiece; tool for drilling', bit(ten),
bitter 'with a "biting" taste', fis-sile/-sion/-sure/
-tula (from phy-d- 'split'; probably boat [OE bat],
from o-grade phoy-d-, belongs here as well)
E o~ O o~ U ' : graze * green * grow ~ grew ' grass (from
{kh-rX- 'grow, (become) green'}; OE grdwan, grene [from
gro-n-y-; G grün], grœs [from grX-s-], grasian 'feed on
grass, graze' [from grœs])
E ' ' e ~ u: break ~ breach ' broke * breakfast ~ brook
[OE breoan, G brechen, L f ranger e, f régi, fräotus]
App.2.1 366

E O/ a o~ i ~ u: gain273 *\, wean 'accustom, train' o~ wont(ed)

'accustomed1 27h wish,275 win *\, won276
E se o~ e o~ i: placate, complacent ~ please ~ placid <
pleasure ~ supplicatory [cf. placare 'appease', ptaoëre
'please', placidus 'peaceful']
E Oj ' ~ : bear 'carry' ' bier ' (wheel)barrow ' bore,
metaphor, semaphore (cf. semantics) ~ berth, birth,
burden, afferent, transfer [OE heran, ferre, , BRE-
MJA, BRAT', BERÚT, SOBOR]
0 ' AW ~ ' i: name - nomen(clature) * noun ~ nominal '
synonym, patronymic277 [OE , nömen, ôvoya]
U ~ a~ e ~ : dray 'cart for heavy loads' ~ (with)drew ~ drag(net)
AW ~ OY ~ ' e: peso 'monetary unit', painter 'rope on bow
of a boat' <\J pound 'weight; British monetary unit' ~
poise 'balance' [from OF poiser 'weigh'] ' ponder, im­
ponderable, preponderance ~ pendant, pendent, pendulous,
pendulum, pension, pensive, append(ix), compendium, de­
pendence), expense, independent, recompense, spend [L
expenderé 'weigh out'] (all fvom pend- 'hang', whence
'weigh', ooo)
OY o~ , ~ : vacant, vacate, vain ~ (a)void, devoid '
wan(tfon>)) r\t vacu-ous/-um, evacuate, van-ish/-ity ~ vaunt lit. '
vain']
E ' I ' OY: convey [conviäre 'go together with'] ~ via, de­
viate, devious, impervious, obviate, obvious lit. 'in
the way', previous o~ viaduct ' convoy [from OF convoier
< VL conviäre 'go together with', a doublet of convey],
envoy [OF envoy 'a sending' < VL inviäre 'put on the
way'], voyage
E * I ' e: (ap)praise ' ap-/de-preciate * price, prize *
precious [L pretivm 'worth, value, price', pretiosus
'valuable']
E ~ 0 ~ e: hale 'healthy' < heal ' whole [OE häl], holy '
[OE hälig] ' health( ) (probably hallow(een) as well,
all from ky-1- 'complete, uninjured'; cf. R 0-grade
CEL < koi-l-os)
1 'v e < i: lay(er), allay [OE âZec~an] ' lie ledge(r) ~
litter (all from {lgh- 'lie'}; cf. R e-grade LEÍA)
 367 App.2.1

O o~ U ~ : hay 'mown grass1 ~ hoe ~ hew (ri) ' haggle

' U ~ i: fey 'fated to die soon' ~ 0-grade foe [OE fah
'hostile1] ' feud ~ 0-gxaàe fickle 'inconstant1 [OE fi­
ool 'deceitful, false'] (all from pig-/pik- 'hostile,
evil-minded')
' a ~ u: nasal ~ nose r~ nostril, nozzle ~ nuzzle (anat.
nares shows the UPR in s)
0 ~ ~ o: fail (ure) ° faux pas O/ f all- /-ible o~ fals-
e(tto)/-ify, (de)fault, faucet [F fausset < fausse(r)]
0 e o: tale , told ' tell ~ talk (-fe as in hark <
hear, stalk < steal &c)
U ~ e ' : slay [G ] , slew ' sledge (hammer) [OE
sleog] ' slaughter, onslaught (*slaught)
OY < f\j : Gaelic , Goidelic ' Gallicism ~ Gaul
: navy, naval [navis 'ship'] ~ noise [OF < L nausea
'seasickness' < vauia < vaös 'ship'] ~ navig-able/-ate/
-ation/-ator ' nautical [F nautique < L nautious < vau-
TIKOQ], nausea
a *\J e ' : say , saga o~ says, said saw [OE seogan 'say']
as a~ e <\J u: matron ~ matri-lineal/-mony ~ metropolitan 'pert,
to the mother city' ~ mother [G Mutter]
E ~ OY: veil o~ velum, velar, reveal 'take back the veil, un­
veil' 4/ voile
E ' e: ate ' eat (en) ~ edible, comestible, delicatessen
(perhaps tooth belongs here; cf. the PRT form of dens,
dentis, ôôwv, ÔÔOVTOQ)
E ~ : blare o~ bleat ~ blurt
E ' u: snail [OE snœgl, G~Sohneake], snake [OE snaoa, G
Schnake] ' sneak [OE snioan 'creep, crawl'] ' snuck (non-
std., according to AHD)
1 i OY: (up)braid °o bridle [OE bridel, brigdels] embroider
0 r\j e: sale ~ sold * sell
' : flail ' flog ~ flagellate
: patriarch, patron(age), compatriot, expatriate ' fa­
ther ~ patrimony
< e: (retro)grade *\, gradual ~ -gress(ive)
: shade ~ shadow ' N shed
' i: labial * labret ~ lip [OE lippa, L labium]
' : saline, haliography ' salify, salad ~ salt, sausage,
sauce
App.2.2 368

æ~ u: shake (down) ~ shackle (s) ~ shook [Gmc skak-]

E: archaic ~ archeology
--: Norway ~ Norwegian
--: obey~ obedient [OF ob-
éir < ob- + audZre
'hear1]
--: (simul-/spon-)taneity '
-taneous
--: trochaic * trochee
-: VAdic VEdic
--: vein r\j venous [L vena]
0: papal ~ pope
--: (ab)rade, erase / erode,
rodent
-- : (be)wail ~ woe
U: Hebraic ~ Hebrew
--: naked [OE naood] 'v* nude
(from nogw-e/0œl-\ cf.
NAG, Lth raiceas from
riögw~)
a: air 'melody' ~ aria [Ar-
~ ar-] (realization of
A- which has not under­
gone GVS is [a]--homo-
phonous with short a
which has not shifted
to [se]; cf. L aer <
,ñépoQ'air', ooo)
--: Panamanian~ Panama
e: Danish~ Denmark
--: heir , inherit, heredity
[hêrës, heredis]
--: abs-/con-/re-tain ~ ab­
stention, content(s),
retention, tenable [te­
ner e, tentus 'hold1]
i: domain <\, dominion [F do­
maine < dominium]
-- : gave < give(n), gift
o: freight (er) o~ fraught
u: take(n) ' took [ooo]
--: came ' (wel) come (OE cu-
man, cognate with ve­
nire, from {g~m- 'come,
go'}; related are words
like advent(itious),
circum-1 eon-1 inter­
vene/-vent (ion), con­
venient, event (ual),
(ad)venture, venue &c)

2.2 E ~ :
U'\,a'bae'be'bi'bu'b0: keen 'sharp, intellectually a-
cute' [OE cene 'wise, bold' < Gmc kdn-y-az] ~ (un)couth
'(un)known' 4/ con 'study, peruse, examine carefully'
[from OE ounnian 'try to know'] ~ can (from OE eunnan
'know how'; in NE, an example of S extension, from 'be
able mentally' ~ 'be able'), (un)canny ~ ken 'know; un-
 369 App.2.2

derstanding, sight1 ' kith (and kin) ' could [OE ;

the "Z" is etym. incorrect] 4/ cunning (v. def. in AHD)
( )know(ledge), (a)gnostic, (ig)noble [cf. OL griö-
bitis 'famous, renowned1, lit. 'knowable'] (all from
{gn- 'know'}; cf. ZNAT', Lth zinôti)
Hae~e~i~u'ví: seat, cathedral (cata- 'down' +
hed-, cf. ; v. ephemeral) o~ (p)reside sat, sad­
dle ' set, sediment(ary), sedative, sedentary, obsess
[obsidere, obsessus 'sit at, besiege']~ sit, assiduous
(ad-), insidious, residual soot o~ nest(le) [sedêre,
Sopa 'seat', OCS sedeti9 Lth sedmi; cf. sub-side/-sidi-
ary in n. 136.
OrbAWroa~uo.w: helio- ~ solar ~ south ~ parasol (for
para- 'protecting', v. third entry in §2.1) or sun,
southern, sultry ~ swelter
' ' ' ' : feed ~ food ~ fodder ~ pantry, compan­
ion, repast, pabulum fed °o foster, forage, foray [OE
f oda 'food', Gth fodjan 'feed', panis 'bread']
Ii~ O'v i ~ e: scene(ry), sheer 'bright, shining' ' shine(r) ~
shone a~ shimmer, scintilla (te) ~ mis en scène (from
smth. like ski- 'gleam')
I ~ U ' e ~ i: sweep [ME swepen] , swipe ' swoop [OE suâpan] ~
swept <v swift [OE, PRT of swifan 'sweep'], swivel
[from OE swifan]
0 a/ U ~ i ~ u: deed ' don't 'v do ~ did(n't) ~ does (n't),
done [OE dem, G tun, faceré, 0 \ , OCS deti, Lth
deti < *dhX-]
U <\j ~ i ~ u: skeet, sheet (naut.) ~ shoot, scoot ~ shot '
skitter, skittles ~ scuttle, shuttle (from sku)d- 'throw,
shoot, chase'; cf. Lth skudrùs 'quick')
U r\j e o~ i ' u: receive, receipt ' recuperative o~ reception,
receptive, receptacle recipient ~ recover(y) (from
hap- 'take' of nn. 106, 118 : copio; cf. E heave, have,
heavy, behaviorist, (gos)hawk, the last with gos- <
goose)
1 <\J 0 ~ U: seam(stress) a. hymen (from b\xf\V 'membrane') a»
sew(n) ' suture [sutura < suere, sutus 'sew'], sutra
[Skt sutra 'thread, string (of rules/aphorisms)'] (from
s(y)w- 'sew, bind')
0 'XJ e ~ : steal ~ stole(n) ~ stealth(ily) ~ s t a l k
App.2.2 370

U ~ a~ : geese~ goose~ gosling 'young goose', goshawk

lit. 'goose-hawk' ~ gander 'male goose', gannet 'kind
of goose', anser 'goose', merganser 'duck that "merges"'
OY ~ e ~ : legal ~ loyal [legälis] ~ legislate~ law(yer)
[OE Za~w 'code of rules']
a ~ e ~ i: medium [from neut. of L médius], mediocre, (in­
termediate ~ moderate ~ mezzanine ~ mid(dle) (from
med-y- by assimilation)
a ~ ~ we: people 'v, populate~ public~ pueblo [populus,
ooo]
I~ i: expiate, impious~ pious, piety~ pity, piteous [L
pius, perhaps related to pürws pelean']
---: requiem quiet, while [OE hwil] <\, tranquility [quiës,
quiëtis 'rest, quiet'] (probably coy [OF coi < quietus]
also belongs here, with S development from 'quiet' to
'(affectedly) shy')
I : see ' sight * saw (OE sëon < sehw-an, sihp 'eye­
sight, thing seen', G sehen, (Ge)sicht; all from {skw-
'see'}, with nominal -£- intact as in II.5.2)
0 fb : Bohemia 'home of the Boii' [cf. G Heim]~ home [OE
ham] ' hamlet
---: creak * croak ' crack
' e: seed [OE seed, G 5aat], semen, season [from OF sei-
son < VL satid(nem) 'sowing time' < satid 'act of sow­
ing' < sero (from redup. sis-o), severe, sëvi, satus
'sow'; another good example of S extension] <\~ sow [OE
sawan] "u secular [saeculäris 'pert, to a generation/
age'], semin-al/-ar(y), (dis-/in-)semination (from sê-
'sow'; cf. Lth seju 'sow')
--- deal 'divide, distribute', ordeal [OE ordäl, ordël
lit. 'what is dealt out'; cf. related G Urteil 'judge­
ment'] ~ dole (out)~ dealt (it seems, at least histor­
ically, that V < N; cf. OE dœlan 'share, divide' <
dœl 'share, part', Gth dailjan id. < dails id., G t e i -
len id. < Teil id., OCS dSHti id. < delu id.)
~ : freeze(-dry) ~ froze(n)~ frost
U ~ a: neologism o~new o~novel(ty)
U '~ e: accretion, increase~ accrue~ crescent [crescere
'grow'; accrue is from F, the fem. past PRT of accroître
'increase' < accrescere id.]
 371 App.2.3

I: aphrodisiac ~ Aphrodite Ese: really [rElE] ~ real­

---: espionage ~ (e)spy
---: mania(c) ~ maniacal
---: N prophecy ~ V prophesy
---: psychiatric ~ -iatry
---: Rhenish ~ Rhine
---: teeny~ tiny
---: vary, various, variable
~ variety
0: heap [0 heap 'troop'] ~
, 278
hope
---: speak [0E specan <
sprec-], speech [0E
spœo < sprœe] ~ spoke­
sman)
U: beam [0E beam 'beam,
tree; column of light',
ooo] "u boom 'pole, spar'
---: pharmacy~ -ceutical
---: therapy -peutic (from
- - if related to
(in)firm(ity))
0Y: feeble [ME feble < OF
feble < flebitis 'lamen­
table1 < fiere 'weep'] ~
foible (a doublet of
feeble)
EA: creature o~creation
ity [reälis < res
' thing']
a: heat [0E hœtu, G Hitze]
, hot (shot) (OE hat, G
Heiss; from kay-: cf.
Lth kaisti 'grow hot',
kaitra 'heat'; perhaps
hoarse [OE has] is re­
lated)
ae: appear, peer 'look intent­
ly' o~-parent [ad-par-
ere 'appear, be visible']
---: clear ~ clar-et/-ify/-ity
---: peace, appease ~ pacify
---: retreat ~ retract[trahere]
---: spleen ~ splanchnic
i: antique ~ antiquity
---:capriccio,caprice'ca­
pricious
---: Castile~ Castilian
---: prestige ~ -igious
: teach~ taught
u: beech~ book (v. p. xüi)
---: feet~ foot
0: Asiatic ~ Asia
---: European~ Europe
---: phraseology~ phrase
---: lineage, (recti)linear ~
line
---: genealogy ~ gene

2.3 I ~ :
AW~a'v~'veii (r) : to wind [OE windan 'turn, twist,
wind'] ~ wound ~ wand(er) [G wandeln] < Vandal 'wander­
er' (probably also Andalusia 'country occupied by Van­
dals') , wend [OE wendan = caus. of windan] ~ windlass
(perhaps also gauntlet: dim. of MF gant < OF gant, want,
a Gmc loan)
App.2.3 372

0 ~ U~ AW ~ u: kine~ bovine~ bucolic, boustrophedon

'turning like an ox [in plowing]'~ cow ~ buffalo, but­
ter (from {#%- 'ox, bull, cow'})
' U ~ OY o~ u: zygo- 'joined, yoked' ~ yoke < con-/sub-
jugate (con)join(t), zeugma [Çeuyya 'yoke, bond'] ~
-junct(ion)
U ' AW * i ' u: defile, pyo- 'pus' (as in pyorrhea) °o pu­
trid, purulent, suppurate ' foul filth( ) ' pus(tule)
(all from {pw- 'rot(ten)'})
AW ~ . 4/ u: bind [OE bindan] ' bound ' bond ~ band (age)
"o bundle
0~ U e: fly, flight [OE fleogan, flyht] flown < flew
~ fledgeling
U ~AW ' u: chyle, chyme [xÛ-À-OQ, x~rU-OQ 'liquids' <
'anything that can be poured' < {k W- 'pour'}], geyser ~
tility * found 'cast' [fundere, füsus 'pour, melt'],
foundry <\j funnel 'instrument for pouring into' [from
infundibulum 'funnel' < infundere 'pour in(to)'], ingot,
gut(s), refund [refundere 'pour back'], gust (of wind)
--: mice ~ murine 'pert, to mice' mouse [OE mus, G Maus,
mus, mûris 'mouse'] ~ muscular [muscuius, a dim. of mus]
~: drive ' drove [OE dräf] / driven, (snow)drift (all
from -; cf. Gth dreiban, G treiben, OE dri fan
'drive')
--: shrive, scribe ~ Shrove ~ script, scrivener, (short)
shrift
--: strife, strive [from OF estrif, estriver, Gmc loans] ~
strove ~ striven
--: write [OE writan 'tear, scratch, cut (letters into bark/
wood), write'] f\j wrote [OE wrat] / writ(ten)
U ' AW: pride ' prude, improve ~ proud, prowess
OY ~ i: (multi)ply [OF plier < plicäre] ~ exploit(ation)
(from ME = OF esploit, espleit < explioitum = neut. of
explicitas < explicätus = past PRT of explicare 'unfold,
spread out') ' explicit [F explicite < explicitas 'un­
folded, explained1], explicate [explicätus] (notice once
again the seemingly random distributional constraints on
morpheme sequences: implicate, implicit, but *imploit
[neither N nor V]; imply but *exply &c--with this ex-
 373 App.2.3

ample the distribution is more subtle because it is

governed (at least in part) by the feature(s) specify­
ing in which component of the grammar (F, L, Gmc &c)
the morpheme(s) are functioning)
~ i: night(ly) o~nocturn(al), equinox ~nyctalopia
'night-blindness'
i ~ e: imbibe bibulous 'fond of drink(ing)f [L bibulus]
~ beverage (these examples from bibere fdrink'--bever­
age, with its V, through OF. Also, it seems likely
potare 'drink1 is related to redup. bibere. In E, we
have to deal not only with the p~ alternation (not
an example of Grimm's law), but also with the vowels
in words like potable 'fit to drink', potion (from po-
tio(nis) 'a drink'), symposium 'a drinking sym- togeth­
er', and poison [-oy-], a doublet of potion, through
OF poison, puison. The UPR seems to be py- [cf. PIT',
P'JUT 'drink', PÍVO 'beer'])
i~ u: dike ~ ditch (a doublet of dike, both from OE dio,
and both with the (rough) sense of 'smth. dug out'),
dig ~ dug (notice the broad S extension in various
forms of dig: 'begin to work' (dig in), slang 'under­
stand, enjoy' (She really digs going to work on the
subway.), 'jab' (a dig in the ribs), 'jibe' &c; the
root (or stem)--apparently spelled thyg--may also un­
derlie the ftf-group [L figere, fixus 'fasten, fix']
and possibly the finite-group (presumably from fig-s-
-n-) as well, in which case thyg- must have a wider
meaning than 'dig'; at our present level of understand­
ing E, it seems to me premature to speculate on various
possibilities which suggest themselves; we cannot make
rational proposals on such questions without access to
data of more comprehensive foundation than is presently
available; many abstract proposals which have a tendency
at first to appear fruitful lose these deceptively bene­
ficial qualities under closer examination with a fuller
range of data; to illustrate with an example already
mentioned, if the only words in E with [oy] were words
like ahoy, boycott, doily, goy, hoity-toity, Joyce,
loiter, Moira, poi, quoits, Roy, soybean, troy, yoicks
&c, it would hardly matter what UPR one proposed for
App.2.4 374

[oy]. But as we have seen, [oy] sometimes appears in

certain members of word-families: anoint, conjoint,
convoy, coy, destroy, embroidery, exploit, foible,
foil, goiter, join, lawyer, loyal, noise, oil, oint­
ment, poise, poison, rejoinder, royal, stoichiometry,
toils, voice, (a)void, zeugma &c. At issue here, then,
are not merely a few isolated words, but entire fami­
lies of words. The same is true for the meaning we
assign to the root underlying dike, dig &c.
0: eye [0E eage, G Auge] ~ window, ogle (from ol- 'see'
of n. 243)
--: (a)bide ~ abode (more examples in first entry of §2.1)
AW: find ~ found279
--: lice ~ louse [0E lus], lousy
e: climb [0E clZmban] ~ clamber
o: buy ~ bought [0E bycgan, bohte, geboht]
--: fight ~ fought [0E feohtan, feaht]

2.4 0~ :
U ~ AW ~ a ~ æ ~ e~b i~ u~ wu: alone 'all one', a-
tone 'be at one/in accord with', only [0E 'like
one, unique']~ unanimous [unus < OL oinos], uni-(di­
rectional), unicorn, uniform, unify, union, unique,
unison, unit, unite, unity, universe~ ounce [OF unce
< L uncia 'a twelfth (part of smth.)'; cf. inch, un-
cia(l), below] ~ nonce (only in for the nonce < ME for
then anes 'for the one [purpose/occasion]'), anon
'soon' [OE on an 'in one (instant)'] o~an [ ] ~any
[OE nig < an 'one' + -ig, cf. G einig] ~ inch [OE yn-
ce < L uncia; inch and ounce (above) are P doublets;
S, inch is a twelfth of a foot, ounce a twelfth of a
pound] ~ none [OE nan < ne 'not' + an; cf. G nein; v.
. 198], uncia(l) [from L uncia (above); "uncial
script11 contains letters an inch long] ~ one [OE a n ] ,
oner, once [ME ones, anes = gen. of on, an 'one', cf.
nonce above] 280
U ~ AW ~ o: coda ~ queue, curlicue~ coward ~ caudal [co­
da, cauda 'tail']
 375 App.2.4

U ~ ~ u: homumculus 'small man' ~ humus, human 'earthly

being', humane, humility~ homicide, homage~ humble
[L humus 'earth' < hom-os, humilis 'low(ly)', horrid
'man': the root is kKi- • ground, earth', cf. ZEMLJA,
Lth zemè--related also to X~UV, X~OVOÇ 'earth']
AW~ OY ' a: vocal, evoke ' vowel, avow~ voice~ vocative
(from {wie0- ' voice, speak'}; Gk words like epic are al­
so from this root)
AW ' a ~ u: (com)pose ~ -pound < -posite ~ puzzle(r)
AW ' * wa: sonant (from PRT sonàns < sonare 'sound' <
swen-äre, like somnus 'sleep' < swep-n-os; sonar is an
acronym for sound navigation ranging) ~ sound(proof),
resound (V before nd even though d is excrescent; from
OF son < L sonus 'sound' < swon-os, like sopor 'sleep'
<sit?op-) * (super)sonic, sonnet ' swan 'singing bird'
(from o-grade swon-; OE swan, G Schwan); these words
are unrelated to sing, sang, sung, song (none with w)
or to sound 'healthy' [OE, G gesund 'healthy', Gth
swinps 'strong'], sound 'body of water' [OE sund 'swim­
ming' < swum-d], sound 'measure depth of water' [OF
sonder]
e~ i ~ 0: gold, yolk ~ yellow [OE geolu, G gelb] ~ gild,
gilt ~ glow
E ~ u: to row [OE rowan] ~(tri)reme [remus 'oar' < re-s-
-m-os] ' rudder [OE , 'oar']
U ' OY: chose(n) ~ choose~ choice
U~ i: cold~ cool * chill
U *\J u: by rote~ routine~ in a rut
OY : oleo- 'oil' [L oleum 'oil'], linoleum [coined] '
oil [OF oile < L oleum] ~ olive [L oliva], carbolic
OY ' i: despoliation * despoil, spoil (s) ~ spill [cf. L
spolium 'smth. stripped off--hide from an animal, booty
from an enemy &c']
--: folio, foliage, defoliate ~ foil 'leaf/sheet of metal'
~ chlorophyll [OF foil < L folium 'leaf';<J)i3AÀovid.;
for this family, see Florence in the sixth entry of
§1.10]
e ~ : (be)hold ~ held ~ halt(ingly)
U: blow(n) ~ blew (in the meaning 'bloom', v. Florence in
§1.10)
App.2.5 376

U: macaroni o~macaroon
--: throw(n) ~ threw
AW: (de)vote ~ vow, devout
OY: Trojan ~ Troy
Oe: poem [pOm]~ poetic
Uv: mobile, (e)motion, de-/pro-mote~ move
: ghost ~ ghastly, aghast
--: roam ~ ramble
--: toad [OE tade] tadpole 'toad-head'
--: shoal 'shallow (place)' ~ shallow
e: loan(ed) ~ lend
--: old~ elder
--: swollen ~ swell
i: foal [OE f ola] filly [ON fylja, cf. mase. foli]
wu: alone ~ all one

2.5 U ~ :
OY~ u: construe, obstruent ~ destroy ~structure, con­
struct (ion), obstruct(ion)
--: impug ~ (dis)(ap)point(ed), counterpoint (mus.), poign­
ant 'distressing, touching' pungent 'sharp/acrid (to
taste/smell)', puncture, compunction, inexpugnable, con­
trapuntal (mus.) [cf. pugnas 'fist' < 'fight'
and--with N of n. 64-- pungere*prick, pierce'; poignant
is a doublet of pungent, both from PRT pungêns, the for­
mer through F]
~ : poor o~poverty~ papuer
~ u: boom ~ bomb~ bump, bumble (bee)
~ i: spew, sputum~ spat o~spit(-tle/-toon)
~ u: crucify, cruciferous, crusade~ cross crux
a: bloom ~ blossom (for the family, v. Florence in §1.10)
--: cupric~ copper
--: shoe~ shod
--: typhoon ~ typhonic
: occupy ~ capture, captive (cf. receive of §2.2)
--: root~ radical, eradicate, deracinate257
o: lose ~ loss, lost, lorn
--: chew~ chaw
 377 App.2.7

uv: concupiscent, cupid(ity) ~ covet

v: solution~ solve
--: (r) evolution ~ -volve
0: circuitous~ circuit(ry) [eirau(m)itus, ( ) ]
--: circular(ity),circulator()'circle(t)[ c r £ r < ? w £ ä t o r i -
us, eirculus = dim. of oireus 'ring']
Ur ~ 9rv: neuro- ' nerve

2.6 AW ~ ;
~ e Of i ' u: drown o~ drank ' drench * drink ' drunk (en)
, ' ' 0: devour281 [OF dévorer < devorare] * vora­
cious, (carni)vore [voräx, voräre], gorge [OF < gurges,
gurgitis 'whirlpool, throat'] ~ gargle, gargoyle < re­
gurgitate, gurgle * bronchus, craw
OY , ' u: pouch - boil 'swelling of the skin' ~ pockmark,
pox, pocket ~ buccal, bud, pucker
a 'V/ i: knout 'knotted whip' [from R] ~ knot [OE cnotta] *
knit [OE anyttan]
' u: astound [OF es toner < VL entonare] ~ astonish ~
stun, thunder
o: flower( ) ~ florist, floral, florid
--: hour(ly) < horal, horo(scope)

2.7 OY ~ :
i: foist 'palm smth. off'~ fist
--: stoichiometry [crxoixeiov 'element' < OTOixoQ 'row,
line'] ' stichometry [axiXOQ 'row, line']
o: joy [ME ¿oye < OF joye < gaudium 'gladness'], enjoy, re­
joice [ME rejoieen < OF resjoïss- < re-ex-gaudëre]
gaud(y) [gaudëre 'be glad, rejoice']
 . 378

3. Conclusion.

For now, linguistics has to concern itself primarily

with restricted goals. It has to concentrate on how to
make explicit sound-meaning relationships in particular
languages. The ulterior goals--innate intellectual capac­
ity of man, and so on--have to be put temporarily aside.
We have to achieve first somewhat more modest goals, goals
that are nevertheless (as we have seen) not easy to attain.
It is not possible to understand--or to try to under­
stand--the sound-meaning relationships among sentences be­
fore one understands at least the general--the overall--
organization and arrangement of sound-meaning relationships
among words that compose the sentences. Therefore, study
of DM is prerequisite to more sophisticated aspects of lin­
guistics such as syntax.
About semantics, all I can say is we have to begin
working intensively in this area to unlock its secrets. I
give an example below, near the end.
The seemingly more hermetic division of phonology is
in reality directly dependent on DM: if one does not know
whether or not get and got are P related, one does not
know whether or not E grammar requires a P rule to account
for an e~ a alternation; one does not know what kind of
UPR to propose for get, got; and so on.
Thus--at present, anyway--DM is the most important
area of theoretical linguistics: one has to see what the
problems are here and try to solve these problems before
advancing to inherently more difficult (and presumably more
rewarding) areas of linguistics.
To study DM efficiently, one needs help from a high­
speed, electronic computing device. There are--at least in
languages like English--simply too many words for analysis
without such help; there are too many possible analyses
from which to choose, too many different, interconnected
things going on at the same time for realistic progress
without such help. Let us reconsider, for example, the
verb feed. It may appear in both active (She fed us hot
kohlrabi.) and passive (The prisoners were fed by grudging
 379 .

warders.). But in close construction with up and with the

surface meaning 'disgust', only the passive is possible:
She is fed up by John/bis outrageous behavior, vs *John/*His
outrageous behavior feeds her up. (Bolinger 1971: 102; he
mentions a few seemingly similar verbs, with references to
the literature). In addition, we notice these "passives" of
feed often sound better with with than by: here, fed up may
be approaching A-status (cf. She is angry with the police.
and *She is fed with the police up.).
We end the book with a rough P derivation of F annoy
[cf. ennui, ennuyer], which is M from the same root (and
stem) as L odium, odious [cf. L odieux in F], prefixed with
n- 'in':

UPR:
e-Abl:
o-Abl:
S-syllab:
anaptyxis:
F VN:
d-drop:
stress:
PR:

The d-drop rule is required also for F ~ L alternations

in pairs like obey ~ obedient; inherit ~ hereditary; decay
~ decadence; desire ~ desiderative (sidus, sideris 'star',
cf. not only sidereal 'pert. to the stars', but also con­
sideration 'observation of the stars' with S extension of n.
35); prey [OF preie < L praeda 'booty, plunder'] ~ predator
lit. 'one who seizes, grasps (hold of)', depredate, pre­
hensile (from -hend-t- < khed-t-, cf. get) ; fealty ~ fidel­
ity [both from L fidêlitàs < fldèlis]; cruel [OF < crude-
lie] ~ crude; envious ~ invidious [both from invididsus <
invidia 'envy'], and so on.
We mentioned E an [aen] through French VN in vanquish
on p. xxvii; another interesting example of this is the hy­
brid standard (etym. unrelated to, but perhaps influenced by
stand), with Gmc -ard (related to hard [OE heard, hearde
nn. 264-5 380

'extremely, very', G hart]), from OF estandard, estendard

(F étendard) < estendre < L extendere 'stretch out' (in E,
cf. L [ex]tend 'stretch [out]'). Gk -ize is used in the
double hybrid standardize. The root is {tn- 'stretch'}.
Noi- in noisome (with -some as in burdensome, buxom,
fulsome, gladsome, handsome, winsome &c) is aphetic for
annoy.

NOTES 264-281
264
Notice once again the seeming idiosyncracy of
some of these formations: *influent but influence; *essent
but essence, essential; *sequent but sequence, sequential,
and so on. [342]
265
Chafe, from kal- 'warm', presents a good example
of specific meaning addition: nowhere is the notion 'rub'
present in USR, yet we find it in surface representation;
'warm by rubbing' has been extended to 'irritate by rubbing'
(with apparent loss of underlying 'warm'); of course there
are derivatives without the notion 'rub' (chafing dish), and
in chafe 'make/become annoyed', there is metaphorical exten­
sion (or perhaps simply further extension from 'irritate by
rubbing'). Other examples from kaz- 'warm' include cal-
-dron/-oric/-ory, nonchalant 'not warm, casually indiffer­
ent' (but *chalant) &c
It would be easy to cite, using different roots, fur­
ther instances of specializations in meaning--a good example
 381 nn. 265-9

is a recent discovery by Benveniste regarding PIE *peku

'movable personal possession': "que cette possession
soit, en fait, representee par le bétail, est une donnée
distincte, qui tient à la structure sociale et aux formes
de la production. C'est seulement par suite de cette as­
sociation fréquente entre le terme et la réalité ma­
térielle de l'élevage que, en se généralisant hors de la
classe des producteurs, en est arrivé à signifier
«bétail»--première spécialisation--, puis spécifique­
ment «petit bétail»--deuxième spécialisation--, et enfin
«ovin»--troisième et dernière spécialisation. Mais en
lui-même ne désigne ni le troupeau ni aucune espèce
animale" (1969: 59). Benveniste interestingly adds that
"le bétail est très souvent désigné par les termes qui se
rapportent a la possession en général, c'est-à-dire qu'on
le désigne simplement comme «possession»; mais jamais
l'inverse" (60). Such insights are important; due to this
one e.g. we may conclude that historically, words like
fee, fief, fellow, feud 'estate', feudal, peculate, pecu­
liar, pecuniary, impecunious are not cognate with words
like fight, paxwax [ME faxwax], pecten, pectinate, pecto­
ral, peignoir [F peigner 'comb the hair'], parapet [Ital
petto 'breast'], cteno- 'comblike' {zool.) [ , KTSVOÇ
'comb'] &c, as in some etym. dictionaries. [350]

266
From {wl- 'turn, twist'}. Gk W, instead of drop­
ping ( . 86), sometimes shifts to h-, and from this root we
have Gk words like helix (£ £ < fêXiÇ), helico-, helminth
'worm' &c. [351]
267
The -n- appears also in messenger, passenger, por-
ringer (cf. porridge), wharfinger (cf. wharfage)', verb scav­
enge is a back-formation from scavenger. Cf. n. 64. [357]
268
Not all paradigmatic inflection in verbs is the
result of ablaut. In III.4.2 we derived buy from bug-y- &c.
[362]

From move back and forth'}; contrast wib-

of n. 131. [364]
nn. 270-8 382

270
historically, development of woof 'weft' is in­
teresting, with w inserted by analogy to w in weave; cf.
ME oof < 0E owef (for o-, see a- 'on' in PFX.3). With this
derivation of woof, cf. abb 'yarn for the woof' [0E aweb,
a b ] . [364]
271
From {wr- '(en)close, cover', whence 'watch out
for'}. [365]
272
From OF covrefeu 'cover the fire'--not the only E
word with this development, cf. kerchief < ME cur chef, co-
verchef < OF covrechief 'cover-head' (-chef, -chief, cognate
with NE chief, is from VL < caput 'head'); notice sim­
ilarity in derivation here and in poor [ME poure, povre < OF
pauvre] ~ poverty [ME < OF poverte < paupertatem] ~ pauper.
[365]
273
From {wn- 'strive after, desire', whence 'satisfy,
content'}. [366]
274
Historically, from Ø-grade, cf. ME wuned, woned,
wont < 0E wunian. [366]
275
From Ø-grade wn- ~ wun-, with umlaut, VN (cf. 0E
wyscan), and shortening before suffixal -sk-. [366]
276
Thus strong-verb ablaut is as suggested in 1.4:
win from e-grade (with e ~ i before N), and won from Ø-grade
(cf. 0E gewunnen). [366]
277
Cf. II.5.1. The Gk forms include (beside ôvoµα
'name') compounds with u likeöycavujiOQ,cruvcôvuyoç,eOcóvuyOQ
(eu-, n. 71 s.f.) 'of good name' (later '(on the) left
(side)') &c. Compare apparently similar pairs like áyopá
'assembly' Travffyupic 'public assembly' (E agora panegyr­
ic). With agora, incidentally, one might perhaps compare H
'acorah 'assembly'. [366]
278
0nly in forlorn hope; v., e.g., Weekley 1912: 105.
[371]
 383 nn. 279-81

279
OE findan from PIE *pent- 'go, tread'. Forms
like Gth finpan, OHG findan &c suggest d in OE, NE may be
not the result of Verner's law, but of stopping after n.
From the L cognate pons, pontis 'bridge', we have E pon­
toon. Our peripatetic 'go peri- around' is from Gk Ø-grade
pnt-. Sputnik is a recent, related R loan (cf. PUT', OCS
pqti, Pol pgc &c, from 0-grade pont-; the R reflex of back
nasal vowels is U, as here, and also in pood, muzhik &c).
[374]
280
From o i - n = [OE an, G ein, Gth ains, OL oinos,
oivoa, OCS in edinu 'one' (lit. 'hardly one', cf. edva
'hardly'), inorogu 'unicorn' (v. Fasmer, s.v. INDRIK-ZVER',
Walde-Hofmann, s.v. unus), ODIN (Fasmer, s.w. ODIN, INOJ),
Lth wienas, OPruss ains &c; for EDVA 'hardly', v. Nina Lif-
Sic, 1978, "Russkoe slovo „edva" v strukture ego semantic~es-
kix svjazej," Russian Language Journal, XXXII, No. 113, 1-11
(I am indebted to Catherine Chvany for this reference)]; for
eleven, n. 17. [374]
281
From{gWr- 'swallow (up), devour'}. [377]
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 391

ENGLISH WORD INDEX

Entries are listed alphabetically, in current ortho­

graphy, which may cause various problems. For example, the
one entry wind represents at least two different words,
[wind] and [waynd]. Again, scent belongs morphologically
with related words in sent- [cf. ME senten < L sentire'to
sense']; at least scent is not homographic with the PAST
and PRT of send. Nouns (except pl. tant.) are usually en­
tered only in sg., verbs in INF: for children v. c h i l d , for
bought v. buy &c. The goal was to list each E word used as
an example together with the page number(s) of its occur­
rence (s); numbers in parentheses following a number refer
to notes (thus, lace 133 (66) means the word "lace" occurs
in note 66 on page 133, and so on). Corrections and/or sug­
gestions for the Index (and for the book itself) will be re­
ceived gratefully.

aardvark 231 (218) abject 58, 187

abandon 268, 342 abjection 187
abb 381 (270) abjure 187
abbacy 343 ablative 30 (19), 141 (91),
abbess 240 303
abbey 240 able xii, 136 (70)
abbot 240, 342 ably 136 (70)
abbreviate 57, 129 (60), abnegate 223 (198)
166, 246, 331, 348 Abner 240
abdomen 165, 257 aboard 55
abdominal 257 abode 364, 374
abduct 45, 158 abominate 257
abet 365 aborigine 324
abhor 45 above 329
abide 163, 232(218), 364, abrade 317 (256), 338, 368
374 Abraham 78, 240
Abigail 240 abrasive 317 (256), 338
ability xii, 136 (70) abridge 57, 348
a 392

abridgement 57, 348 access 45-6, 339

abrogate 234, 348 accessible 339
abrogation 119 accessive 339
abrupt 353 accessor 339
absalom 240 accessory 339
abscess 45-6, 48-50, 57 acclaim 241
abscind 130 (64) acclaimable 241
abscise 45, 130 (64), 232 accolade 167
(218), 250, 254, 377, accommodate 257, 343
358 accommodative 9
abscissa 45, 254 accomplish 353
abscond 57, 165 accomplishment 353
absence 32 (21), 341 accord 110, 155, 289
absent 32 (21), 333, 341 accordance 289
absolute 270 accost 78, 256
absolve 270 accouchement 262
absorb 82 accredit 247, 290
absorption 82 accreditation 290
abstain 57, 368 accretion 370
abstemious 6, 57, 250 accrue 370
abstention 360, 368 accumbent 99
abstinent 57 accuracy 343
abstract 45-8, 50, 57, 353 accurate 30 (20), 342-3
abstraction 57, 353 accursed 139 (77)
abstruse 57 accusative 303
abundant 260 acerb 93, 141 (90), 246
abuse 334 acerbate 93, 271
abyss 224 (201) acetic 246, 308 (223)
academia 246 acetylene 246
academic(s) 246 acharné 210 (121)
acardiac 224 (201) ache 93
accede 399 achromatic 51, 57, 224 (201)
accelerate 327 acknowledge 46, 160, 257,
accent 57, 209 (118) 287, 369
accentual 209 (118) acknowledgement 287
accept 208 (118), 354 acolyte 57, 327
acceptable 354 acorn 159
acceptance 208 (118), 354 acoustic 155, 208 (116),
acceptation 354 314 (250), 32'2
acceptor 354 acoustique 208 (116)
 393 a

acquaint 46 adhesive 323, 333, 361

acquire 46, 57, 324 adiabatic 52, 218 (184),
acquisition 324 224 (201)
acquisitive 324 adjacent 138 (75), 150,
acquit 254 187
acratia 156 adjective 58, 60, 187
acre 240, 352 adjoin 296
acrid 93, 159 adjoint 296
acrimony 93 adjudge 187
acritical 224 (201) adjudicate 187
acrobat 218 (184) adjunct 296
acronym 195 adjunction 296
acropolis 343 adjunctive 296
across 333 adjure 187
act 51, 69, 77, 82, 243, administrate 136 (70)
347, 352, 355, 362 admire 253
Actinistia 326 admissible 253
actinium 326 admission 355
action 51, 243, 352, 355 admit 45, 48, 253, 355
activate 352 admonish 50, 109, 291
active 352 ado 165
activity 352 adobe 225 (203)
actor 77, 82, 323, 352 adolescent 209 (118),
actress 132 (68) 215 (156)
actual 352, 355 adopt 45, 354
actuality 352 adoptive 354
actualize 352 adrenal 250
actuary 352, 355 adrenaline 250
actuate 352, 355 adrift 142 (95)
adamant 158 adult 209 (118), 215 (156)
add 318 (263) adulterate 286
addendum 318 (263) adultery 286
adder 310 (231) advent 368
addition 318 (263) adventitious 368
adduce 45 adventure 168, 368
adequacy 343 advice 334
adequate 30 (20), 342-3 advise 334
adhere 323 advocacy 343
adherent 323 advocate 18, 167, 343
adhesion 248, 323, 361 advocation 18
a 394

aerobatics 218 (184) agility 222 (194), 352

aerobic 168 agitate 51, 352
Aesop 306 (220) agmatology 193
affable 94 agnail 313 (249)
affably 94 Agni 194
affair 164 agnostic xxv (6), 57, 159,
affect 57, 165, 365 180, 224 (201), 240,
afferent 366 289, 369
affidavit 232 (218) ago 257
affinity 252 agonic 224 (201)
affirmative 30 (19) agonize 351
affix 251 agony 51, 351
affluence 341 agora 381 (277)
affluent 341 agrarian 159, 352
afford 56 agriculture 159, 202, 240,
affricate 46, 345 352
Afghan 306 (220) agrypnia 314 (251)
afield 55 ahead 226 (206)
afire 55 ahoy 373
afloat 55 aileron 240, 309 (226),
aftermath 231 (218) 352, 363
again 76 ain't 78
Agamemnon 306 (220) air 19, 368
age 238 aisle 352, 363
agency 77 akimbo 313 (249)
agenda 352 akin 159
agent 51, 77, 82, 243, 347, akinesia 346
362 Akkadia(n) 235
agential 352 alar 352
agglutinate 46, 57 alary 352
aggravate 168 alate 352
aggregate xxviii (6), 347 alated 352
aggregation 347 albacore 306 (220)
aggregative 9 albatross 306 (220)
aggression 209 (118) alchemy 183
aggressive 209 (118), 339 alcohol 306 (220)
aggressor 209 (118) alder(man) 210 (118)
aggrieve 168 alee 55
aghast 79, 281 Alexander 93, 98
agile 222 (194), 352 alexandrine 93
 395 a

alexia 224 (201) aloha 225 (203)

alfresco 357 alone 374
alga(e) 347 aloof 259, 267
algal 347 aloud 55
algebra 225 (203) alpaca 225 (203)
algid 347 also 129 (61)
algor 347 alter 93, 286
Alhambra 225 (203) altercation 286
alias 240 alternate 30 (20), 31 (21),
alibi 240, 252 93, 154, 286
Alice 309 (226) alternation 31 (21)
alien 240 altitude 209 (118), 330
aliform 352 altruism 93, 286
aliment 209 (118), 215 (156) alumnus 164
alimentary 209 (118) am 127-8 (58)
alimentation 215 (156) amalgamative 9
alimony 209 (118) amanuensis 329
aliped 240, 352 amateur 240
aliquot 167, 258 amative 240
Alison 309 (226) amatory 146 (106)
alit 253 Amazon xx, 24, 235, 305
alive 35 (28), 332 (220)
all 129 (61) Amazonian 24, 235
allay 366 ambassadress 132 (68)
allegation 347 amber 94
allege 347 ambergris 94
allegedly 347 ambidextrous 46, 94, 134
allergy 110, 347 (70), 244, 286, 305
alleviate 9, 248 (219)
alleviative 9 ambient 46
alliterate 46 ambiguous 243, 352
allocate 57 ambivalence 32 (21)
allonym 195 ambivalent 32 (21), 46,
allophone 240 243-4, 305 (219)
allude 338, 357 amble(r) 95
allusion 357 ambrosia 94
allusive 338 ambulance 95
ally 38-9 (32), 253 ambulant 95
alma 209 (118), 215 (156) ambulate 95
aloft 55 ambulation 95
a 396

ambulatory 95 analyst 253

ambuscade 357 analytic(al) 253, 270, 341
ambush 357 analyze 253, 341
amenable 249 anaphrodisiac 224 (200)
amiable 146 (106), 240 anaphylaxis 224 (200)
amicable 146 (106), 240 anaplasty 224 (200)
amid(st) 55 anarchy 224 (199, 200)
amity 146 (106), 240 anastrophe 224 (200)
amnesia 109, 140 (81) anathema 224 (200)
amnesty 109 Anatolia 224 (200)
amoeba 57, 168 anatomical 33 (23), 224
amoebic 308 (223) (200), 258
among 243 anatomy xix, 51, 224 (201)
amoral 224 (201) ancestor 94, 240
amorous 146 (106), 240 ancestral 94, 240
amphibious 51, 168, 289 ancestry 94, 240
amphibrach 51, 166 anchor 19
amphora 51, 163, 292, 308 ancient 240, 254, 334
(221) Andalusia 371
ample 94 androgynous 94, 168
amply 94, 103 android 292
Amsterdam 306 (220) anecdote 300-4, 319 (263),
an 374 341
anabaptist 224 (200) anechoic 51, 224 (200)
anabasis 218 (184) anemic 224 (200), 309 (223)
anabolic 287 anesthesia 115
anachronism 54, 224 (200) anesthetic 115, 224 (200)
anacoluthon 327 aneurysm 94
anadromous 79 aneurysmal 94
anaerobic 168, 224 (200) aneurysmatic 94
anagram 224 (200) angel 94, 133 (70), 240
analects 51, 53, 224 (200) angelic 94, 137 (71), 240
analgesia 224 (200) angelically 137 (71)
analgesic 308 (223) anger 94, 102, 215 (153)
analogous 347 angle 95, 159
analogue 347 angler 95
analogy 224 (200), 270, 347 Angles 94
analphabetic 224 (200) Anglican 94
analysis 224 (200), 270, Anglicism 94
341 Anglicize 94
 397 a

Anglophile 253 anther 59, 232 (218)

Anglophilia 253 anti-American 51
Anglophiliac 253 antibody 51
Anglo-Saxon 100, 256 anticipant 354
angora 86, 308 (221) anticipate 354
angry 94 anticipation 208 (118)
anguish 82, 102 antidote 301-3, 341
anhistous 325 antifreeze 51
anhydrous 224 (200) antilogarithm 96
animate 30 (20) antilogarithmic 96
anion 51-2, 225 (201) antimacassar 51
anisette 306 (220) antipathy 51
anisotropic 224 (200) antipode 207 (110), 257
ankle 96, 133 (70), 159 antiquary 240
anklet 96, 133 (70) antiquate 240
annals 208 (118), 235 antique 305 (219), 371
annex 46, 58 antiquity 240, 305 (219),
annihilate 58, 253 371
anniversary 235 antiseptic 344-5
announce 46, 261 antithesis 51, 53, 311
annual 208 (118), 235 (238)
anode 51-2, 117 antler 311 (243)
anoint 295-8, 374 Antoinette 306 (220)
anomalous 224 (200), 327 antonomasia 195
anon 374 antonym 52, 195
anonym 224 (200) anxious 82, 102
anonymous 195 any 374
anorexia xxvii (6), 119 aorta 236
anosmia 59 apagoge 52
another 146 (108) apathy 57, 224 (201), 291
anser 370 aperture 365
answer 19-20, 362 apex 240
antacid 51 aphasia 224 (201), 342, 362
antagonist 352, 362 aphasic 308 (223)
antagonize 51-2, 54, 352 aphesis 58
Antarctic 51, 58 aphetic 58
antechamber 350 aphorism 58
antediluvian 348 aphrodisia(c) 305 (219), 371
antelope 311 (243) Aphrodite 171, 224 (200),
antenna 360 305 (219), 371
a 398

aphtha 330 appraise 366

aphyllous 342 appreciate 9, 46, 236, 249,
apiary 240, 294 305 (219), 366
apical 240 appreciative 9
apiculture 240 apprehend 130 (64), 158,
apnea 192, 224 (201) 166, 176, 229 (217), 338
apocalypse 156, 344 apprehensive 212 (133), 338
apocalyptic 344 apprentice 212 (133)
apocope 52, 155 apprise 212 (133)
apogee 52, 110 approbate 271
Apollo 249 appropriate 30 (20), 97,
apologetic 347 258
apologist 251 approximate 9, 31 (21)
apologize 251, 347 approximation 31 (21)
apology 347 approximative 9
apoplexy 33 (24), 80, 249, apricot 171
309 (223) April 171
apostle 52, 133 (70) a priori 305 (219)
apostolic 133 (70) apron 310 (231)
appall 129 (61), 152, 244 apt 208 (118)
apparent 51, 58, 249, 371 apterous 224 (201)
appeal 249 aptitude 208 (118)
appear 249, 371 aquamarine 240
appearance 131 (66), 249 aqueduct 158, 240
appease 371 aqueous 240
appelative 249 Arabian 240
append 45, 366 Arabic 309 (227)
appendectomy 53, 59, 224 Arabicization 240
(201) arachnid 221 (192)
appendicitis 345 arachnoid 221 (192)
appendix 345, 366 Arafat 306 (220)
apperceive 354 arbiter 94
applaud 338 arbitrary 94
apple 227 (209) arbitrate 94
applicable 253 arbitrator 94
application 31 (21), 38 arbor 278, 322, 330
(32), 177 arboraceous 322
appliqué 177 arboreal 278, 322
apply 38 (32), 123 (45), arborescent 322
253 arboretum 322
 399 a

arborize 322 arpeggio 330

arbuscle 322 arrange 46, 238
arbustum 322 arrear(s) 250
arch 183 arriere-pensee 311 (239)
archaeology 309 (224), 368 arrogant 58, 119, 348
archaeopteryx 109 arrogate 58, 119
archaic 183, 309 (224), arse 324
368
archangel 183 art 13
archbishop 183 artery 236
archdeacon 183 arthritic 252
archduke 183 arthritis 252
archegonium 289 articular 330
archenemy 183 articulate 30 (20), 31
archery 183 (21), 330
archetype 183 articulation 31 (21)
archfiend 183 artifact 164, 202
archimandrite 183 artifice 292, 333
Archimedes 183 artificial 251
archipelago 184 arytenoid 330
architect 183, 299 ascend 46, 57
architecture 183 ascendancy 57
architrave 183 ascension 57
archive 183 ascent 57
archon 183 ascertain 58, 343
are 21, 23, 39 (33), 127-8 ascetic 293, 345
(58), 323 asceticism 293, 345
aren't 136 (70) ascribe 57
argon 213 (137), 306 (220), aseity 325
347, 363 asexual 224 (201)
aria 368 ashore 55
arise 88, 104, 107, 112, Asia 371
254, 365 Asiatic 371
Aristotelian 133 (70) asleep 250
Aristotle 133 (70) asocial 224 (201)
arithmetic 148 aspect 46-7, 57, 355-6
arm 16, 19, 88, 330 aspectual 355
Armageddon 225 (203) aspersion 57
armistice 330 asphalt 19
around 55 asphodel 306 (220)
a 400

asphyxiate 83, 224 (201) astrology 100

aspirant 57 asunder 98
aspirate 57 assymmetric 60, 224 (201)
aspire 57, 61, 254 asymptote 109, 115, 139-40
ass 324 (80), 224 (201)
assail 172, 334 asymptotic 115
assailable 334 at 158
assailant 172, 334 Atalanta 141 (91), 327
assault 172, 334 athanasy 165, 224 (201)
assay 19 atheism 164, 191
assemblage 97 atheist 224 (201), 240
assemble 96-7, 326, 333 Athenian 133 (70), 235
assembler 96 Athens 133 (70)
assembly 97, 326 athermancy 168, 224 (201)
assent 19, 47, 361 athlete 246
assess 332 athletic 246
assiduous 58, 145 (106), athwart 55
212 (136), 369 athymy 165
assignment 182 Atlas 57, 110, 141 (91),
assimilate 30 (20), 46, 313 208 (116)
(249), 326 atmosphere 250
assize 332 atom 52, 133 (70), 224
associate 9 (200, 201)
associative 9 atomic 108, 133 (70)
assuage 349 atone 374
assuetude 325 atonic 224 (201), 360
assure 343 atrabilious 311 (243)
astatic 224 (201), 246 atrocity 217 (176), 256,
aster 132 (67) 312 (246)
asterisk 94 atrocious 256, 278, 311
astern 55 (243)
asteroid 100 atrophy xix, 224 (201), 286
astigmatism 224 (201) attach 58, 350
astonish 111, 153, 261, 360, attain 173, 246
377 attainder 173
astound 153, 261, 360, 377 attempt 360
astral 94 attend 58, 339, 358-9
astride 98 attendance 339, 359
astringent 57, 80, 82, 130 attendant 339, 359
(64) attender 359
 401 a

attention 359 automation 241

attentive 359-60 automobile 256
attenuate 360 autonym 195
attract 45-6, 353 autonymous 195
attraction 45, 353 autonymy 195
auction 19 autopsy 312 (243)
audacious 240-1 avail 246
audacity 240-1 avatar 306 (220)
audible 38 (32) avenge 238
audience 32 (21), 38 (32) average 19
audit 38 (32) averse 57, 212 (131)
auditor 38 (32) aversion 57
auditory 38 (32) avert 45, 50, 57, 212 (131)
auditress 132 (68) aviary 294
auger 310 (231) aviator 94
augment 80, 159 aviatress 94
augmentative 303 aviatrix 94
Augustine 305 (219) avocation 18, 57
Augustinian 305 (219) avoid 366, 374
auld 210 (118) avow 353, 375
aural 322 aware 56, 365
aureate 31 (20), 322 awake 55, 106, 160, 183,
auricular 322 348
aurora 322 awaken 55, 160, 348
auscultation 322 awash 55
auspice 358, 361 awry 55
auspicious 358, 361 ax 131 (66)
austere 246 axial 352
austerity 246 axilla 352
author 19, 133 (70) axiom 352
authoress 132 (68) axis 352
authority 133 (70) axle 352
autochthon(ous) 192-3, 256 axolotl 225 (203)
autoclave 241 axon 306 (220)
autograph 19 ayatollah 171, 263
automat 241, 243, 291, 309 Azerbaijan 306 (220)
(229) azimuth 231 (218), 233
automate 241, 243, 309 (218)
(228) azoic 168
automatic 241, 291 azonic 224 (201), 258
b 402

azote 168, 224 (201) baksheesh 160, 162

Aztec 82, 306 (220), 334-5 balance 19
azygous 54, 224 (201), 296 balcony 160, 613
balderdash 291
baldric 158
babble 95, 241, 268 bale 241
babbler 95 balk 160, 162
babbly 95 ball 129 (61), 163, 241,
babe 241, 268 287-9
baboon 268, 271 ballad 287-9
baboonery 268 ballast 210 (123)
baby 19, 241, 268 ballerina 129 (61)
Babylon 235, 256, 305 (220) ballet 129 (61)
Babylonia(n) 235, 256 ballistic(s) 52-3, 287
baccalaureate 349 balloon 163, 271
bacchanal 241, 306 (220) ballyhoo 267
bacchanalia(n) 241 balm 150
bachelor 349 balsam 129 (61), 150
bacillus 345 baluster 94
back 241 balustrade 94
backgammon 98, 143 (100), bamboo 225 (203), 267
242 bamboozle 267
backward(s) 56 ban 228 (212), 268, 342
bacon 241 banal 268, 342
bacteria 345 band 372
bad 364 bandage 19, 372
bade 364 bandicoot 267
badge 238 bandora 256
baffle(r) 95 bang 19
bagatelle 306 (220) Bangkok 306 (220)
baggage xx Bangladesh 306 (220)
Baghdad 306 (220) banish 268, 342
baguette 306 (220) banjo 256
Bahamas 235 bank 19
Bahamian 235 bankrupt 342, 353
Baikal 306 (220) bankruptcy 343
bairn 216 banner 168
bait 142 (93), 362, 365 banns 268, 342
bake 187, 190, 241, 337, bar 19, 130 (66), 162
349-50 barbarian 241, 268
 403 b

barbaric 241, 268 bassinet 133 (70), 306

barbarism 268 (220)
barbarity 268 basso 241
barbarize 268 bassoon 271
barbarous 268 baste 78
barbary 268 bastille 356
barbate 162, 164 bastion 356
barber 162, 164-5 bat 19, 171
bare 139 (78), 210 (123), batch 241, 349-50
228 (212) bath 227 (211), 228 (212),
bargain 279 241, 278, 337, 349
barge 238 bathe 81, 241, 337
baritone 168 bathos 291
bark 19, 140 (84) Bathsheba 223 (197)
barley 162 baton xx, 306 (220)
barm 162, 337 Bator 307 (220)
barn 143 (100) battalion 133 (70), 236
barrage 162, 306 (220) batten 19, 306 (220)
barrator 94 batter 133 (70), 241
barratrous 94 batterer 133 (70)
barratry 94 battery 241
barricade 19 battle 19, 133 (70), 236,
barrier 162 241
barrister 162 bauble 268
barrow 99, 116, 163, 241, bawl 291
366 baxter 241
barter 133 (70) bay 19
barterer 133 (70) bayonet xx, xxi, 19, 306
barythymia 165 (220)
barytone 360 bayou 225 (203)
base 218 (184), 241 bazooka 267
baseball 241 be 51, 127-8 (58)
baser 102 beacon 246
basic 218 (184), 309 (223) bead 364
basin 133 (70), 241 beadle 364
basinet 133 (70), 241, 306 beam 19, 81, 228 (212),
(220) 268, 371
basis 218 (184) bear 49, 55, 86, 99, 116,
bask 325 163, 228 (212), 241, 366
bass 241 bearable 49
b 404

beard 78, 162, 164-5, 226 behemoth 231 (218)

(207), 228 (212) behind 252
beardless 162 behold 375
beast 78, 246 beholden 138 (77)
beat 76, 88, 241 behoof 178, 259, 268, 273
beater 144 (100) behoove 259, 268, 273
beaut 268 belabor 136 (70), 243
beautify 268 belated(ly) 55, 61 (40)
beauty 268 beleaguer 133 (70)
beaver 128 (58), 228 (212) beleaguerer 133 (70)
béchamel 306 (220) belief 129 (60), 331
beck 246 believe 129 (60), 331
beckon 246 belladonna 268
become 92, 104 belle 268
bed 162, 291 Bellerophon 168
bedevil 55 bellicose 268
bedraggle 55 belligerence 32 (21)
bedrock 162 belligerent 32 (21), 268,
beech xvi, 264, 371 323
beef 331 bellow(s) 214 (152), 291
beer 228 (212) belly 163, 214 (152)
beeswax 364 Belostoma 288
beet 76 belove(d) 55, 61 (40)
beetle 305 (219), 323, 365 belt 158
befit 55 bend 90, 104
befoul 264 beneath 55, 62 (40), 249
befriend 55 benediction 200, 268
befuddle 55 benefactor 164, 241, 268
beget 166 benefactress, -ix 132 (68)
beggar 133 (70) beneficial 355
beggarly 133 (70) beneficiary 355
begin 92, 104 benefit xiii, 268, 306
begird 221 (193) (220), 355
begone 61 (40), 87 benevolence 32 (21)
begrudge 55, 261 benevolent 32 (21), 268
beguile 280 Bengal 306 (220)
behalf 55, 61 (40), 332 benign 252, 268
behave 62 (40), 178, 242 benignant 252
behavior 178 benthos 291
behaviorist 369 benumb 55, 61 (40), 100
 405 b

bequeath 249 bib 251, 328

bequest 249 bibulous 251, 328, 373
bereave 55, 76, 82, 250, Bible 94, 251
278 Biblical 94, 251
bereaved 139 (77) bicameral 350
bereft 76, 82, 250 biceps 209 (118)
Berlin 306 (220) bicycle 218 (179)
berth 18, 99, 116, 163, bid 55, 232 (218), 364
231 (218), 366 bide 232 (218), 364, 374
beseech 55, 62 (40), 123 bier 116, 163, 365
(43, 44), 199, 250 bifid 158
besiege 55, 239 bifocal(s) 46
besom 133 (70), 163 bifoliate 342
besomer 133 (70), 163 bigamy 46, 251
bespangle 55 bigwig 42 (35)
bespatter 133 (70) bike 20
bespatterer 133 (70) bilabial 46
best 102, 231 (217), 341 bile 235, 251
bestial 78, 246 bilge 238
bestir 55 bilious 235, 251
bestow 55 billet-doux 259
bestrew 55 billow 279
bet 20 bimester 270
bethink 55, 62 (40) bimetallic 133 (70)
betoken 133 (70) binary 46, 142 (93), 251,
betokener 133 (70) 311 (243)
betray 318-9 (263) bind 78, 104, 106, 114,
better 102, 227 (210) 262, 372
between 8 binge 238
betwixt 8, 55 binocular 167, 311 (243)
bevel(er) 133 (70) binomial 46, 195
beverage 128 (58), 328, 373 biography 51
bewail 278-9, 368 biology 168, 170
beware 56, 365 biopsy 35 (28), 51, 167
bewilder 55 biosis 344
bewitch 55 biotic 344
bey 225 (203) bipartite 252
beyond 55 birth 18, 116, 162-3, 231
Bhaga 157 (218), 366
biaxial 46 bishopric 119
b 406

bismuth 231 (218) blow 86-7, 104, 162, 280,

bit 16, 114, 142. (93), 362, 342, 375
365 blubber 134 (70)
bitch vii blubberous 134 (70)
bite 88, 90, 105-8, 112-4, blubbery 134 (70)
145 (104), 158, 162, bludgeon 20, 134 (70)
251, 305 (219), 362, 365 bludgeoner 134 (70)
bitter 142 (93), 144 (100), blunder 134 (70)
362, 365 blunderer 134 (70)
bitterly 103 blurt 367
bitters 142 (93) bluster(er) 134 (70)
bitumen 133 (70) board 140 (84)
bituminous 133 (70) boast 78
black 160, 162 boat 281, 365
blackjack 20 bobsled 20
bladder(y) 133 (70) bode 364, 374
blade 342 Boer 163, 268
blanc 349 boggle 93
blanch 349 Bogotá 306 (220)
blank 349 Bohemia(n) 156, 370
blare 367 boil xxiv (5), 377
blather 133 (70) bole 163
blatherer 133 (70) bolster(er) 134(70)
bleat 20, 367 bolt 78
bleed 16, 90, 104, 246, bomb 20, 100, 268
265-7, 273 bomb 100, 268
bless 246 bona (fide) 232 (218), 364
blink 104 bonanza 268
blister(y) 133 (70) bonbon 268
bloat 163 bond 372
blockade 20 bondage 163
blood 16, 222 (193), 264-7, bondsman 163
273 bone 16, 256, 281-3
bloom 268, 342 bonfire 256
bloomers 268 bonny 268
blooper 268 bonus 78
blossom 133 (70), 268, 342 boo 20, 268
blossomy 133 (70) boob 268
blouse 131 (66) boobs 268
 407 b

booby 268 bound 78, 92, 163, 260,

boodle 268 262, 334
boogie-woogie 273 bounteous 260
boohoo 268 bounty 78, 260, 268
book xvi, 228 (212, 214), bourgeois 342
264, 273, 371 boustrophedon 52, 215 (153),
boom 99, 258, 268, 371 258, 372
boomerang 185, 268 bovine 122, 168, 215 (153),
boon 78, 268, 342 331, 372
boondocks 268 bow xviii, 260, 279, 313
boondoggle 268 (249)
boor 163, 268 bower 134 (70), 163, 268
boorish 268 bowery 134 (70)
boost 78, 268 box 131 (66)
boot 138 (76), 268 boy 76
booth 163, 321 (218), 268, boycott xx, 306 (220), 373
337 Brahman 134 (70)
booty 138 (76), 258, 268-9 Brahmany 134 (70)
booze 20, 268 braid 367
border(er) 134 (70) brain 314 (249)
bore 140 (84), 163, 176, brainwash 42 (35)
366 bramble 95, 100, 268
boredom 165 brambly 95
born 105, 143 (100) brand 162, 337
borne 105 brandy 162
boron 306 (220) brass 162, 241, 332-3
borough 133 (69), 342 brassy 332
borrow 279 bray 20
bosom 134 (70) braze 332-3, 361
bossomy 134 (70) brazen 162, 241, 332
botany 344 brazier 361
both 163, 190, 227 (211), Brazil 306 (220)
228 (212) breach 162, 349, 365
bother 134 (70) bread 19, 226 (207), 228
botherer 134 (70) (212), 337
bottle(r) 134 (70) breadth 82, 204-6, 221
bottom 162 (193), 231 (218), 263
boudoir 157-8 break 13-4, 88,' 104, 159,
bouillabaisse 258 161-2, 176, 190-1, 228
bouillon 258 (212, 214), 349, 365
b 408

breakfast 162, 365 brotherhood 162

breath 231 (218), 246, 337 brotherly 134 (70)
breathe 43 (35), 231 (218), brown 262
246, 337 bruin 262
breather 337 brunette xxi, 262, 306
breed 90, 236-7, 246, 264-6, 9220)
268, 337 Bruno 262
bregma 314 (249) brush 20
brethren 94 Brythonic 153.
brève 246 bubble 20, 95
breviary 246 bubbler 95
brevity 129 (60), 166, 246, bubbly 95
331 buccal 260, 377
brew 162, 337 Bucephalus 258
bride 226 (207), 228 (212) buck 268
bridegroom 268 buckaroo 268
bridge 239 buckle(r) 20, 95
bridle 20, 95, 367 bucolic 122, 215 (153),
bridler 95 258, 372
brief 129 (60), 246, 331 bud 377
bring 14, 16, 68-9, 104, Buddha 364
163, 199 budge 239
bristle 95 buffalo 122, 168, 215 (153),
bristly 95 258, 260, 372
British 153 buffoon 271
Brittany 153 bug 81, 85, 125 (52)
broad 82, 204-6, 231 (218), bugger 171
263 bugle 20, 95
broil 162, 337 bugler 95
brokenhearted 138 (77) build 90, 163, 176, 268
bromic 309 (223) Bulgar 235, 305 (220), 328
bronchus 377 Bulgaria(n) 235, 328
brooch 267 bulge 163, 214 (152), 238-
brood 264-6, 268, 276, 337 9, 279
brook 159, 162, 228 (214), bulk 160, 163
273, 365 bulkhead 160, 163
broom 100, 237, 268 bull 163, 215 (153)
broth 162, 231 (218), 337 bulwark 141 (86), 159
brother 94, 134 (70), 154, bumble 95, 99, 258
162, 176, 190 bumblebee 99, 258, 268
 409

bumbler 95 button 134 (70)

bump 100, 268 buttoner 134 (70)
bumptious 100, 268 butyric 258
bundle 78, 95, 260, 262, buxom 260, 313 (249)
372 buy 68, 199, 374, 380 (268)
bundler 95 bygones 87
bungle(r) 95 bylaw 163
bunt 78, 260 Byzantium 235
burble 95
burbler 95
burbly 95 cabinet 155
burden 99, 116, 134 (70), cable 95-6
163, 366 cabler 95
burdener 134 (70) cablet 96
burdensome 313 (249) caboodle 268
bureau 256 caboose 268, 331
bureaucracy 256 cackle(r) 95
burg 342 cacuminal 99
burgess 342 cadaster 94
burgh 133 (69) cadastral 94
burglar 94, 133 (69) cadaver 134 (70)
burgle 94, 133 (69) cadaverous 134 (70)
burn 143 (100), 162, 337 cadence 145 (106), 150
bursa 157 cadet 306 (220)
bursar 157 caecum 345
bursitis 157 caesura 146 (106), 356
burst 90, 92 cafard 153
bush 357 caftan 306 (220)
bushel(er) 134 (70) cage 155, 239, 348
bustle 95, 163 caisson 271, 353
bustler 95 cake 228 (214), 273
bustly 95 calabash 306 (220)
butcher 349 calaboose 269
butler 134 (70) calcaneum 209 (118)
butlery 134(70) calcareous 346, 349
butt 258 calciferous 346, 349
butte 258 calcify 346, 349
butter 122, 134 (70), 168, calcium 346, 349
215 (153), 258, 260, 372 calculate 346, 349
buttery 134 (70) caldron 350, 379 (265)
 410

calefacient 350 candle 208 (118), 339, 346,

calendar 134 (70) 350-1
calendarer 134 (70) cane 241
calender 134 (70) canescent 155, 321-2
calenderer 134 (70) canine 155
calf 228 (214), 331 Canis (Minor) 155
caliber 94 canister 241
calibrate 94 canker 94, 134 (70)
calisthenics 250 cankerous 134 (70)
calk 209 (118), 346 cannon 241
call 129 (61), 159 canny 160, 368
calligraphy 128 (59), 160 cant 209 (118), 350
Calliope 140, 213 (140) can't 136 (70)
callipygian 235 cantata 350
calmative 18, 30 (19) Cantabrigian 241
caloric 379 (265) canter 134 (70)
calory 379 (265) canterer 134 (70)
calumet 306 (220) cantilever 248
calve 331 cantle 96
calyptra 156 cantlet 96
cambium 348 canto 209 (118)
cambric 241 Canton 306 (220)
Cambridge 241 cantor 155
camel 351 canvas(s) 36 (30), 155
cameo 308 (222) canyon 241, 308 (222)
camera 350 caoutchouc 225 (203)
camisole 155, 351 cap 41 (35), 81, 125 (52)
camouflage 306 (220) capable 208 (118), 353
camphor 134 (70) capacious 208 (118), 241,
camphory 134 (70) 353
can 19, 160, 228 (214), 368 capacitance 353
canal 306 (220) capacitate 353
cancel(er) 134 (70) capacity 208 (118), 241,
cancer 94, 97 353
cancerous 97 cape 41 (35)
cancriform 94 caper 134 (70), 241
cancroid 94 caperer 134 (70)
candidacy 343 capillarity 241
candidate 31 (20), 342 capillary 241
 411

capital 145 (106), 209 Carmen 289

(118) carnage 155, 350
capon 155, 306 (220) carnal 210 (121)
capric 241, 329 carnation 210 (121)
capriccio 360, 371 carnivore 134 (70), 377
caprice 305 (219), 360, 371 carnivorous 134 (70), 210
capricious 305 (219), 360, (121)
371 carol 134 (70), 183
Capricorn 329 caroler 134 (70)
caprine 329 carouse 260
capstan 353 carousel 306 (220)
capsule 353 carp 227 (209)
captain 151 carpal 332
caption 353 carpel 210 (121)
captious 353 carpenter 94
captivate 208 (118), 353 carpentry 94
captive 145 (106), 208 Carpodacus 181
(118), 353 carpus 332
captivity 353 carriage 259
captor 208 (118), 353 carrion 210 (121)
capture 145 (106), 155, 353 carrot xx
car 259 carry 259
carafe xxi, 306 (220) cartel 306 (220)
caramel 306 (220) cartoon 269
caravan 306 (220) carve 128 (58), 228 (214),
caravel 306 (220) 237
carbolic 375 case 145 (106), 345, 353
carbon 155, 247 casein 332, 350
cardiac 110, 155, 158, 161, casement 353
176, 290, 309 (229) cash 353
cardinal 290 cashier 354
cardiogram 290 cashew 225 (203)
cardiovascular 110 cask 354
carditis 290 casket 354
care 350 cassette xxi, 306 (220),
career 259 354
caress 36 (30), 155, 350 castigate 78, 241, 243, 352
caret 322 castigator 134 (70)
cargo 259 castigatory 134 (70)
 412

Castile 305 (219), 371 cavalier 351

Castillan 305 (219), 371 cavalry 150, 351
castle 351 cave 155, 241, 348
casual 145 (106), 241, 244 cavern 155, 241
cat 28, 227 (210), 228 caviar 308 (222)
(214) cavil 134 (70)
catabolic 287 caviler 134 (70)
catabolism 52 cavity 155, 241
cataclysm 52, 94, 96 cayenne 225 (203), 306 (220)
cataclysmic 94, 96 cease 247
catacomb 100 cecal 345
catalepsy 52, 341 cecity 345
cataleptic 341 cedar 94
catamaran 306 (220) cede 81, 124 (52)
catapult 52, 249 cedrine 94
catarrh 52 celebrate 327
catastrophe 52, 224 (200) celebrity 327
catastrophic 309 (223) celerity 327
catatonia 258 celibacy 343
catatonic 258, 360 celibate 31 (20), 342
catch 68-9, 199-200, 350, cell 247
354 cellar 134 (70), 247
catechism 58 cellaret 134 (70)
catechize 52, 183 Celtics 346
cater(er) 134 (70) cement 36 (30)
catenate 350 cernetary 156
Cathay 225 (203) Cenozoic 168, 247
cathedral 52, 117, 369 censer 339, 346
catheter 58 cent 177, 181
cathode 52 centennial 208 (118), 235
cation 52, 225 (201) center 94
cattle 350 centigrade 155, 356
Caucasian 235 centipede 249
caucus 225 (203) central 94
caudal 122, 374 centrality 94
cauliflower 156, 342 centrifugal 347
caulk 209 (118) centrifuge 347
causative 303 centripetal 94
cause 333 centum 248
cavalcade 351 century 155, 177, 181, 356
 413

cephalic 162, 166 chaotic 331, 341

cereal 27 chapeau 41 (35)
cerebellum 109 chapel 41 (35), 94-5
cerebral 309 (229) chaperon 41 (35)
cerebrum 109 chaplain 41 (35), 94
certain 343 charge 239
certificate 31 (20), 38 chariot 259, 308 (222)
(32) charisma 95, 166, 182
certification 343 charity 155
certify 38 (32), 343 charm 289, 350
certitude 343 charnel 210 (121), 350
cerumen 134 (70) charter 134 (70)
ceruminous 134 (70) charterer 134 (70)
cervine 156 chary 350-1
cervix 345 chase 350, 354
Ceylon 306 (220) chasm 94, 96, 166, 183, 341
Cezanne 306 (220) chasmal 94
chafe 350, 379 (265) chasmic 94, 96
chaff xxvi (6) chassis 354
chafing 379 (265) chaste 78, 209 (118), 241,
chain 20, 350 243, 322
chalk 346, 349 chasten 134 (70)
chamber 134 (70), 350 chastener 134 (70)
chamberlet 134 (70) chastise 78, 241
chambray 241 chastity 78, 241
chameleon 183, 193 chateau 351
chamfer 134 (70) chattel 350
chamferer 134 (70) chatter(er) 134 (70)
chance 145 (106), 150 cheap, -er, -est 93, 101-2,
chancre 94 227 (209)
chancroid 94 cheese 332, 350-1
chandelier 208 (118), 351 chef d'oeuvre 329
chandler 208 (118), 350 chela 166
change 238, 348 chemise 155, 351
channel 134 (70), 306 (220) chemist 183
channeler 134 (70) Chemosis 166
chant 155, 350 cherish 155, 350
chanticleer 155 cheroot 269
chaos 94, 166, 183, 306 cherubic 314 (250)
(220), 341 cheval 351
 414

chevalier 351 chrism 78, 94

chiaroscuro 183 chrismal 94
chick 350-1 Christ 78, 94, 235
chicken 350-1 christen(er) 134 (70)
chide 90, 251 christian 235
chief 151, 331, 381 (272) chromic 309 (223)
chieftain 151 chronal 256
chiffon 225 (203), 306 (220) chronic 54, 183, 256
child 78, 91, 251, 276 chronicle 54, 95, 132 (68)
childhood 251 chronicler 95
chill 159, 215 (156), 269, chthonian 192-3, 256
350-1, 375 chuckle(r) 95
chilly 269 churchgoer 88
chime(s) 350 chyle 372
chimp(anzee) 225 (203) chyme 372
China 225 (203) cigar 306 (220)
chine 45 cigarette xxi, 306 (220)
Chinese 131 (66) cincture 82
chink 104 cinder(y) 134 (70)
Chinook 273 cinema 346
chisel 134 (70), 356 cinematography 346
chiseler 134 (70) cingulum 82
chivalry 150 cinnabar 306 (220)
chlorate 166 cipher(er) 134 (70)
chlorine 166 circa 350
chlorophyll 342, 375 circle 96, 100, 290, 350,
choice 16, 76, 88, 131 (66), 377
180, 269, 332, 375 circlet 96, 100, 350, 377
choir 183 circuit 100, 290, 350, 377
choler(a) 166, 291 circuitous 290, 350, 377
choleric 166 circuitry 377
choose 16, 88, 104, 107-8, circular 96, 290, 377
115, 180, 259, 269, 332, circularity 377
375 circulate 9, 31 (21), 290,
choosy 332 350
chorale 306 (220) circulation 31 (21)
chord 166, 190 circulative 9
chorus 183 circulator 377
chowder 350 circulatory 290, 377
chow mein 225 (203) circumcise 235, 251, 356
 415

circumcision 235, 251, 356 claw 228 (214)

circumference 163 clay 231 (218), 337
circumflect 177 clean 77, 85, 236-7, 247
circumjacent 58 cleaner 247
circumlocution 100 cleanse 77, 85, 236, 247
circumstance 310 (232) clear 371
circumvent 168, 290, 368 cleave 76, 82, 159, 247,
circus 100, 290, 350 278, 281, 337
citadel 306 (220) cleft 76, 82, 247
cite 156, 346 clemency 32 (21)
citizen 156 clement 32 (21), 164
citizenry 156 clever(ness) 247, 337
city 156 clientele 306 (220)
civic(s) 156 climate 31 (20)
civil 156 climb 134 (70), 374
civilization 17, 31 (21) cling 92, 104, 117
claim 241 clink 104
clairvoyance 32 (21) clinic(al) 251
clairvoyant 32 (21) cloak 256
clam 130 (66) clock 256
clamber 134 (70), 374 clonus 327
clamberer 134 (70) close 256, 333
clammy 337 closeness 333
clamor 134 (70), 156, 192, closet 256, 333
241 cloth 227 (211), 231 (218),
clamorer 134 (70) 256, 337
clamorous 134 (70) clothe 16, 227 (211), 231
clandestine 156 (218), 256, 337
clangor(ous) 134 (70) cloud 260
claret 371 clove 159
clarify 371 clover 278, 281, 337
clarigation 244 cluck 350
clarinet 306 (220) cluster 134 (70), 260
clarion 308 (222) clustery 134 (70)
clarity 278, 371 clutch 350
clatter(er) 134 (70) clutter(er) 134 (70)
clattery 134 (70) clysis 94
clavichord 166, 241 clyster 94
clavicle 241 coagulate 352
clavier 308 (222) coal 256
 416

coalesce 10, 58, 209 (118) cohesive 323, 333, 361

coarticulate 330 coin xxvi (6), 259
coast 78, 256 coined 138 (77)
coastal 256 coincide 10, 58, 356
coati 225 (203) coincident 145 (106), 356
coaxial 352 colander 49
cobble(r) 95 cold 18, 110, 159, 215
cobbly 95 (156), 226 (207), 269,
cobra 78 276, 350, 375
coccygeal 82 coleslaw 156
coccyx 82 colic 256
cock 350 collaborate 10, 31 (21),
cock-a-doodle-doo 269 58, 243
cockatoo 269 collaboration 31 (21)
cockatrice 209 (118) collar(et) 134 (70), 167
cockerel 243 collate 141 (91), 243
cocoon 269 colleague 46
coda 122, 374 collect 53
coddle(r) xxiv (5), 95 collection 53
code 256 college 347
codex 345 collegiate 30 (20)
codices 345 collide 58, 252
codicil 345 collier 256
codify 256 collision 146 (106), 252
coeducation 10 colloquial 257
coffer(er) 134 (70) collude 357
coffret 134 (70) collusion 357
cogency 32 (21) collusive 357
cogent 32 (21), 256, 352 colocynth 231 (218)
cogitate 256, 352 colon 256
cognate 10, 109, 159, 194, colonnade 156
196, 243, 289 color 16, 49, 133 (70),
cognition xxv (6), 159, 289 134 (70), 156
cognizant 159, 194 coloration 133 (70)
cognomen 182, 195-6, 257 colorer 134 (70)
cognoscible 230 (217) colory 134 (70)
cohabit 10, 46, 330 colt 78
cohere 58, 248, 323 column 156
coherent 323 coma 156
cohesion 323, 361 comatose 156
 417

comb 82 compensate 292, 338

combat 241 compete 249
combination 31 (21) competence 32 (21)
come 92, 104, 168, 218 competent 32 (21)
(184), 368 competitive 249
comedian 119 competitor 109, 249
comedy 157 complacence 32 (21)
comestible 10, 46, 247, 367 complacency 32 (21)
comfort 138 (75) complacent 32 (21), 245,
comic 119 333, 346, 365
command 243, 318 (263) complain 79
commando 318 (263) complaint 79
commandress 132 (68) complaisant 245
commend 318 (263) complement 353
commendation 31 (21) complete 153, 324, 352
commensurable 11 completion 352, 355
commerce 346 complex 177
commiserate 10 complicate 30 (30), 31 (21),
commode 257, 343 177, 345
commodious 257 complication 31 (21)
commodity 257, 343 complicity 345
common(er) 134 (70) compliment 353
commonweal 233 (218) comport 48
communicate 9, 31 (21) comply 123 (45), 353
communication 31 (21) compose 375
communicative 9 composite 351, 375
community 314 (250) composition 351
compact 46, 82, 239 compound 375
compaginate 82, 239 comprehend 10, 212 (133),
companion 10, 308 (222), 338
362, 369 comprehensible 10, 338-9
comparative 244 comprehension 212 (133)
compare 244, 365 comprehensive 212 (133),
comparison 244 338
compassion 342 compress 49, 358, 361
compassionate 30 (20), 342 compression 358, 361
compatible 244, 342 compromise 253
compatriot 367 compulsion 50, 340
compel 50 compute 78
compendium 366 con 160, 368
 418

concatenate 10, 46, 350 conductress 132 (68)

concave 241 cone 24, 115, 156
concavity 241 confect 165
conceal 49, 156, 247, 346 confederacy 232 (218)
concede 45-6, 246 confederate 232 (218), 364
conceit 354 confederation 232 (218)
conceive 16, 247, 329, 354 confederative 232 (218)
concentrate 94 confer 36-7 (30)
concept 16, 247, 329, 354 confess 342, 358, 361
conception 247, 329, 354 confession 342, 358, 361
conceptive 329 confidant 232 (218)
conceptual 329 confide 163, 232 (218), 364
concern 47, 156, 343 confidence 32 (21), 160
concerned 156 confident 32 (21), 232
concession 246 (218)
concessive 246 configuration 78
concierge 349 confine(d) 16, 251
conciliatory 251 confinement 16
concise 356 confiscable 163
conclave 241 confiscate 163
conclude 338 confiscation 163
conclusive 338 confiscator(y) 163
concoct 312 (244) conflagration 162, 313 (249)
concoction 312 (244) conflate 242
concord 47, 110, 155, 289 confluent 259
concordant 289-90 conform 46
concubine 99, 259 confound 262, 357
concupiscence 329 confuse 262, 361
concupiscent 377 confusion 357, 361
condemn 17, 209 (118) congeal 213 (138), 248
condemnation 17 congener 159
condemnatory 209 (118) congenital 109
condescend 46 congest 46
condiment 165 congestion 46
condition 165 congratulate 242
condone 302-3 congregate 347
conduce 45 congregation xxviii (6),
conducement 45 347-8
conducive 46, 303 congregational 347
conduct(ion) 45 congress 48, 51, 209 (118)
 419

conic 24, 76, 115 considerate 30 (20)

conifer 134 (70) console 258
coniferous 134 (70), 136 consolidate 258
(70) conspicuous 46-7, 145
conjectural 60 (106), 254
conjecture 58, 187, 324 conspiracy 16, 254
conjoin 187, 296, 299, 372 conspire 16, 51, 57, 254
conjoint 187, 296, 372, 374 constable 78, 136 (70)
conjugal 160, 187, 224 consternation 299, 310
(201), 258, 296-7 (233)
conjugate 30 (20), 296, 299, constituent 356
372 constitute 356
conjugation(al) 296 constrain(t) 80
conjunct(ion) 296, 372 constrict 82, 130 (64)
conjunctive 296 construable 296, 310 (233)
conjure(r) 134 (70), 187 construct 49, 77, 260,
connate 194 296-8, 310 (233), 352
connect 10, 46, 352 constructible 296
connection 46, 352, 355 construction 49, 77, 260,
connoisseur 194 296, 310 (233), 352, 355
connotative 303 constructive 296, 310 (233)
connote 46 construe 49, 77, 260, 296-
connubial 162, 259 9, 310 (233)
conquer 324 consuetude 325
conquest 324 consular xxix (7)
conquistador 324 consulate 31 (20)
Conrad 306 (220) consume 48, 129 (63), 260
consecrate 130 (64), 137 consumption 129 (63), 260
(74) contact 46, 193, 246
consecutive 235, 354 contactual 246
consent 47, 361 contagion 193, 246, 348
consequence 32 (21), 354 contagious 193, 246, 348
consequent 32 (21), 354 contain 16, 368
consequential 354 contaminate 193, 246
conservable 327 contemplate 98
conservation 17, 31 (21), contemplation 98
327 contemplative 98
conservative 30 (19), 327 contemporaneous 325
conservatory 327 contemporary 325, 360
conserve 17, 327, 349 contend 358-9
 420

contender 359 controvert 343, 361

content(s) 16, 359-60, 368 contund 260
contention 359-60 contuse 260
contentious 359 contusion 49
conterminous 286 convection 166, 250
context 299 convective 202
contiguity 348 convene 168, 250, 368
contiguous 82, 146 (106), convenience 32 (21)
348 convenient 32 (21), 250,
continent 360 368
contingency 32 (21) convent(ion) 250, 368
contingent 32 (21), 82, 130 converge 16, 46-7, 58, 239
(64), 146 (106), 193, convergence 16, 32 (21)
348 convergent 16, 32 (21)
continual 360 conversation 31 (21)
continuance 360 converse 212 (131)
continuation 360 conversion 355
continue 360 convert 50, 355
continuity 360 convey 202, 366
continuous 145 (106), 360 convict(ion) xxvii (6)
continuum 360 convince xxvii (6)
contort 48, 352, 355 convivial 168, 170, 255
contortion 352, 355 convocation 18
contraband 268, 342 convoke 18, 50, 167
contract 45-6, 352-3, 355 convolute 351, 355
contraction 45, 352-3, 355 convolution 258, 355
contractual 355 convoy 203, 366, 374
contradict 158, 200 convulse 358, 361
contrapuntal 78 convulsion 358, 361
contrary 286 convulsive 358, 361
contrast 286 coo 269
contravene 250 cooee 225 (203)
contravention 250 cook 228 (214), 273, 312
contretemps 325 (244)
contrite 235, 255 cooky 228 (214), 273
contrition 235, 255 cool 159, 215 (156), 237,
control 315 (254) 269, 350, 375
controversial 361 cooler 269
controversy 212 (131), 343, coolie 269
361 coon 226 (203), 269, 271
 421

coop 157, 259, 269 corona 290

co-op 354 coronary 290
cooperate 9, 10, 18 coronation 290
cooperative 9, 18, 303 coronet 290, 306 (220)
co-optation 354 corporal 322
coordinate 10, 222 (193), corporate 322
267 corporeal 176, 322
Coors 78 corpse 322
coot 269 corpulence 32 (21)
lovelorn 328 corpulent 32 (21), 151, 156
copious 235, 256-7, 293 corpus 192, 322
copper 134 (70), 314 (250, corpuscle 214 (146), 322
252), 354 corpuscular 214 (146)
coopery 134 (70) corral 259, 306 (220)
copula 10 correct 46, 119, 145 (106),
copulate 10, 31 (21) 352
copulation 31 (21) correction 352, 355
copy 235, 256 corrective 119
coquetry 256 correlate 58, 243
coquette 256, 306 (220) correlative 10
coquettishness 256 correspond 58, 339
coral 306 (220) corresponse 339
corbie 156 corresponsive 339
cord 166, 190 corridor 49, 60, 259
cordate 31 (20), 155, 290 corrigendum 145 (106), 348
cordial 110, 155, 278, 290 corroborate 324
cordiform 290, 292 corrode 272, 317 (256), 338
Cordoba 328 corrosive 317 (256), 338-9
cordovan 328 corrupt 352-3
core 16, 290 corruption 352, 355
Corinthian 235 corsair xxviii (6), 48-50,
cork 312 (244) 150, 259
cormorant 156 Cortes xxi, 306 (220)
corn 160-1 cortex 109
cornea 109, 156 corvette 306 (220)
cornice 290 corvine 156, 192
Cornucopia 256 cosine 40 (35), 254
cornucopiate 235 cosmic 94
corolla 290 cosmogony 109, 289
corollary 290 cosmopolitan 94, 343
 422

cosmopolite 253 covetous 259, 329

cosmos 94 cow 76, 122, 168, 215 (153),
cossack 225 (203), 306 228 (214), 260, 372
(220) coward(ice) 122, 374
cost 90, 104 cowboy 122
costal 78, 256 cower 122, 314 (251)
cot 225 (203) cowslip 272
cote 256 coxalgia 156
coterie 256 coxcomb 350
coterminous 286 coy 370, 374
cottage 256 cozen(er) 134 (70)
cotton 134 (70), 225 (203) crab 228 (212, 214), 241
cottony 134 (70) crack 228 (214), 370
cotyledon(ous) 134 (70) crackle(r) 95, 99
couch 262 crackly 95
cough 176, 181 cradle(r) 95
could 160, 369 crampon 306 (220)
count 78 crane 42-3 (35)
countenance 360 cranium 109, 241, 309 (229)
countermand 243, 318 (263) craspedon 241, 306 (220)
counterpoint 78 crate 290
counterpoise 338 cravat xx, 306 (220)
couple 95-6 crave 81
coupler 95 craven 329
couplet 96 crayfish 241
coupon 306 (220) crayon 306 (220)
courage(ous) 290 creak 211 (125), 370
courant 259 cream 78
courante 259 crease 290
courier xxviii (6), 48-9 create 371
150, 259 creation 371
course 259 creative 9
courtesy 150, 201 creature 371
courtyard 221 (193) credence 32 (21), 247, 290
cousin 134 (70), 324 credent 32 (21), 290
cousinly 134 (70) credential 290
couth 160, 258, 289, 368 credibility 136 (70), 290
cover(let) 134 (70), 365 credible 136 (70), 247,
covert 365 290, 357
covet 259, 329, 377 credibly 136 (70)
 423

credit 290 crook 39 (35), 274, 350

credo 290 crooked 39 (35), 350
credulous 247, 290, 357 crookedness 274
creed 247, 264, 290 croon 269
creek 39 (35) croquette 306 (220)
creel 290 crosier 40 (35), 256, 274
creep 76, 89, 104, 247 cross 131 (66), 333
creepy 247 crosse 39 (35), 256
cremate 247 crotch 39 (35), 274
crematorium 247 crotchet 39 (35)
crematory 247 crouton 258, 306 (220)
crescent 247, 370 crow 160, 211 (125), 280
crest 290 crowd 260, 313 (249)
cretin(ous) 134 (70) crown 290
crevasse 306 (220) crucial 235, 258
cribriform 156, 164, 192 crucifix 251, 258
cricket 274 crucifixion 38 (32), 251
cricoid 290 crucify 38 (32), 251-2
crime 47, 251 crude 157, 192, 344
criminal 47, 251 crudity 314 (250)
criminology 256 cruel 157
cringe 238 cruise(r) 333
crinite 290 cruller 223 (195)
crinkle(r) 95 crumb 99, 150
crinkly 95 crumble 95, 99, 150, 174
cripple(r) 95 crumbier 95
crisis 251, 344 crumple 95, 100, 174
crisp 290 crural 322
criterion 109, 156, 251 crus 322
crith 231 (218) crusade 333
critic 109, 156, 251, 293, crust 258
345 crutch 39 (35), 274, 350
critical 109, 156, 251, crux 235, 259
344-5 cryogen(ic) 251
criticism 293, 345 cryptonym 195
criticize 345 crystal 251
critique 156 ctenoid 192
croak 211 (125), 370 cube 93, 99
croaked 69 cubic 314 (250)
crochet 39 (35), 274 cubicle 99, 323
 424

cubism 99 curd 223 (195), 313 (249)

cuckold 259 curdle 95, 260, 313 (249)
cuckoo 259, 269 cure 343
cud 150 curette 343
cuddle(r) 95, 133 (70), 150 curfew 365
cuddlesome 133 (70) curious 343
cuddly 95, 133 (70) curiosity 343
cudgel(er) 134 (70) curl 223 (195)
cue 122 curlicue 122, 374
cuirass 306 (220) currency 32 (21)
cuisine 312 (244) current 32 (21), 49, 259
cuisses 156 curricular 259
culinary 312 (244) curriculum 259
culminate 156 curse 321-2
culotte 306 (220) cursed 139 (77)
cult 356 cursive 259
cultivate 17, 31 (21) cursor(y) 49, 259
cultivation 17, 31 (21) curt(ail) 222 (193), 357
cultural 356 curtsy 150, 201
culture 356 curve 237, 290
cumber 97 curvilinear 290
cumbersome 94, 116 cushion(y) 134 (70), 156
cumbrous 94, 97, 99 cuspidor 306 (220)
cumulonimbus 256 cuss 321-3
cuneiform xxvi (6), 259 custody 252, 259
cunning 258, 289, 369 custom(er) 134 (70), 325
cunt 259 cutaneous 259
cup 157, 211 (128), 259, cuticle 157, 252
269 cutis 157, 259
cupboard 259 cycle 94, 133 (70), 218
Cupid 259, 377 (179), 251, 257
cupidity 259, 329, 377 cyclic 94, 218 (179), 251,
cupola 157, 259, 269 309 (223)
cupric 134 (70), 314 (250, cyclist 94
252) cycloid 94, 292
curable 343 cyclone 257
curative 343 cyclonic 257
curator 134 (70), 343 Cyclops 94, 312 (243)
curb 290 cyclotron 94
curbstone 290 cylinder 94
 425 d

cylindrical 94 date 302-4, 341

cylindroid 94, 100 dative 302-4
cymbal 134 (70), 157, 350 daughter 200, 208 (114),
cymbaler 134 (70) 226 (204, 207)
cynic 293, 345 dawdle(r) 95
cynicism 293-4, 345 day 226 (207), 328
cynocephalic 155 Dayan 306 (220)
cynosure 155, 324 daze 77, 241
Cypriot 251 dazzle 77, 95, 241
Cyprus 251 dazzler 95
Czecho-Slovakia(n) 308 (222) dead 164, 226 (207), 231
(218)
deaf 165
dabble(r) 95 deal 68, 77, 88-9, 104,
dachshund 155 247, 278, 281, 370
dacron 306 (220) dear 77, 231 (218), 247,
Dacus 181 278
dairy 79 dearth 77, 231 (218)
daisy 167 death 16, 226 (207), 227
Dakar 306 (220) (211), 231 (218)
Dalai (Lama) 225 (203) debate 241, 309 (225)
dale 164, 226 (207), 241 debauch 163
damascene 346 debonair 268
Damascus 346 debouch 260
dame 77, 241 debris 228 (212)
damn(ation) 209 (118) début 258
damp 223 (196) debutante 247
damsel 77, 241 decade 327
dance 11, 131 (66), 226 decadent 345
(207) decalcify 47, 298
dandl decamerous 134 (70)
e(r) 95 decapitate 30 (19), 145
danger(ous) 134 (70) (106), 155, 178, 209
dangle(r) 93, 95 (118)
Danish 368 deceit 354
dare 165 deceive 247, 354
darkle 94 decelerate 46, 298, 327
darkling 94 decern 248
darling 77, 247, 278 December xxvi (6)
data (sg. datum) 241, 302-4, decemvir(ate) xxvi (6)
341
d 426

decent xxvii (6), 119, 247, defect 165, 248, 311 (238),
345 355
decept(ion) 247, 354 defection 355
decertify 247 defend 59, 168, 338
decide 251, 338, 356 defendant 168
deciduous 145 (106), 345 defense 168, 338-9
decimal 158 defensible 338
decipher(er) 134 (70) defensive 338
decision 251, 356 defer 36-7 (30)
decisive 251, 338-9, 356 defiant 232 (218)
declaim(able) 241 deficient 251
declarative 241 deficit 333
declare 251 defile 76-7, 153, 251,
decline 251 267, 372
declivity 251 define(d) 251
decor 345 definitive 252
decorate 30 (20), 247, 345 deflate 242, 298
decorative 345 deflect(ion) 50, 177
decorous 119, 247, 345 defloration 342
decorum 345 deflower 42 (35), 46
decrease 247 defoliate 342, 375
decree 343 defraud 357
decrepit(ude) 329 defrost 46
decumbent 99 defy 232 (218), 364
dedicate 158 degenerate 46, 159, 289
deduce 45, 259 deglutition 259
deduct(ion) 45, 259 degradation 46
deed 51, 137 (74), 165, 269, degrade 339
311 (238), 369 degust 259
deem 165, 269 dehumanize 46
deep xix, 18, 76, 203-4, dehydrate 47
231 (218), 247 deictic 54, 200
deepeningly 247 deify 149
deescalate 247 deign 119, 313 (249)
deface 164, 241, 298, 333 deity 149
defame 342 deject 58, 187
default 358, 367 dejected 60
defeat(ist) 248 dejection 187.
defecate 345 delaine 274
 427 d

delectation 149 demonstrable 109

delegate 31 (20) demonstrate 97
delicacy 161, 343 demonstrative 303
delicate 30 (20), 149, 342, demote 352
351 demotion 352
delicatessen 149, 247, 351, demur 173
367, demurrer 173
delicious 149, 161, 351 denationalize 46
delight 149 denigrate 97
delimit 46 Denmark 368
delinquent 130 (64), 141 denominate 195
(92), 167, 344 denounce 46
delirious 308 (2-2), 323 dent 93
delirium 42 (35), 308 (222), dental 11-13, 35 (28), 147,
323 153, 158, 176, 250, 304
deliver 128 (58), 135 (70), dentifrice 345
328 dentist 161
deliverance 328 denunciate 30 (19)
deliverer 135 (70) denunciation 46
dell 164 denunciative 30 (19)
delude 357 deny 224 (198)
deluge 348 deodorize 46
delusion 357 deoxidize 47
delusive 357 depend 46, 366
deluxe 259 dependence 32 (21), 366
delve 237 dependency 32 (21)
demagnetize 46, 298 dependent 32 (21)
demagogue 352 depict(ion) 83
demand 243, 318 (263) deplete 153, 298, 353
demean 249 deplume 46
dement 291 deponent 46
demented 109 deport 48
dementia 291 depose 49, 258
demersal 221 (192) deposit 46, 258
demesne 158, 201 depository xix
demise 253 deprave(d) 40 (35), 245
democracy xix, 256, 343 depravity 40 (35), 245
democrat 156, 306 (220), deprecatory xix
342 depreciate 46, 236, 249,
demon(ic) 133 (70), 257 366
d 428

depredate 212 (134) destroy 77, 295-6, 298-9,

depress 46, 49 310 (233), 374
deprivation 343 destruct 77
deprive 46, 253, 343 destructible 49, 296
depth xix, 18, 76, 203-4, destruction 47, 77, 296,
207 (113), 221 (193), 298-9
231 (218), 247 destructive 296
deracinate 46, 245, 272, desultory 171-2, 334
317 (256) detach 350
derange 238 detail 246
derelict 50, 130 (64), 141 detain 47
(92), 167, 344 detente 360
deride 46, 254, 338, 357 detention 360
derision 254, 357 deter 47
derisive 254, 338-9 deteriorate 235, 286
derivation 31 (21) determinate 286
derivative 30 (19), 254 determine(r) 135 (70)
derive 254 dethrone 47
dernier ressort 311 (239) detonate 47, 111, 143 (100),
derogate 348 153, 247, 261, 360
derogatory 119, 234 detonation 360
derrière 311 (239) detour 247
descend 46, 209 (118) detract(ion) 45, 47, 353
descent 209 (118) detriment 247
describe 46, 254 deuce 9, 161
descript(ion) 254 devaluate 246
desecration 137 (74) deviate 31 (21), 202, 235,
design 313 (249) 366
desipient 146 (106), 349 deviation 31 (21)
desolate 30 (20), 325 device 334
desperado 316 (254) devil 128 (58), 328
desperate 30 (20) devious 202, 366
despicable 46-7, 49-50, 145 devise 334
(106), 254 devitrify 298
despise 254 devoid 366
despite 47, 220 (190), 254 devote 352-3
despoil(iation) 375 devotion 340, 352, 355
despot 158, 201-2, 258, devour 377
306 (220) devout 353
destitute 235 dew 226 (207)
 429 d

dexiocardia 290 diffidence 232 (218)

dexter 94, 97, 134 (70), 287 diffident 364
dexterity 94, 134 (70), 286 dig 104, 117, 145 (104,
dextrous 94, 97, 134 (70), 105), 373
286 digit 142 (93), 200
diabetes 52, 218 (184), 224 dignify 313 (249)
(201), 246 dignity 119, 313 (249)
diabetic 246 digress 47-8, 51, 58, 209
diabolic 128 (58), 287, 328 (118)
diacritic(al) 156, 251 digression 209 (118)
diagnose 52 dike 251, 350, 373
diagnosis 115, 289, 317 dilatory 141 (91), 251
(256) diligent 347
diagnostic xxv (6), 115, 159 diluvian 348
diagonal 224 (201), 289, 347 dim 223 (196)
dialect 69 dimension 130 (64)
dialog(ue) 9, 82, 347 diminish 58, 287
diaphoretic 52 diminuendo 287
diarrhea 52, 110, 192 diminution 287
diastole 54 diminutive 287
diathermy 52, 168 dimple 95
diatom(ic) 52 dimply 95
dice (v. die) dine 81, 251
dichotomy 251 diner 251
dictate 31 (20), 158, 200 dinner 134 (70), 251
dictatorial 132 (68) dinnery 134 (70)
diction 158, 200 dingo 225 (203)
dictionary 158 dinosaur 306 (330)
dictum 158 Dionysian 251
didn't 136 (70), 369 Dionysus 251
die 16, 164 dioptric 58
die, dice 131 (66), 174, dip 247
318 (263) diphthong 9, 251
dielectric 58 diplocardiac 290
differ 36-7 (30) diplomacy 343
different 355 diplomat 342
differentiate 31 (21), 235, direct 58, 119, 145 (106),
355 239
differentiation 31 (21) directional 374
difficult 146 (106), 164,345 directionality 119
d 430

directorate 132 (68) discouraged 138 (77)

directory 132 (68) discouragement 47
directress 132 (68) discover 47, 134 (70)
dirge 239, 348 discoverer 134 (70)
dirigible 145 (106), 348 discreet 150, 156, 236,
disadvantage(d) 47 247, 250
disagree(able) 47 discrepancy 32 (21)
disallow 47 discrepant 32 (21)
disappear 47 discrete 109, 150, 247
disapprove 47 discretion 236, 247
disarm 47 discriminate 47, 109, 343
disassociate 47 discuss(ion) 358, 361
disaster 94 disdain 119, 313 (249)
disastrous 61 (38), 94 disease 47, 61 (38), 138
disavow(al) 47 (75)
disbar 162 disenchant 47, 350
disbelief 47 disfigure 47, 78
disburse 157 disgorge 47
disc 357 disgrace 242
discard 47 disguise 255, 280
discern 47, 61 (38), 109, disgust 47, 180, 259, 269,
156, 247, 343 332
disciple 354 dish xxxi (10), 226 (207),
disciplinable 354 357
disciplinarian 354 dishabille 330
disciplinary 354 dishevel(er) 134 (70)
discipline 354 dishonest 47
disclaim 47, 173, 241 disimpassioned 47
disclaimer 47, 173 disinherit 47
disclose 47, 333 disinter 154
discobolus 288 disjoin(t) 296
discomfort 138 (75) disjunct(ion) 296
discoid 357 disjunctive 47, 296
discompose 47 disjuneture 187
disconnect(ion) 47 disk 357
disconsolate 30 (20), 47 disliked 138 (77)
discontinue 47 disloyal(ty) 47
discontinuous 145 (106) dismantle 47
discord 47, 110, 155, 290 dismember(er) 47, 96
discourage 47, 290 dismemberment 47
 431 d

dismiss 47 distemper(er) 135 (70)

disobedient 47 distend(er) 358-9
disorder(ly) 47, 135 (70) distension 359
disparate 50, 329 distention 359
disparity 310 (231), 365 distill 135 (70)
dispel 47, 50 distillate 31 (20)
dispensable 338 distiller 135 (70)
dispense 292 distinct 82
display 47, 80 distinguish 82, 214 (146)
displease 47, 249, 333 distort 48
disport 48 distract 45, 47, 353
dispossess 47 distraction 45, 353
disquisition 324 distress 80
disrupt 16, 47, 353, 356 disuse 47
disruption 16, 353 ditch 251, 350, 373
disruptive 47, 303, 353 diuretic 52, 58
dissect 47, 83 diva 149
disseminate 47, 250 dive 108, 247
dissemination 370 diverge 47, 58, 239
dissent 47, 361 diverse 47
dissentient 47 diversion 355
dissever(ance) 329 divert 47, 212 (131), 344,
dissident 47, 212 (136) 355
dissilient 172 divest(ment) 47, 325
dissimilar 47, 326 divide 255, 338, 357
dissimulate 313 (249), 326 divine viii, 147, 149,
dissipate 47 251-2
dissociate 47 divinity viii, 251-2
dissoluble 61 (38) division 255, 357
dissolute 61 (38), 270 divisive 338-9
dissolution 61 (38) divorce 47, 344
dissolve 61 (38), 270 divulge 239
dissonant 47 dizzy 165
dissuade 47, 338, 349 do 51, 76, 78, 86-7, 91,
dissuasion 349 127 (58), 137 (74), 164-
dissuasive 338, 349 5, 226 (207), 259, 311
dissymetry 47 (238), 369
distain 80 docile 119
distance 32 (21) doctor 94, 119
distant 32 (21), 47 doctrine 19, 119
d 432

document(ary) 119 doomsday 269

dodder(er) 134 (70) doomster 269
doddery 134 (70) door 149, 165, 187
dodge 239 Dorian 236
doe 121 dormant 319 (263)
does(n't) 76, 87, 127 (58), dormer 319 (263)
136 (70), 259, 369 dormitory 319 (263)
doff 165 dormouse 319 (263), 323
dog vii, viii, xix, 7, 12, Dorothy 319 (263)
27, 171, 176 dorsal 319 (263)
doggone 87 dorsum 319 (263)
dogma 119, 193 dorter 319 (263)
dogmatism 193 dosage 302-4
dogmatize 119 dose 302-3
doily 373 dote 257
dolce 259 dotty 257
dole 259, 278, 281, 370 double 94-7, 259
dolicocephalic 205 doubler 94-5
dollar xx doublet 9, 94, 96
dolor(ous) 134 (70) doubloon 94, 271
dolt 78, 165 doubly 94-5
domain 158, 309 (224), 368 doubt 262
dome 158 dough 79, 121, 164-6, 216
domestic 158, 201 (207), 281
domesticate 158 doux 259
domicile 158 dove 128 (58), 226 (207)
dominance 32 (21) dowager 318 (263)
dominant 32 (21) dowdy 260
dominate 158, 201 dower 318 (263)
domineer 158, 201 dowry 318 (263)
dominion 158, 309 (224), doxology 119
368 dozen 9
don 165 draconian 257
donate 38 (32), 302-4 draconic 257
donation 38 (32) draff 161, 165
donor 302-3, 319 (263) draft 181, 201
don't 78, 369 drag 201, 216 (168), 279,
doodad 269 347, 366
doodle 269 dragnet 347, 366
doom 165, 269 dragon(et) 134 (70)
 433 d

dragoon 269, 271 drouth 231 (218)

dramaturge 347 drove 16, 114, 142 (95),
dramaturgy 141 (86), 347 372
drape 93 drown 377
draw 86, 104, 201, 216 drudge(ry) 239
(168), 279, 366 drumble(r) 95
drawn 100 drunk 92, 142 (100), 262,
dray 216 (168), 279, 366 377
dream 68, 77, 89, 105-6, drunkard 122
129 (63), 226 (207), 247 drunken 138 (77)
dreary 226 (207) dry 207 (113), 231 (218)
dredge 239, 347, 366 dryad 306 (220)
dredger 366 dual 8, 11-12, 35 (28),
drench 350, 377 147, 158
dribble 95-6, 99, 100 dubious 262, 271
dribbler 95 duchess 45, 215 (153),
dribblet 96, 100 259
drift 142 (95), 251, 372 duchy 45
drill 176, 285 duct 45, 69, 158
drink 104, 113, 122, 350, ductile 45
377 duds 260
drip 137 (72), 227 (209), duel 9
269 duet 9
drive 26-7, 88, 104, 112, dug(out) 92, 164, 373
128 (58), 142 (95), 226 duke 45, 158, 215 (153),
(207), 251, 372 259
drivel 134 (70), 165, 269 dulcet 259
driveler 134 (70) dulcimer 259
drizzle 94-5, 99 dull 78, 165
drizzler 95 dumb 165
drizzly 94-5 dumps 223 (196)
dromedary 79 dunce 11
drone 165, 278 dungeon(er) 134 (70)
drool 269 dunk 80
droop 269 duo 9
drop 100, 137 (72), 226 dupe 270
(207), 227 (209), 269 duple 94, 97
droplet 100, 137 (72), 269 duplex 94, 177
dropsy 269 duplicate 9, 30 (20), 94,
drought 207 (113), 231 (218) 117, 259, 345
e 434

duplication 94 edelweiss 344

duplicative 9 edible 55, 247, 339, 367
duplicator 94 edict 48, 158, 247
duplicity 9, 94, 345 edit 247, 318 (263), 352-3
dusk 164-5 Edith 365
dust 165 edition 165, 352, 355
dwindle 164 editor 318 (263), 353
dynasty xix editress 132 (68), 215
dysentery 33 (25) (153)
dyspepsia 312 (244) Edmund 365
educate 30 (20), 31 (21),
59, 76, 247
education 31 (21)
eagle(t) 96
educative 9
ear xxiv (5), 322
Edward 365
earth 227 (211), 231 (218) Edwin 365
ease 138 (75), 150
efface 164, 241, 333
easy 101, 138 (75)
effect 165, 248, 311 (238)
eat 76, 88, 104, 227 (210),
effeminate 30 (20), 164,
247, 356, 367
247
ebb 228 (212)
efferent 49, 163
ebullient 59
effervesce 48
ecbatic 218 (184)
efficacious 146 (106), 164,
ecbolic 53, 287
242, 310 (230)
eccentric 53, 59, 94
efficacity 242
ecclesiastical 59
efficient 251, 310 (230),
echelon 306 (220)
365
echo 52, 183, 190
effigy 78
eclectic 51, 53, 59
effloresce 342
eclipse 53, 59, 141 (92),
effluent 59
167, 344
effort 93
ecliptic 344
effulgent 162
ecstasy xix, 53, 341
ego 123 (45), 159
ecstatic 341
egoism 159
ectoplasm 59
egoist 334
Ecuador 306 (220)
egotism 123 (45), 159
ecumenical 164
egotist 334
eczema 59
egregious xxviii (6), 48,
Edgar 365
59, 201, 347
edge 76, 81
 435 e

egregiousness 347 eleven 8, 29-30 (17), 35

egress 47-8, 51, 59, 209 (28), 382 (280)
(118), 247 elicit 149
egret 78 elide 146 (106), 252
Egypt 355 eligible 82, 347
Egyptian 355 eliminate 253
eight 76, 200 elision 252
eighth xvi, 13 Eliza 251
eighty 84 Elizabeth 251, 253
either 146 (108) elk 247
ejaculate 9, 31 (21), 58, ellipse 167
187, 209 (118) elm 88
ejaculation 31 (21) elocution 257
ejaculative 9 elongation 347
eject 48, 58-60, 187, 352, elope 204, 265
355 else 167
ejection 187, 352, 355 elucidative 9
eke 159 elude 338, 357
elaborate 30 (20), 59, 243 elusion 357
eland 247 elusive 338-9, 357
elate 243 emancipate 208 (118), 243,
elation 141 (91) 354
elbow 313 (249) emancipator 134 (70)
elder, -est 210 (118) emancipatory 132 (68), 134
El Dorado 319 (263) (70)
elect 53, 82 emancipatress 132 (68), 134
elective 53 (70)
electoral 132 (68) emasculate 9
electorial 132 (68) emasculative 9
electress 132 (68) embalm 47
electric(ity) 345 embargo 162
electrode 54 embarrass(ment) 162
electrolysis 341 embed 48
electrolytic 341 embellish 59, 268
electrolyze 341 embezzle(r) 94-5
electromagnet 100, 195, 256 embitter 47
electron 306 (220) emblaze 47
elegance 32 (21) emblem 288
elegant 32 (21), 247, 347 embolic 287
elevate 332, 349 embolism 52
e 436

embosom 134 (70) encumber 94, 99

embroider(er) 134 (70), 367 encumbrance 94
embroidery 374 encyclopedia 94, 249
embryo 52, 59, 115, 257 encyclopedic 309 (223)
embryonic 115, 257 endear 47, 62 (40), 247
emerge 221 (192), 239 endocardium 290
emersion 221 (192) endorse 319 (263)
eminence 32 (21) endothelium 164
eminent 32 (21) endow(ment) 318 (263)
emissary 344 energetic 347
emission 352, 355 energy xix, 110, 159, 347,
emissive 353 363
emit 48, 59, 352-3 engage 239
Emma 289 engender(er) 134 (70), 289
empanel 244 England 94, 292
empathy 182, 232 (218), 291 English 94
emperor 133 (68), 306 (220) engrave 259, 269
emphasis 341 enigma(tic) 193
emphasize 341 enjoy 347, 377
emphatic 59, 341 enlace 243
empire 133 (68), 305 (219), enlarge 239
364 enliven(er) 135 (70)
employ 47 ennoble 47
emporium 236 enough 56, 181
empower 59 enroll 315 (254)
empress 133 (68), 364 ensemble 326
emulgent 160 enshrine 48
enact 47 enslave 47
enamel(er) 134 (70) ensue 354
enamor 47, 240 entablature 100
encage 48 entangle(r) 96
encamp (ment) 48 enter 33 (25), 94
encase 353 enteric 33 (25), 286
enchantress 132 (68) entertainment 360
enclave 241 enthetic 52
enclose 256, 333 entitle 255
encore 330 entomb 100
encourage 47, 290 entomology 52, 224 (201)
encroach 40 (35) entrails 33 (25), 35 (28)
encrust 48 entrance 94
 437 e

entrant 94 equal(ity) 133 (70)

entreat 353 equatorial 132 (68)
entree 94 equestrian 157
entry 94 equine 157
enumerate 59 equinox 373
enunciate 30 (19) equipoise 338
enunciative 30 (19), 303 equity 145 (106), 146 (106)
envoy 47, 203, 366 equivalence 341
Eocene 247 equivalent 341
eon 306 (220), 311 (237) equivocal 346
eparchy 59 equivocate 18, 167
epaulet 273 equivocation 18
epée 273 eradicate 59, 245, 272,
epenthesis 59 317 (256)
epenthetic 53, 164 erase 317 (256), 338-9,
ephemera 308 (221) 368
ephemeral 53, 59, 314 (251), erasure 324
330, 369 erect(ile) 119
epic 60, 166, 375 eremite 330
epicardium 290 erg 10, 110, 141 (87), 159,
epicenter 52 347, 363
epidemic 52, 247 ergo 235, 348
epidemiology 247 ergon 347
epidermis 52 erlking 289
epilepsy 341 Erma 289
epileptic 341 Ermentrud(e) 289
epilog(ue) 52, 347 erode 317 (256), 338, 357,
Epimetheus 144 (102) 368
episode 52, 54, 115, 257 Eros 306 (220)
episodic 115, 257 erosion 272, 317 (256),
epistle 133 (70), 134 (70) 340, 357
epistolary 133 (70) erosive 338
epistoler 134 (70) erudite 254
epitaph 52 erudition 254
epithelium 164 erupt(ion) 353
epithet 164, 306 (220) eruptive 353
epitome 224 (201) erysipelas 152, 215 (157)
eponym 195 erythro- 164, 215 (157),
eponymous 59 340
epos 60, 166, 346 escalade 61 (37)
e 438

escalate 61 (37) Ethiopia 24, 115, 288, 311

escalator 61 (37) (243)
escape 41 (35) Ethiopie 24, 115, 288
esclandre 137 (70) ethnic 325, 345
esculent 247 ethnicity 345
esophageal 347 ethnology 256
esophagus 347 ethos 325
esoteric 235, 286 Etruria 235-6, 259, 323
espalier 273 Etruscan 235, 259, 323
especial 250 étude 260
espionage 305 (219), 306 etymon 28
(220), 371 Eudora 319 (263)
esplanade 152 eugenics 137 (71)
espousal 334 eulogy 137 (71), 347
espouse 334, 339 euphemism 137 (71), 342
espy 371 euphemize 137 (71)
essence 32 (21), 323, 379 euphony xix
(264) euphoria 137 (71)
essential 32 (21), 333, 379 eureka 330
(264) Europe 371
establish(ment) 136 (70), European 371
245 eutexia 153, 161
estate 245 euthanasia 137 (71), 165,
esteem 33 (23), 108, 323 224 (201)
esthesia 115 evacuate 59, 246, 366
esthete 247 evade 338, 357
esthetic(s) 115, 247 evaluate 246
estimative 9 evangelical(ly) 137 (71)
Estonia(n) 235 evangelium 274
estrange 287 evaporate 246
etch 55, 356 evasion 340, 357
ethanol 307 (220) evasive 338, 340
ether 133 (70) Eve 247
ethereal 133 (70), 247 Evelyn 247
etherealize 247 evection 202
etherification 247 even(er) 134 (70)
etherify 247 event 355-6, 368
ethic(s) 293, 325 eventual 355, 368
ethicist 293 eventuate 355
Ethiop 306 (220) ever(y) 94
 439 e

evict(ion) xxvii (6) excrete 156, 343

evocation 18 excruciate 258
evocative 30 (19) excursion 48
evoke 18, 167, 375 excuse 333
evolution 351, 377 execrable 137 (74), 209
evolve 258, 377 (118)
Evonne 306 (220) execrate 209 (118), 336
ewe 237 executant 354
ewer 143 (100) execute 336, 352, 354
exacerbate 93, 271, 336 execution 336, 352, 354-5
exact 336, 352 executive 336
exaggerate 336 executor(y) 354
exalt 330, 336 exegesis 247, 250, 326,
examine 134 (70), 336, 352 330, 336, 344, 348
examiner 134 (70) exegete 53, 250, 330, 344
example 94, 336 exegetic 247, 344
excavate 30 (19), 48, 155, exemplar(y) 94
335 exemplify 48-9, 94, 247,
exceed 335-6, 339 260, 336
excel 156 exempt 50, 247, 336
excellent 156 exequies 354
except 208 (118), 219 (186), exercise 336
329, 352-3 exert 336
exception 208 (118), 352, exhale 48, 242, 309 (225),
355 335-6
excerpt 109, 155 exhaust 336
excess 45, 48, 339 exhibit 146 (106), 330-1,
excessive 339 336
excessor(y) 339 exhibition 336
excise 146 (106), 356 exhilarate 327, 330, 336
excision 356 exhort(ation) 166, 331,
excite 346 336
exclaim 156, 241 exhume 331, 356
exclamation 31 (21) exigencies 352
exclamative 30 (19) exigent 244, 336, 352
exclamatory 251 exiguous 352
exclude 338 exile 336
exclusive 338 exist 336
excommunicate 9 existentialism 336
excommunicative 9 exit 50, 252, 336
e 440

exodus 51, 53-4, 336 expulsion 50, 52

exonerate 257, 323, 336 expurgate 30 (19), 244
exorbitant 336 expurgative 30 (19)
exorcize 336 exquisite 324, 335
exothermic 336 exscind 130 (64)
exotic 336 exsiccate 335
expand 152, 338 extant 335
expatiate 48 extemporal 325
expatriate 367 extemporaneous 325, 360
expectancy 32 (21) extemporary 325
expectant 32 (21) extemporize 325
expedient 249 extend(er) 339, 358-9
expedite 42 (35), 59, 249, extensible 339, 359
252-3 extension 359
expedition 253 extensive 339, 359
expeditious 249, 252 extensometer 339
expel 50 extensor 339, 359
expend 292, 338 extent 359
expense 338, 366 extenuate 154, 360
expensive 338 exterior 250, 286
experience 32 (21), 249 exterminate 286
experiment 249 external 250
expiate 370 extinct 48, 82
expire 48, 254 extinguish 82, 214 (146)
explain 152, 245 extort 48
explanation 31 (21) extra 286
explanatory 152, 245 extract(ion) 45, 48, 353
expletive 353 extradite 251, 255, 318
explicate 48, 177, 345, 372 (263)
explicative 303 extradition 48, 251, 255
explicit 153, 345, 373 extramural 48
explode 10, 338 extraneous 48, 286-7
exploit 341, 372, 374 extraordinary 48
exploitation 372 extreme 250, 286
exploration 31 (21) extremity 250
explosible 338 extricate 343
explosive 10, 338-9 extrinsic 286, 354
export 48, 50, 153 extrovert 212 (131)
express 49 extrude 49, 338
expropriate 97, 258 extrusive 338
 441 f

exuberant 165, 336 fail 22, 76, 241, 358, 367

exudate 336 failure 241, 367
exude 48, 61, 328, 336 faint 78, 164
exult 48, 172, 209 (118), fair 22, 323
334, 336 fairy 22
exultation 172 faith 163, 232 (218), 364
exume 335-6 falcon 134 (70), 358
eye 15, 81, 161, 167, 216 falconer 134 (70)
(168), 279, 311 (243), fall 104, 129 (61), 265
374 fallacious 358, 361
eyelet 167 fallacy xix, 22, 241, 358,
361, 367
fallen 88, 129 (61)
fallible 129 (61), 241, 367
fable 94, 241, 342, 362 fallow 152, 244
fabricate 349 false 129 (61), 358, 367
fabulist 241 falsetto 367
fabulosity 241 falsify 358, 367
fabulous 241 falsity 358
façade 164, 333 fame 268, 342, 362
face 22, 164, 241, 333, 361 famous 342
facet 164, 241, 333 fan 23
faceted 241 fancy 201
facial 241, 361 fanon 23
facile 146 (106), 333, 345, fantasia 235, 242, 304
365 fantastic 235, 242, 304
facilitate 333, 345 fantasy 201
facility 164, 333, 345 far 56, 242
facsimile 163, 241 fare 22, 232 (218), 242
fact 69, 137 (74), 146 (106), farina 162
164, 220 (190), 355 farm 143 (100)
factive 303 farrow 153
factor 164 farther 56, 287
factory 137 (74), 146 (106), fasces 242
164, 365 fascia 242
factotum 345 fasciate 242
factual 164, 355 fascicle 242
faculty 345 fashion(er) 134 (70), 164
fad xix fast, -est xxiii (5), 102,
fade 23 121
f 442

fasten(er) 134 (70) federate 232 (218)

fastigiate 244 fee 152, 380 (265)
fat 22, 151-2 feeble 94, 371
father 22, 147, 152, 154, feebleness 94
161, 176-7, 196, 367 feebly 94, 103
fathom 134 (70), 152, 154 feed 16, 68, 76, 90, 104,
fathomer 134 (70) 152, 247, 265-6, 269,
fatigue 243 369, 378-9
faucal 345 feel 68-9, 75, 77, 88-9,
fauces 345 104, 152, 247
faucet 367 feet (v. foot)
fault 22, 358, 367 feign 78, 130 (64)
faulty 22 feint 78
Faust 79 feldspar 55, 247
faux (pas) 244, 367 felicide 247
favor(er) 134 (70) feline 247, 251
fealty 150, 232 (218), 364 felinity 251
fear 152, 177, 248 fell 152, 210 (123), 363
fearsome 248 fellow 152, 380 (265)
feasible 164, 248, 305 felonious 6
(219), 333, 365 female 164, 247
feast 79, 164, 191, 248, feminine 164, 247
323 femora 247
feat 137 (74), 164, 220 femoral 247
(190), 248 femur 247
feather 134 (70), 153-4, fence 11, 131 (66), 168
227 (211) fend 168
featherer 134 (70) feral 165, 219 (186), 220
featherlet 134 (70) (189), 248
feathery 134 (70) ferial 323
feature 137 (74), 164 ferment 36 (30), 48, 162,
febrifugal 134 (70) 337
febrifuge 128 (58), 134 fermentation 337
(70), 248, 328, 347 ferocious 220 (189), 257,
febrile 94, 134 (70) 312 (243), 358, 361
feces 345 ferocity 217 (176), 257,
feckless 248 358, 361
fecund 164, 219 (186) ferret 163
federal 232 (218), 364 ferry 56, 153, 232 (218)
federalist 232 (218) fertile 162-3
 443 f

fervent 48, 162, 337 fiddle 23

fervescent 337 fide 232 (218), 364
fervid 337 fidelity 150, 163, 232
fervor 162, 337 (218), 364
festival 216 (159), 248, fiducial 232 (218)
323 fiduciary 232 (218), 364
festive 191, 248, 323 fief 380 (265)
festoon 271 field 23, 152, 247, 262
fetch 207 (110), 247, 356 fiend 55
fete 248 fierce 79, 220 (189), 248
fetid 159 fierceness 248
fetlock 158, 207 (110), fife 84, 129 (60), 151-2,
247 176
fetter 22, 134 (70), 158, fifteen 76, 82, 126 (57),
190-1, 207 (110), 247, 252
304 fifteenth 76, 82, 126 (57),
fetterer 134 (70) 252
fetus 164 fiftieth 252
feud(al) 380 (265) fifth 13, 76, 82, 126 (57),
fever 94, 128 (58), 134 179, 203, 230 (217), 231
(70), 248, 328 (218), 236, 252
feverish 94, 134 (70) fifty 76, 82, 84, 126 (57),
feverous 134 (70) 167, 252
few 22, 76, 152 fight 68, 199-200, 374, 380
fey 367 (265)
fiancé(e) 232 (218) figment 78, 82, 130 (64)
fiasco 171 figurant 78
fiat 128 (58), 163 figurative 78, 166
fib 268, 342 figure 22, 78, 164, 166,
fiber 95, 97 216 (161), 324
fibrin 95 figured 164
fibroid 95, 100, 292 figurine 78
fibrous 95, 97 filament 251
fickle 95, 367 file 22, 251
fickleness 95 filial 164
fickly 95 filibuster 258
fictile 78 filigree 251
fiction 78, 130 (64), 352 fill 68, 144 (102), 153,
fictitious 78, 82, 352 353
fictive 78, 352 filling 153
f 444

fillip 23 fisherman 152

Fillmore 306 (220) fissile 360, 365
filly 271 fission 162, 360, 365
film 88, 143 (100), 152, fist 79, 377
210 (123) fistula 365
filterable 95 five 13, 22, 76, 82, 84,
filtrate 31 (20) 102, 152, 167, 177-8,
filth 76-7, 114, 153, 206, 203, 207 (111), 236-7,
231 (218), 251, 263-4, 252, 314 (251)
266 fjord 232 (218)
filthy 77, 153, 251 flabbergast 79
filtrate 31 (20), 95 flag 93
filtration 95 flagellate xxvii (6), 216
final 193, 251, 363 (168), 242, 313 (249),
finance 251 347, 367
find 104, 114, 232 (218), flagrant 79, 160, 162
262, 277, 337, 374, flail 216 (168), 242, 313
382 (279) (249), 367
fine 22, 251 flair 151
finer 102 flake 152
finery 22 flambé 162
finesse 306 (220) flambeau 162
finger 134 (70), 178 flamboyant 162
fingery 134 (70) flame 160, 162, 214 (145),
finicky 252 242, 313 (249)
finish 251, 363 flammable 242
finite 193, 251, 373 flammatory 242
fink 104 flange 238
fir 312 (244) flank 238
fire 19, 143 (100), 151, flannel 134 (70), 274-5
153, 177 flannelette 306 (220)
firebrand 337 flannelly 134 (70)
firetrap 153 flap 23
firm 143 (100), 165, 371 flat 152, 244
first 13, 56, 178-9, flatten 244
230-1 (217) flatter 133 (70), 134 (70),
firth 223 (195), 232 (218) 244
fiscal 163 flatterer 133 (70), 134
fish 19, 22, 152, 177, (70)
312 (247), 357 flattery 133 (70), 244
 445 f

flatulent 162, 242 flotsam 257

flavor(ous) 134 (70) flounder 245
flaw 80 flour 16, 19, 144 (100),
flect 352 342
flection 177, 352 flourish 342
fledge 239 flow 153, 273, 280
fledgeling 239, 372 flower 95, 134 (70), 144
flee 92, 104, 248 (100), 268, 342, 377
fleece 153, 208 (116) flowery 95, 134 (70), 342,
fleet 273 377
fleur 268, 341 fluency 343
flex(ible) 177, 344 fluent 259, 342
flexor 177 flung 92
flight 200, 239, 372 fluster(y) 134 (70)
fling 104, 145 (104) flutist 262
flint 153 flutter(er) 134 (70)
flintlock 153 fluttery 134 (70)
flip 23 fluvial 259
flirt 13 flux 259
float 257 fly 86-7, 200, 239, 372
flog xxvii (6), 216 (168), foal 271
347, 367 foam 153, 278, 281, 317
flood 153, 273 (257)
floor 150, 152 focal(ize) 22
flop 23 foci 131 (66)
Flora 341 fodder 134 (70), 152, 269,
flora 95, 150, 268, 341, 314 (252), 369
377 fodderer 134 (70)
Florence 341, 375 foe 367
florence 341 foggy 101
Florentine 341 foible 371, 374
florescence 95, 341 foil 342, 374-5
floret 341 foist 79, 377
floriate(d) 341 fold 153, 300
florid 95, 341, 377 foliage 342, 375
Florida 341 foliate 342, 375
floriferous 95 folio 342, 375
florin 341-2 foliole 342
florist 95, 268, 342, 377 foliose 342
flotilla 257 folley 22, 269
f 446

follicle 269 forensic 162

follow 75 foresee 55
fond 174 foresight 55
fondle 174 forest 149
font 13, 79 forestall 55
fontanelle 79 forester 95
food 16, 22, 68, 93, 152, forestry 95
164-5, 222 (193), 264-5, foretell 55
269, 314 (252), 362, 369 forethought 56
fool(hardy) 269 forewarn 56
foot 20, 22, 67-8, 76, 147, foreword 56
151, 161, 176-7, 212 forfeit 149, 165
(136), 222 (193Y, 247, forge 239, 349
264-6, 271, 274, 276-7, forget 21, 55, 88, 106,
280, 297, 304, 331, 356, 166
371 forgetful 166
footfall 274 forgive(ness) 55
for 152, 230 (217) forgo 87
forage 369 forjudge 149
foramen 134 (70), 162-3 forlorn 55, 323, 333, 381
foraminous 134 (70) (278)
foray 369 form 143 (100), 150
forbear 55 formal 150
forbid 55, 364 format 242, 306 (220)
forbidding 364 formation 242, 340
force 131 (66) formative 340
forceps 168, 219 (186), 354 former 56
ford 153, 232 (218) formic 291-2, 294-5
fore 152, 230 (217) formicary 292, 294
forebear 55 formicide 291-2, 294-5
forecastle 55 fornicatress, -ix 132 (68)
foreclose 56, 149, 165, 333 forsake(n) 55, 160, 274,
forefront 55 326
foregoing 88 forswear 55, 362
foregone 87 Forsyth 235, 252
foreground 55 forsythia 235, 252
forehand 55 fort 22, 341-2
forehead 55 forth 56
foreign 149-50, 165 fortieth 35 (27)
foremost 56, 230 (217) fortify 22, 341
 447 f

fortuitous 163 frangible 130 (64), 347

fortunate 287 frantic 201
fortune 163, 287 frater 95
forty 8, 84 fraternal 95, 154, 162, 176,
forum y62 190-1
forward(s) 56, 230 (217) fraternity 95
fossil 162, 291 fraternize 95
foster 152, 369 fratricide 95, 256
foul 114, 153, 206, 231 fratry 95
(218), 264, 266-7 fraud 357
foulmouthed 337 fraudulent 357
found 92, 158, 166, 219 fraught 368
(186), 260, 263, 357, fray 242
372 frazzle 242
foundation 260 freckle 95
foundling 262 freckly 95
foundress 132 (68) freebooter 258, 269
foundry 260, 263, 372 freeze 16, 82, 104, 116,
fount 79 153, 179, 208 (116),
fountain 79 323, 370
four 167 freeze-dry 370
fourchette 306 (220) freight(er) 368
fourth 13 French 345, 350
fowl 22, 239 frenzy 201
fox 12, 21-5, 39 (35), 121, frequency 32 (21), 343
131 (66), 144 (102) frequent 32 (21), 342
fraction 82, 130 (64) fresh 357
fracture 130 (64), 159, 162 fret 55
fragile 130 (64), 133 (70), friable 252, 345
150, 159, 162, 242, 347 fricasse 162, 337
fragility 133 (70), 347 fricative 345
fragment 82, 130 (64), 159, friction 46, 252, 345
162, 176, 190, 347 Friday 171
fragmentary 347 frigate 31 (20)
fragrance 32 (21) Frigg 171
fragrant 32 (21), 79, 151 frigid 159, 219 (186), 348
frail 151, 242 frigidity 348
France 345, 350 fringe 238
Francophobic 309 (223) frisk(y) 357
Frank 345, 350 frith 223 (195)
g 448

fritter 134 (70), 162, 252, funnel 260, 372

337 Furies 165
fritterer 134 (70) furlong 153
frizzle(r) 95 furnace 12, 35 (28), 168-9,
fro 278 204, 354
frore 179, 323 furor 165, 306 (220)
frost 16, 77, 82, 153, 179, furrow 153
257, 323, 370 further 134 (70), 230
frosty 323 (217), 287
froth 232 (218) furtherer 134 (70)
froze(n) 77, 82, 88, 153, furthest 56, 230 (217)
179, 237, 257, 323 furtive 163
fructify 77, 162 fury 165
fructuous 77 fuse 131 (66), 372
frugal 159, 162 fuselage 306 (220)
fruit 77, 159, 162 fusible 131 (66)
fry 162, 252, 337 fusion 357
fudge 239 futile 372
fugacity 347 futility 372
fugal 347 future 128 (58), 163
fugient 347 fuzzy 101
fugitive 347-8
fugue 347
fulfill 153, 353
fulgurant 22, 162 gabble(r) 96
fulminate 162 gable 96, 162, 166
full 68, 144 (102), 153, gabled 162
210 (123), 353, 363 gablet 96
fullness 153 Gaelic 309 (223), 367
fulsome 153, 313 (249), gage 239, 314 (249)
353 fain 366
fumble(r) 96 galactic 214 (144), 344
fume 165 Galahad 306 (220)
fumigate 165, 243 galantine 347
fund 260 galaxy xix, 213 (144), 344
fundament 162 falbanum 347
fundamental 260 gall 166, 217 (168), 291
funebrial 231 (218), 323 gallant 242
funeral 164, 231 (218) gallantry xix
funereal 231 (218), 323 Gallic 95, 345
 449 g

Gallicism 95, 367 gavotte xxi, 306 (220)

Gallicize 95, 345 gay, -er 100-1
gallivant 242 gazelle xxi, 306 (220)
gallows 228 (213), 279 gazette 306 (220)
galosh(es) 306 (220) Gdansk 192
game 143 (100), 242 geisha 225 (203)
gamble 96, 98, 143 (100), gelatin(ous) 134 (70),
174, 225 (203) 213 (138), 347
gambler 96, 98, 242 gelid 110, 159, 347
gander 10-12, 32 (22), gelignite 194
35 (28), 269, 370 geminate 30 (20)
gang 228 (213) gene 30 (17), 159, 248,
ganglion xii, 23, 131 (66), 371
182 genealogy 30 (17), 159,
ganister 194 248, 292, 371
gannet 269, 370 gender 134 (70), 289
gape 85, 227 (209), 228 generalization 31 (21)
(213) generate 159, 248, 280,
garage 306 (220) 289, 352, 355
garble(r) 96 generation 352, 355
garden 166, 187, 216 (168), generative 109
226 (207), 291 genesis 159, 248, 273,
gargle 96, 377 289, 298
gargler 96 genetic 289
gargoyle 377 genial 194, 235
garner 223 (195) genital 109, 289
garnish 365 genitive 289, 303
garret 365 genocide 30 (17), 248
garrison 365 genteel 136 (70)
garrotte 306 (220) gentile 136 (70)
garth 232 (218) gentle 95, 136 (70), 235
gas 20, 361 gentleman 235
gaseous 308 (222), 361 gentleness 95
gastropod 306 (220) gently 95, 136 (70)
gather(er) 134 (70) genuflect 110, 160, 192,
gaud(y) 347, 377 224 (201), 289, 344,
gauge 239 genuflection 289
Gaul 367 genus 159, 248
gauntlet 371 geocentric 256
Gautama 168 geography 256
g 450

geometry xix, 110 ginger(y) 134 (70)

geophysics 52 giraffe xxi, 306 (220)
George 239 gird 90, 221 (193), 232
Georgette 306 (220) (218), 291
geriatric 308 (222) girdle 155, 221-2 (193),
germ 289 226 (207), 228 (213),
German 133 (70) 232 (218), 291
germane 289 girl 76
Germanic 133 (70) girt 90, 221 (193), 232
germanic 242 (218)
germanium 242 girth 221 (193), 232 (218),
gest 323 291
gestalt 56 give 81, 88, 104, 128 (58),
gestate 323, 356 228 (213), 368
gestation 356 glacial 110, 213 (138)
gesticulate 31 (21), 323, glacier 213 (138)
356 glad 27
gesticulation 31 (21) gladsome 313 (249)
gesture 323, 356 Glagolitic 159
get 21, 71, 88, 105-6, 115- glamorous 134 (70)
7, 158, 166, 176, 229 glamour xxix (7), 134 (70)
(217), 265, 378 gland 357
getter 166 glander(ous) 134 (70)
get-up 166 glandular 357
gewgaw 306 (220) glare 166, 242, 323
geyser 372 glass(es) 131 (66), 166,
ghastly 79, 281 228 (213), 242, 323,
ghost 79, 227 (210), 228 333
(213), 281 glassful 242
ghoul 225 (203) glassware 242
giant xxvii (6) glassy 166, 242, 323
gibe xxvii (6) glaze 166, 242, 323, 333,
gift 81-2, 368 361
gifted 138 (77) glazier 242, 361
giggle(r) 96 glaziery 361
giggly 96 gleam 166, 228 (213), 242,
gild 166, 291, 375 321, 323
gilded 166 gleesome 313 (249)
Giles 39 (34) glimmer 134 (70), 166, 323
Gilyak 306 (220) glimmery 134 (70)
 451 g

glisten 166, 323 gnu 194

glitter 134 (70), 166, 323 go 21, 28, 76, 86-8, 104,
glittery 134 (70) 204, 257, 331
globe 257 goad 85, 93
globular 257 goat 281
globule 257 gobble(r) 96
globulin 257 gobbledygook 274
gloom 259, 269, 315 (253) go-getter 88
gloss 166, 344 goggle 96
glossy 166 goggly 96
glot 344 Goidelic 367
glow 166, 242, 280, 321, goiter 95, 97, 374
323, 375 goitrous 95, 97
glower 134 (70), 269, 315 gold 166, 217 (168), 291,
(253) 375
glowerer 134 (70) golden 166
glucose 259 gonad 109, 280, 289, 306
glue 127 (58), 231 (218), (220)
337 goner 87
glum 100, 259, 265, 269, gonfalon 23, 168
315 (253) gonfanon 23
glut 259 gonorrhea 289
gluten 134 (70), 231 (218), goo 269
337 goober 269
glutinous 134 (70), 337 gooey 269
glutition 259 good vii, viii, 274
glutton(ous) 134 (70), 259 goodliness 274
gluttony 259 goody-goody 274
glycerine 259 goof(y) 269
gnarl(ed) 194 gook 269
gnash 171, 194 goon 269
gnat 171, 194 goose 10-12, 21, 32 (22),
gnathic 194 35 (28), 67, 77, 127
gnaw 171, 194 (57), 144 (102), 171,
gneiss 194 237, 264, 269, 314
gnome 194 (252), 333, 369-70
gnomic 309 (223) gopher 364
gnomon 308 (221) gorge 239
gnostic 159-60, 194, 289, gormandize 269
369 goshawk 369-70
g 452

gosling 10-11, 33 (24), 77- grapeshot 242

8, 314 (252), 333, 370 graphemic 309 (223)
gospel 274 grapnel 242
gossip 325 grapple 96, 242
Goth 232 (218) grappler 96
gouge 239, 261 grasp 278, 281
goulash 306 (220) grass 242, 333, 365
gourmand 269 grateful 242
gourmet 269 gratification 242
gout 259, 261 gratify 242
gout 180, 259 gratis 242
govern 128 (58), 133 (68), gratitude 242
143 (100), 328 grave 168, 228 (213), 242,
governess 133 (68) 259, 269, 278
government 143 (100) gravel(ly) 134 (70)
governor 128 (58), 133 (68), graven 138 (77), 269
328 gravid 168, 242
goy 373 gravitate xxvi (6)
grab 81 gravity xxv (6), 168, 242
grabble(r) 96 gray 155
grace 242 graylag 306 (220)
gracious 242 graze 242, 333, 365
grackle 160, 211 (125) grease 333
gradation 209 (118), 242, greasy 333
339 greatly 138 (77)
grade 209 (118), 242, 339, Grecian 346, 351, 361
367 Greece 161, 346, 351, 361
gradient 209 (118), 242, 339 Greek 161, 346, 351
gradual 209 (118), 242, 367 green(s) 231 (218), 242,
graduate 209 (118), 242 333, 365
graffito 160 greenth 231 (218)
grain 160, 242 greet 248
grammar xxix (7) gregarious xxviii (6), 347
granary 223 (195), 242 greyhound 155
grandam 306 (220) griddle(r) 96
grange 242 grief 129 (60), 332
granite 242 grievance 332
granular 242 grieve 85, 129 (60), 332
granule 160, 242 grievous 332
grape 242 grim 100
 453 h

grin 278 guile 280

grind 106, 114, 130 (64), guilty, -ier, -iest 101-2
252, 263 guise 151, 255, 280
grip 278, 281 guitar 306 (220)
grisette 306 (220) gum(s) 166, 341
grist 130 (64), 214 (146), gurgle xxix (7), 96, 347,
252, 262 377
gristle 130 (64), 214 (146) gurgly 96
grizzle(r) 96 gust 180, 269, 332, 372
grizzly 96 gustation 259
groan 278 gustative 259
groom 268-9 gustatory 180, 259, 332
groove 259, 269 gusto 47
groovy 259 gut(s) 372
grope 278, 281 gutter 134 (70), 261
grouch 261 guttery 134 (70)
ground 92, 252, 263 guy 255
grouse 261 guzzle(r) 96
grove 278 gymnasium 242
grovel(er) 134 (70) gymnast(ic) 242
grow 86-7, 104, 242, 280, gynecology xxvii (6), 168,
333, 365 280, 347
growth 232 (218) gyrate 122, 314 (251)
grub 259 gyre xxvii (6)
grubby 259 gyves xxvii (6)
grudge 261
grum 100
grumble 96, 100, 174
grumbler 96 habiliment 330
grumpy 100 habilitate 136 (70)
grunt 261 habit 146 (106), 355
guarantee 279 habitat 306 (220)
guaranty 279 habitual 146 (106), 355
guard(ian) 365 habituate 355
gubernatorial 128 (58), hackle(r) 96
328 hadith 232 (218)
gudgeon 261 haecceity 330
guest 166, 201-2 haggadah 306 (220)
guide 255, 280 haggle 96, 367
guilder 291 haggler 96
h 454

hail 314 (249) harem 225 (203)

Haiti(an) 355 hark 367
halcyon 42 (35) harmonic 115, 257, 330
Halcyone 42 (35) harmonious 6, 115, 257, 330
hale 232 (218), 366 harmonize 330
half 332 harmony 330
halicore 306 (220) harp 227 (209), 330
halide 326 harpsichord 330
haliography 367 harpoon 269
halitosis 242 harrier 155, 242, 322
hall 129 (61), 156 harrow 155
hallow 257, 366 hart 156
Halloween 257, 366 haruspex 145 (106), 166
halma 172 harvest 128 (58), 155
halogen 326 hash 155
halt(ingly) 375 hasn't 136 (70)
halve 332 haste 79
hamlet 95, 156, 281, 370 hasty 138 (75)
hand 95, 150, 221 (193) hat 274
handicraft 57 hatchet 155
handiwork 56-7 hatred 143 (100), 250
handle 95, 150, 155, 221 haughty 330
(193), 273 haunt 156
handling 95 hauteur 330
handsome 313 (249) have 15, 104, 155, 178, 242,
hang 105-6, 116, 142 (99), 369
238, 347 haven 242
hangar 102 haven't 136 (70)
hanger 102 haversack 306 (220)
hanker(er) 134 (70) havoc 171
hapax 326 hawk 369
happy, -iest 27, 101-2, hay 367
215 (153) haze 131 (66)
hapteron 330 hazy, -iest 101-2, 131 (66)
haptic 330 he 330
harbor(er) 134 (70) head 155, 178
hard 156, 178, 211 (127), headlong 12
343 heal 77, 88, 232 (218), 236-
hardhearted 138 (77) 7, 248, 282, 318 (258),
hare 155, 242, 321-2 366
 455 h

health 18, 77, 207 (113), hefty 33 (24), 76, 83, 248
232 (218), 236, 248, 366 hegemony 160, 250, 326,
healthful 248 330, 348
healthy 77, 366 height 200
heap 371 heir 38 (32), 331, 368
hear 90-1, 104, 155, 208 heirloom 270
(116), 290, 322, 367 heist 79
heard 76, 90-1 helical 248
hearken 290 helicopter 140 (80), 153-4,
hearse 290 248
heart 110, 155, 158, 161, heliocentric 327
176, 190, 278, 289 heliotrope 258
heartbroken 42 (35) heliotropic 258, 309 (223)
hearten 289 helix 248, 380 (266)
hearth 155, 227 (211), 247, Hellen 133 (70)
290 Hellene 248
heartstrings 43 (35) Hellenic 133 (70), 248
heat 19, 93, 371 Hellenism 133 (70)
heath 232 (218), 248, 337 Hellenist 133 (70)
heathen 232 (218) Hellenize 133 (70)
heather 232 (218), 248, 337 hellhound 155
heave 33 (24), 76, 83, 105- hellion 308 (222)
6, 128 (58), 248, 369 helm 143 (100)
heaven xxix (7), 134 (70), helmet 111, 156
155 helminth 232 (218), 380
heavenish 134 (70), 155 (266)
heavenly 134 (70), 155 help 227 (209)
heavy 101, 138 (75), 369 helvite 166
hebdomad 327 hemal 224 (200), 248, 330
Hebraic 309 (224), 368 hematology 248
Hebrew 309 (224), 368 hemeralopia 225 (202), 308
hecatomb 155, 177, 181, 215 (221), 330
(153), 248, 326 hemin 248
heckle(r) 96 hemlock 306 (220)
hedge 239 hemoglobin 257
hedonism 158, 183, 328, 349 hemophilia 248
heed(less) 274 hemorrhage 248
heehaw 306 (220) hemorrhoid(s) 192
heel 156 hemorrhoidal 248
heft 33 (24), 76, 83, 248 hemp 155
h 456

hen 155 heterosexual 53

hence 167 heuristic(s) 330
hepatitis 167 hew(n) 157, 367
heptagonal 178, 327 hexagon(al) 110, 224 (201),
her(s) 330 327
Hera 327 hexavalent 184
herald 36 (30) hiatus 166, 341
herb 278, 330 hibernate 166
herbaceous 330 hic 330
herbage 278 hiccough 176
herbal 330 hide 88, 90, 105, 107, 112,
herbarium 330 157, 252, 259
herbivorous 330 hidrosis 61, 158, 183, 328
herd 330 hiemal 166
hereditary 38 (32) hierarch 213 (139)
heredity 38 (32), 318 (263), hieratic 213 (139)
331, 368 hieroglyph 159, 213 (139)
heresy 341 hieroglyphic(s) 213 (139)
heretic 341 high, -er 100-1, 144 (100),
heritable 38 (32) 200
heritage 38 (32), 331 hike 252, 350
Hermes 248, 344 hilarious 241-2, 330
hermetic 248, 344 hilarity 241-2, 327, 330
hermit 330 hill 156, 210-1 (123), 363
hernia 166, 190 hillock 156
hero 248, 327 him 330
heroic 327 Himalayas 166
heroine 248, 327 hind 252
heroism 248, 327 hinder 95, 252
herpes 247 hindrance 95
herpetic 247 Hindu 330
herpetology 327 hinge 238, 347
hesitate 248, 323, 333 hinterland 252
hesternal 216 (168) hip 157
heteroclite 251 hippodrome 79, 157
heteroclitic 251 hippopotamus 109, 139 (80)
heterodont 53 hire 144 (100)
heterodox 53-4 his 330
heterogeneous 53 historian 236
heteromorphic 53 hit 15, 90, 104
 457 h

hitch 252, 350 homunculus 257, 375

hither 146 (108) hone 156, 281
hive 157 honest 323
hoarse 371 honeysuckle 160
hobble(r) 96 honor 323
hock 156 honorific 220 (190)
hodiernal 330 hooch 225 (203), 269
hoe 367 hood 274
hog 327 hoodlum 269, 274
hoi polloi 353 hoodoo 22, 269
hoist 79 hoodwink 274
hoity-toity 373 hooey 269
hold 91-2, 104, 116, 155, hoof 274
204, 226 (207), 276, 375 hook 274
hole 155-6, 257 hookah 225 (203), 270
holiday 24, 257 hooker 274
hollow(ed) 155-6, 257 hooky 274
hollyhock 306 (220) hooligan 270
holocaust 326 hoop 237, 270
holophrasis 333 hoopoe 270
holophrastic 244 hoopla 270
holster 111, 156 hoosegow 270
holt 227 (210) hoot 270
holy 24, 257, 281, 366 hootenanny 270
homage 239, 375 hop 227 (209)
home 95, 156, 211 (124), hope 371, 381 (278)
281, 370 Horace 361
homeomorphous 327 horal 377
homeward(s) 56 Horatian 361
homicide 257, 292, 375 horde 225 (203), 330
homodont 53 hormone 110, 192, 318 (260)
homogeneous 53, 224 (200), horn 109, 140 (85), 156,
257, 289 161
homogenize 159 hornet 109
homologous 327, 347 horny 109, 156
homology 347 horography 330
homonym 195 horoscope 377
homophone 257 horrid 331
homophonous 53, 257 horrify 45
homosexual 257 horror 190
h 458

hors de combat 329 Huguenot 306 (220)

hors d'oeuvre 329 hull 111, 156
horse 25, 131 (66), 157 hullabaloo 270
hortation 331 hum 99
hortative 331 human 133 (70), 170, 259,
hortatory 166, 331 375
horticulture 166, 291-2 humane 240, 242, 375
hose xxv (6), 252, 361 humanity 133 (70), 240, 242
hosier(y) 361 humanoid 292
hospitable 201-2 humble 77, 96, 99, 136 (70),
hospital 201 143 (100), 257, 259, 356,
hospitality 201 375
hospitalize 201 humblebee 99
host 79, 166, 201, 257 humbler 96, 99
hostel 201-2, 257 humbly 99
hostelry 201 humdrum 99
hostess 201 humeral 331
hostile 201, 252, 257 humerus 331
hostility 201, 252 humid 148, 159, 331
hostler 331 humidify 148
hot 227 (210), 371 humidity 159
hotel 201-2, 257, 306 (220) humiliate 98, 136 (70), 356
hotshot 371 humility 77, 98, 136 (70),
Hottentot xx, 306 (220) 143 (100), 259, 375
hound 155 hummer 99
hour xii, 35 (28), 330, 377 humming 99
hourly 377 humor 81, 133 (70), 148-9,
house xxv (6), 22, 33 (24), 331
35 (28), 77, 129 (60), humoresque 133 (70)
131 (66), 252, 261, 331, humorist 133 (70)
333 humorous 133 (70), 148
housebroken 42 (35) hump 157
housing 333 humus 99, 148, 183, 192,
hove 105 256-7, 259, 331, 356,
hover(er) 134 (70) 375
how 167 hundred 103, 114, 155, 177,
howdah 226 (203) 179-81
huckst(e)ress 132 (68) hundredth 155
huddle(r) 96 hung 92, 112
hue 270 hunger 95
 459 i

hungry 95 hypodermic 53, 252, 360

huntress 132 (68) hyposmia 59
hurl 39 (35) hypotenuse 252, 360
Huron 306 (220) hypothalamus 53
husband 12, 33 (24), 35 hypothesis 341
(28), 77-8, 261 hypothesize 341
husk xxv (6), 261 hypothetic(al) 52-4, 164,
hut xxv (6), 261 341
hyacinth 232 (218) hysteria 248, 331
hydra 212 (135) hysteric 248
hydrant 79, 111, 212 (135) hysterical 248
hydrate 30 (19), 31 (20), hysterics 248
212 (135)
hydraulic(s) 212 (135)
hydride 212 (135)
hydroelectric 212 (135) I 123 (45), 159
hydromancy 292 ibid 252
hydrophobic 309 (223) ice 93
hydropsy 269 icon 306 (220)
hydrous 212 (135) iconoclasm(ic) 94, 96
hydroxyl 212 (135) iconoclast 94
hyena 327 id 252
hygiene 170, 218 (182) idea(l) 252
hymen 305 (219), 369 ideate 252
hymenopterous 140 (80) idem 252
hymn 143 (100) identical 252
hyperbaton 53, 218 (184) ideogram 252, 306 (220)
hyperbole 53 idiosyncracy 343
hyperbolic 287 idiosyncratic 342
hypercritical 53 idle(ness) 95-6
hypergraphia 308 (222) idler 95-6, 103
hyperkinesia 346 idlest 103
hypersensitive 53 idly 95, 103
hypertension 53 idolater 95, 97
hypha 364 idolatress 95
hyphen 59, 327 idolatrous 95, 97
hypnosis 115, 291, 344 idolatry xix, 95, 292
hypnotic 115, 121, 344 idyll(ic) 95
hypocoristic 53, 252 igloo 185, 270
hypocrite 156, 251-2 igneous 194
1 460

ignite 194, 235, 252 immersion 221 (192)

ignition 235, 252 immortal 35 (28), 153
ignoble 159, 194, 196, 225 impact 130 (64), 238
(201), 369 impale 278
ignominious 195, 230 (217) impasse 59, 306 (220)
ignominy xix, 195-6, 225 impecunious 380 (265)
(201), 230 (217) impede 42 (35), 59, 158,
ignoramus xxv (6), 180 249
ignorance xxv (6), 230 (217) impediment 249
ignorant xxv (6), 194 impel 50, 249
ignore xxv (6), 159-60, 194, impending 357
230 (217), 289, 308 (221) imperative 364
iguana 226 (203) imperator 306 (220)
ill 93 imperial 305 (219), 364
illative 30 (19) imperious 305 (219), 364,
illegal 48 366
illegible 48 impertinent 360
ill-humored 149 impervious 202
illicit 59, 252 impetiginous 347
illude 357 impetigo 347
illuminate 48, 59, 259 impinge 83, 130 (64), 238
illusion 357 impious 305 (219), 370
illusive 357 implement 153, 353
illustrate 96 implicate 30 (20), 153,
illustration 96 345, 372
illustrious 96, 259 implication 38 (32)
imagination 31 (21) implicit 253, 345, 372
imaret 306 (220) implode 338
imbecile 59 implosible 338
imbibe 48, 128 (58), 251, implosive 338
328, 373 imply 38 (32), 123 (45),
imitate 30 (20), 31 (21) 153, 253, 372
imitation 31 (21) imponderable 366
immaculate 30 (20) import 48, 153
immanent 48, 140 (81) importance 32 (21)
immaterial 48 important 32 (21)
immature 59 importunate 232 (218)
immediate 249 impregnability 212 (134)
immerge 221 (192), 239 impregnable 228 (216), 229
immerse 59 (217)
 461 i

impregnate 194, 228 (216), incompetent 32 (21)

229 (217), 289 incognito xxv (6), 159, 289
impress 49 inconsiderate 30 (20)
improper 97 inconsolable 47
improve 372 inconvenience 32 (21)
impugn 260 inconvenienced 138 (77)
impulse 52, 249 inconvenient 32 (21)
impulsive 50, 52 incorporate 322
impunity 234 incorrigible 145 (106)
in increase 247, 370
inability xii incredible 247, 339, 357
inadvertent 46, 50 incredulous 247, 290, 357
inane 242 increment(al) 150
inanity 242 incriminate 47
inaudible 181 incubate 99
inbound 56 incubus 259
incantation 350 inculcate 48, 209 (118),
incapable 48 346
incarcerate 48 incumbent 99, 259
incarnadine 210 (121) incus 157
incarnate 210 (121), 350 indecent 48
incendiary 209 (118), 339 indefatigable 243
incense 209 (118), 339, 346 indelicate 30 (20)
incentive 209 (118) indemnify 209 (118)
incessant 247 indemnity 209 (118)
incest 209 (118) indent 48
inch 373 independence 32 (21)
incident 356 independent 32 (21), 366
incinerate 134 (70) indeterminate 286
incise 48, 251, 332, 356 index 200, 345
incision 45, 48, 146 (106), India 330
251, 356 indicate 9, 31 (21), 200
incisive 332-3, 356 indication 31 (21)
incisor 48, 356 indicative 9
incite 346 indict 251
incline 156, 192, 251 indigenous 159, 298
include 338 indigence 32 (21)
inclusive 338-9 indigent 32 (21), 159
income 56 indispensable 338
incompetence 32 (21) Indo-European 298
i 462

indomitable 48, 158, 201 inflect 177, 344, 352

Indonesia 298 inflection 352
induce(ment) 45 inflexible 344
induct(ion) 45 influence 32 (21), 379
indulge 239 (264)
industrial(ize) 298 influenza 171
industrious 298 influx 259
industry 159, 296, 298 inform(ant) 16
inedible 224 (199) information 31 (21)
ineffable 94 informative 30 (19)
ineffably 94 infraction 83, 130 (64),
ineffectual 248 214 (150)
inept 208 (118) infringe 130 (64), 347
inert(ia) 355 infundibulum 260, 372
inertial 355 infuse 50, 372
infallible 241 ingenuity xxiv (6)
infamous 342 ingenuous xxiv (6)
infamy 342 ingot 158, 166, 372
infant 342 ingrain 242
infect 165, 311 (238), 355 ingrate 242
infection 355 ingratiate 242
infectious 355 ingredient 209 (118), 339
infective 355 ingress 51
infer 16, 32 (21), 36-7 inhabit 330
(30), 60, 136 (70) inherence 323
inference 16, 32 (21), inherit 38 (32), 47, 331,
136 (70) 341, 368
inferent 32 (21) inheritress 132 (68)
inferior 164 inhibit 146 (106), 330, 352,
infernal 35 (28) 355
infestation 18, 31 (21) inhibition 352, 355
infidelity 163, 232 (218) inhume 331, 356
infinity 193, 252 inimical 146 (106)
infirm 165, 371 iniquity 145 (106), 146
infirmary xix, 165, 190, 294 (106)
infirmity 371 initial 50, 252
infix 251 initiate 252
inflammable 242 inject 48, 58, 60, 187,
inflammatory 242 209 (118)
inflate 162, 242 injection 187, 209 (118)
 463 i

injunction 187, 296 inspector 98, 145 (106)

injunctive 296 inspire 48, 57, 254
injure 187 instantaneous 313 (249)
injurious 187 instep 56
injury 187 instigate 160
injustice 187 instinct 48, 355
inlet 56, 306 (220) instinctual 355
inmate 56 institute 352
inmost 56 institution 352, 355
innate 31 (20), 194-5, 243, instruct(ion) 16, 296
289, 356 instructive 296
inner 56 instrument(al) 296, 298
inning 56 insular xxix (7), 252, 262
innocence 32 (21) insulate 252, 262
innocent 32 (21), 119 insult 48, 172, 209 (118),
innumerable 136 (70) 334
inoculate 9, 311 (243) insurgent 235, 348
inoculation 311 (243) insurrection 119, 235
inoculative 9 intact 193, 246
inquest 324 intangible 246, 348
inquire 254, 324 integer 98, 348
inquiry 324 integral 98, 348
inquisition 324 integrity 98, 348
inquisitive 254, 324 integument 154, 160
insane 181 intellect 83
insanity 245 intelligent 83, 347
inscribe 76, 83 intemperate 30 (20)
insect 69 intend 358-9
inseminate 250 intense 359-60
insemination 370 intensify 339, 360
insensate 31 (20), 361 intension 359
inside 56 intensity 359
insiduous 145 (106), 212 intensive 359
(136), 369 intent(ion) 359
insinuate 40 (35), 254 intentional 359
insipid 146 (106), 349 inter 154, 286
insomnia 291 intercept 208 (118)
insomniac 306 (220) intercostal 78, 256
insouciant 346 interest 333
inspect 46, 145 (106) intergalactic 214 (144)
i 464

interior 33 (25), 35 (28), invasive 338

250
interject 48, 58, 60, 187,
209 (118)
interjection 187, 209 (118)
interlocutor(y) 257
interlude 357
intermediate 249, 370
intermezzo 249
interminable 286
internal 250
internecine 119
interregnum 119
interrogate 9, 30 (20), 234,
348
interrogative 9, 119, 234
interrupt 353, 356
interruption 353
interruptive 353
intersect 179
intersperse 57
intervene 16, 250, 368
intervention 16, 168, 250,
368
intimate 30 (20)
intonate 360
intonation 360
intone 360
intransigent 244, 352
intricacy 343
intricate 30 (20), 342-3
intrinsic 33 (25), 287, 354
introversion 109
introvert 212 (131)
intrude 49, 154, 158, 176,
338
intrusive 338
invade 338, 357
invalid(ate) 246
invasion 357
inveigle 311 (243)
invent 218 (184)
inventress 132 (68)
inverse 212 (131), 344
inversion 355
invert 50, 212 (131), 344,
355
invest 325
investigate 9, 348
investigative 9
investment 325
invigorate 23, 348
invincible xxvii (6)
inviolate 30 (20)
invocation 18
invoke 18, 50, 167
involute 258, 351
inward(s) 56
Ionian 115, 236, 257
Ionic 115, 257
Iran xx, 235, 304, 306 (220)
Iranian 235, 304
Iraq xx, 306 (220)
irate 31 (20)
iridescent 252, 339
iris 252, 339
Irma 289
irradiate 48, 59
irradiative 9
irrational 48
irregular 59
irrevocable 167
irrigate 30 (20), 48, 217
(168), 313 (249)
irrigative 9
irrupt(ion) 353
irruptive 353
is 21, 23, 39 (33), 127-8
(58), 323, 333
 465 j

isanthous 59 jaundice 334, 347

Isidore 252, 319 (263) jealous 251
Isis 252, 319 (263) Jean(ne) 39 (34)
island 252 jecoral 167
isle 252 jelly 248, 347
islet 252 Jesuit 248
isnft 136 (70) Jesus 248
isobar 53, 168 jet 58, 187
isobath 291 jetsam 187
isocheime 166 jettison 58, 187
isolate 31 (21), 252, 262 jelly 213 (138)
isolation 31 (21) jeweler 95
isomer(ic) 134 (70) jewelry 95
isosceles 53 jiggle 96, 174
isotherm 168 jiggler 96
isothermal 53 jiggly 96
isotope 258 jingle(r) 96
isotopic 258 jingly 96
it(s) 330 jinriksha 185
Italian 308 (222) jocose 160
Italic 252 jocular 24, 160, 257
Italy 252 jocund 160, 164
iterate 287 jocundity 164
itinerary 50, 252 join 76, 78, 187, 258, 295,
ivory 40 (35) 297-8, 372, 374
joint 187, 299, 372
joke 24, 160, 257
jolly 138 (75)
jacinth 232 (218) jolt 79
Jack 243 jongleur 95
Jacob 243 jostle(r) 96
jaguar 185 joust 79, 261
Jake 243 joy 50, 347, 377
Jane 243 Joyce 373
Janet 243 joyous 347
jangle(r) 96 judge 187, 239, 259, 357
jangly 96 judgement 187, 357
janitorial 132 (68), 236 judicature 187
janitress, -ix 132 (68) judicial 187, 259, 357
Japan xx, 306 (220) judiciary 187
 466

judicious 187 keep 70, 89, 104, 203, 248

juggle(r) 95-6, 160 Keltic 346
jugular 187 ken 160, 228 (214), 368
jujitsu 185 kennel 155
Jules 79 kepi 41 (35)
jumble(r) 96 kerchief 381 (272)
jumbly 96 kerf 213 (141)
junction 187, 296 kernel 160
juncture 78, 187, 296, 299 ketch 354
jungle 96 ketchup 226 (203)
jungly 96 kettle 228 (214)
junior 186, 200 key 228 (214)
junk 226 (203) kibbutz 185
Jupiter 152 kid 211 (123), 312 (244)
juridical 187, 323 kill vii
jurisdiction 187, 323 kiln 211 (123), 312 (244)
jurisprudence 187 kimono 185
jurist 187, 323 kin 143 (100), 159, 228
juror 187, 323 (214), 289
jury 187, 323 kindergarten 289
just(ice) 187, 244, 323 kindle(r) 95-6
justifiably 187 kindling 95
justify 244, 323 kindred 143 (100), 159,
jut 187 250, 289
juvenescent 186 kine 122, 168, 215 (153),
juvenile 186, 200 372
juxtapose 49, 79, 187, 261, kinematic(s) 346
296 kinescope 346
kinesis 344, 346
kinesthesia 346
kinetic(s) 344, 346
Kaffir 153 king 228 (214), 289
kaleidoscope 115, 213 (140) kingdom 165
kangaroo 226 (203), 270 kirtle 221-2 (193)
Kate 243 kismet 226 (203)
Katherine 243 kiss xxiv (6), 81, 85, 93,
kayak 226 (203), 306 (220) 130 (66), 228 (214)
kebab 306 (220) kisser xxv (6)
keel 228 (214) kitchenette 306 (220)
keen 160, 228, 289, 368 kite 227 (210), 228 (214)
 467 1

kith 232-3 (218), 289, 369 labor 134 (70), 136 (70),
kleeneboc 306 (220), 349 243
kleptomania 151, 157, 176, laborer 134 (70), 136 (70)
256 laboratory 136 (70), 243
kleptomaniac 151, 176 laborious 136 (70), 236
knee 110, 160, 224 (201), labret 235, 367
228 (214), 248, 289 labyrinth 232 (218)
kneel 88-9, 105-6, 110, lace 131 (66), 149-50, 243
160, 192, 224 (201), lack 160
248, 289 lacquer(er) 134 (70)
knife 84, 129 (60), 332 lacrosse 39 (35), 256, 274,
knit 377 306 (220)
knot 377 lactate 214 (144)
knout 377 lacteal 214 (144)
know 86-7, 104, 159-60, 194, lacuna 270
257, 278, 280, 287, 289, lad 339
308 (221), 369 lade 221 (193)
knowledge 160, 194, 257, laden 138 (77)
287, 369 ladle 96, 155, 221 (193)
knuckle 96, 323 ladler 96
knuckler 96 lady 79
knuckly 96 Lafayette 306 (220)
Koh-i-noor 270 laggard 122
kohlrabi 156 lagniappe 306 (220)
kopeck 306 (220) lagoon 270
Koran 306 (220) lake 270
Koryak 306 (220) lama 226 (203)
kosher 226 (203) lambent 130 (64), 157
koto 226 (203) lamina xxxi (10)
kowtow 226 (203) lampoon 270
kraal 259 lanate 274
Kremlin 226 (203) land 61 (37)
krypton 306 (220) landscape 357
kudos 71, 208 (116), 357 langue d'oc 330
langue d'oïl 330
languid 83, 130 (64), 160,
1 278 245
label(er) 134 (70) languish 160
labial 157, 235, 367 languor 134 (70), 160
labioplasty 157 languorous 134 (70)
1 468

Laotian 235 laxative 160

lap 130 (64), 157 lay(er) 366
lapel 306 (220) layette 307 (220)
lapse 131 (66) lead 90, 103, 248, 278
larceny 133 (69) leaf 85, 88-9, 128-9 (59),
larder(er) 134 (70) 332
large 239, 347 league 305 (219)
largess 307 (220), 347 lean 156, 192, 251
largo 239, 347 leap 76, 78, 80-1, 88-9,
laryngeal 83, 348 104-6, 204, 230 (217)
laryngitis 348 265
laryngoscope 100, 348 learn 204, 323
larynx 83 learned 139 (77)
lash 243 least 103
lass 339 leather 134 (70)
lasso 149-50, 243, 271 leatherette 107 (220)
last 42 (35), 102, 231 leathery 135 (70)
(217), 243, 323 leave 29-30 (17), 35 (28),
late(r) 243 68, 76, 83, 88-9, 103-4,
lateral 58 129 (59), 248, 332
lath 232 (218) Lebanon 307 (220)
lather(er) 134 (70) lecher 133 (70), 135 (70),
lathery 134 (70) 350
latitude 58 lecherous 133 (70), 135 (70)
latter 102, 243 lechery 133 (70)
lattice 232 (218) lecture 82, 121, 324
laudative 30 (19) ledge(r) 366
laugh 81, 181 left 35 (28), 69, 83
launder 96, 132 (68) leg xix
launderer 132 (68) legal xxvii (6), 248, 299,
laundress 132 (68), 215 347, 370
(153) legalize 347
laundry 96, 132 (68) legate 347-8
Lautrec 307 (220) legation 347-8
lavatory 243 legend 347
lave 243 legerdemain 243, 349
law 370 legible 347
lawyer 370, 374 legion 347
lawn 61 (37), 334 legislate xxvii (6)- 248,
lax 83, 130 (64), 160, 245 347, 370
 469 1

legislation 141 (91) liability 133 (70)

legislative 9 liaison 39 (32), 305 (219),
legislature 248 307 (220)
legitimate 30 (20), 347-8 libel(er) 135 (70)
leguminous 347 libelous 135 (70)
Leitmotiv 248 liberal xxi, 328
lemon(y) 135 (70) liberalize 328
lend 90, 104, 376 liberate xxi, 128 (58),
length xxi, xix, 83, 200, 328
203-7, 221 (193), 231 Liberia(n) 235-6
(218), 264, 266, 318 liberty xii, xix, 207 (113),
(262) 328
lengthen 318 (262) Libia 235
lengthy xxi libidinous 328
lens 344 libido 328
lento 153 library 79
lentoid 344 libretto 79
leopard 33 (26), 35 (28) licence 32 (21), 252
leper 96-7 lichen 135 (70), 252
lepidopterist 317 (256) lichenous 135 (70)
leprechaun 307 (220) licit 252
leprosy 96 lick 228 (214), 252, 350
leprous 96-7 licorice 272
lesion 146 (106) lie 104, 145 (104), 366
less 103 life 129 (60), 170, 252,
lethargy 213 (137) 332
Lethe 213 (137) lift(er) 151, 157, 177, 192
let's 315 (253) ligament 48, 253, 305 (219)
letter(er) 135 (70) ligature 38 (32), 48, 253
leukemia 248, 330 light 90, 105-6, 253, 259
level(er) 135 (70) lighthouse 253
lever 248, 332, 349 like 228 (214)
levigate 244 lime 253, 278
levitate 248 linden 253
levitation 349 line 253, 371
levity 248, 349 lineage 371
levy 248 linear xxix (7), 253, 371
lexicon 82, 307 (220) linearity 253
liable 39 (32), 133 (70), linger 135 (70), 207, 347
253 lingerer 135 (70)
1 470

link 104 locution 257

linoleum 375 lode 278, 281
lion 33 (26), 35 (28) lodge 239
lip 157, 367 logarithm 96, 148
lipothymia 165 logarithmic 96
liquefacient 310 (230), 365 loge 239
liquefaction 310 (230), 365 logic(al) 150, 347
liquefy 310 (230), 365 logician 347
liquor(y) 135 (70) logistic(s) 347
list 144 (102) loiter 135 (70), 373
listen(er) 96 loiterer 135 (70)
listless 144 (102) long xii, xviii, xix, 12,
literate 356 102, 116, 200, 203-7,
literature 356 231 (218), 238, 266
lithe 11, 153 longed 102
litigate 243 longer 83, 102, 238, 347
litter 366 longevity 116, 247, 347
liturgy 347 longitude 116, 207, 347
live 35 (28), 128 (58), 129 loo 270
(60), 170, 252, 332 look 26, 274
liven(er) 135 (70) looker 274
liver 135 (70), 252, 332 loom 270
livery 135 (70) loon(y) 270
liverwort 272 loop(hole) 270
Liza 253 loose(n) 270, 333
load 278, 281 loot 270
loaf 278, 281 lope 204, 265
loam 278 loquacious 257
loan 90, 278, 376 lore 42 (35), 204, 281, 323
loath 278, 281, 337 lorgnette 307 (220)
loathe 337 lorn 323, 333, 376
lobster 82 lose 16, 77, 89, 104, 270,
local 133 (70), 257 314 (252), 323, 333, 376
locale 307 (220) loser 333
locality 133 (70), 257 loss 16, 270, 314 (252),
locate 9, 30 (20), 257 323, 333, 376
locative 9, 257 lost 77, 314 (252), 376
lock 207 (110), 228 (214) loud 215 (156)
locomotion 257 louse 67, 263, 266, 333, 374
locus xii, 131 (66), 257 lousy 333, 374
 471

love 69, 128 (58), 176, 328 m 278

lovelorn 328 macaroni 270, 376
low 100-2, 130 (66), 156, macaroon 270, 376
192 macerate 243
loyal 299, 370, 374 machine(ry) 351
loyalty 299 mackintosh 307 (220)
lubricant 79 macrobiotic 51
lubricate 79, 272 macron 307 (220)
lucent 253 maculate 31 (20)
lucid 159, 193, 253, 259 mad 93
lucrative 79, 96 madam 307 (220)
lucre 96 madame 241, 307 (220)
ludicrous 357 Madge 239
luff 259, 267 Madrid 307 (220)
lugubrious 79 maelstrom 192
lumber(er) 135 (70) mafia 236
lumen 135 (70) maggot 232 (218)
luminary 193 magisterial 132 (68), 347
luminous 135 (70), 253 magistrate 31 (20), 347
lunar xxix (7), 253 magma 160, 243
lunatic 270 magnanimous 347
luncheonette 307 (220) magnate 31 (20), 347
lunge 238, 347 magnetic 248
lupine 151 magneto 248
lurid 159 magnification 345
lust 144 (102) magnificence 32 (21)
luster 96-7, 133 (70), 253, magnificent 32 (21), 164,
259 333, 345, 347
lustral 96 magnify 83, 347
lustrate 96 magnitude 347
lustration 96 magnum 347
lustrous 96-7, 133 (70), 193 Magus 347
lusty 144 (102) Magyar 307 (220)
luxury 259 mahjong 307 (220)
lyre 253 maiden 314 (249)
lyric(al) 253 maim 307 (220)
main xxviii (6), 229 (217),
351
maintain 243, 329
maintenance 360
m 472

majesty 347 maniac 243, 291, 305 (219),

major 133 (70), 347 307 (220), 371
major-domo 158 maniacal 305 (219), 371
majorette 307 (220) manic 243
majority 133 (70), 347 manicure 202, 243, 292, 343
majuscule 347 manifest 243
make 104, 160, 228 (214), manipulate 38 (32)
243, 350 manipulation 38 (32)
male 243 manoeuvre 329
malevolence 32 (21) manor 140 (81)
malevolent 32 (21) mansion 48, 140 (81), 235
malfeasance 248, 333, 365 manual 11, 243
malice 358, 361 manufacture 165, 241, 243,
malicious 358, 361 329, 365
malign 147, 149, 252, 289 manumit 329
malignant 149, 252, 289 manuscript 11, 76, 243, 329
malinger(er) 135 (70) marathon 307 (220)
mall 129 (61) marble xxix (7), 96
malleable xxix (7) marbling 96
mallet xxix (7) march xxix (7)
malleus xxix (7) mare 25
malnutrition 211 (123) marginalia 240
Malthus(ian) 259, 333 mariner 243
man 67, 263, 266, 291, 318 marionette 307 (220)
(262) maritime 243
manacle 243, 323, 342 market 278, 346, 350
manage 11, 243 marl(ine) 270
manatee xxviii (6), 229 marmoreal xxix (7)
(217) marmoset 307 (220)
Mandarin 307 (220) maroon 270
mandate 31 (20), 243, 318 martyr(ize) 137 (73)
(263) masculine 243
mandatory 243, 318 (263) mason 243
mandible 261 mass 243
mandolin 307 (220) massage 306 (220)
manducate 261 masseur 323
mane xxviii (6), 229 (217) masseuse 323
mange 238, 261 master 287
mangle(r) 96 masticate 261
mania 243, 291, 305 (219), mastodon 306 (220)
 473 m

masturbate 11 mediatorial 132 (68)

match 243, 350 medic 249
mater 96 medical 249, 343, 345
maternal 12, 96, 154 medicate 31 (21), 343
maternity 96 medication 31 (21)
mathematics 231 (218), 291 medicine 343, 345
matriarch 96, 243 mediocre 96, 249, 257, 370
matricide 243, 356 mediocrity 96, 257
matrilinear 367 meditate 343
matrimony 243, 367 Mediterranean 286
matrix 96, 131 (66) medium 249, 370
matron 96, 243, 367 medley 96
matronly 96 meet 89, 104, 158, 249,
maul xxix (7), 39 (35) 270, 343
Mauritania 270 megalocardia 290
mavrodaphne 270 melancholia 257
mawkish 232 (218) melancholy 166, 257, 291
maximal 83 melodic 115, 120, 235
maximum 83 melodious 115, 235-6
may 314 (249), 351 melody 60
mayhem 307 (220) melt 79
mead 248 member 96, 100
meadow 231 (218), 248 membrane 96
mean 77, 88-9, 104, 126 memento 109, 291
(57), 249 memoir 140 (81)
measles 96 memorable 140 (81)
measly 96 memorial 137 (73)
measurable 11 memory 137 (73), 140 (81)
measure 130 (64) menace 249
meat 223 (194) meninges 83
mechanic 351 meninx 83
mechanism 351 meniscus xxvi (6), 270
mechanize 351 menopause xxvi (6)
medal 133 (70) menses xxvi (6), 11, 270
medallion 133 (70) Menshevik 287
meddle(r) 96 menstrual 97, 270
meddlesome 96 menstruate xxvi (6), 97
media 249 mensurable 11
median 249 mental 291, 309 (228)
mediate 30 (20), 249, 370 mentality 309 (228)
m 474

mentor 291 microbic 309 (223)

mercantile 346, 350 microbiology 256
mercaptan 354 microcosm 94
mercenary 346 microorganism 267
merchandise 350 mid 226 (207), 370
merchant 278, 350 middle 97, 370
mere 270 middling 97
merganser 171, 211 (192), midriff 151, 156, 176, 192
370 midwife 226 (207)
merge 221 (192), 239 might 351
merry 231 (218) migrate 79, 168
mesentery 33 (25) Milan 307 (220)
mesh 81 mile 253
Mesopotamia 109, 139 (80) militancy 32 (21)
mesothelium 164 militant 32 (21)
messenger 380 (267) milk 160
metabolic 288 millennium 2, 208 (118),
metabolism 53 235, 311 (241)
metacarpus 53 millimeter 311 (241)
metal 133 (70) million 253, 271, 311 (241)
metallic 133 (70) mime 253
metallurgy 159, 347 mimic 253
metamorphosis 53 minaret 307 (220)
metaphor 163, 307 (220), 366 minatory 249
metaphysics 53, 163 mince(meat) 287
metathesis 53 mind 109, 140 (81), 144
mete 343 (102), 291, 309 (228)
metencephalon 53, 59 mine 253
meter 60, 97, 110, 249 mineral 253
method 52-4, 59 mineralogy 292
metonymy 59, 195 mingle 96, 243
metric(s) 97, 249 mingler 96
metronome 97, 257 miniature 287
metronomic 257 minimal 253, 287
metronymic 195 minimize 287
metropolis 96, 305 (219), minimum 58, 287
343 minister 136 (70), 287
metropolitan 367 ministerial 132 (68), 136
mezzanine 249, 370 (70)
microbe 168, 228 (212), 289 ministry 136 (70)
 475 m

minstrel 136 (70) modesty 257

minor 133 (70), 253, 287 modicum 343
minority 133 (70), 287 modify 158, 257, 343
Minotaur 267, 307 (220) modulate 257, 343
minuet 287, 307 (220) module 257, 343
minus 287 modus 257
minuscule 287 Mohawk 307 (220)
minute 58, 253, 287 Moira 373
miracle 214 (146), 253 molar 257
miraculous 214 (146) mold 257
mirth 231 (218) mole 257, 278, 281
misanthrope 257 molecule 257, 323, 342
misanthropic 257 molten 79, 138 (77)
miscegenation 159, 289 molybdenum 228 (212)
mischief 331 momentaneous 313 (249)
mischievous 331 monarch 292
miscreant 290 monarchy xix
miser 253 mongoose 185, 225 (203),
misericord 290 270
misery 253 mongrel 243
misfortune 287 monitor 50, 109, 135 (70),
misnomer 173, 195 291
mishmash 307 (220) monocle 167, 311 (243)
misogyny xix, xxvii (6), monograph 256
168, 347 monologue 121, 347
misprision 254 monomial 292
mister 97 monophthong 292
mistress 97 monotone 360
mitigate 30 (20), 243 monotonous 360
mnemonic 109 monovalence 341
mobile 128 (58), 328, 376 monovalent 256, 341
mobility 328 monsoon 270
mobilize 328 monster 97
mode 257, 270, 343 monstrosity 97
model 257, 343 monstrous 97
moderacy 343 montage 79
moderate 30 (20), 257, 342-3, monte 79
370 Montevideo 79
modern 343 month xxvi (6), 11, 232
modest 257, 343 (218), 270
m 476

Montreal 307 (220) mouse 67, 77, 261, 263-5,

monument 109 323, 372
moo 130 (66), 270 moustache 307 (220)
mooch 270 mouth 93, 227 (211), 232
mood 237, 270 (218), 261, 337
moon xxvi (6), 11, 232 mouton 307 (220)
(218), 270 movable 328
Moor 270 move 16, 128 (58), 328,
moor 270 376
moose 131 (66), 226 (203), movement 328
270 movies 328
moot 249, 270 mow 231 (218)
moral 133 (70) much 138 (77)
morale 307 (220) mucilage 346
morality 133 (70) mucus 346
morass 307 (220) mud 150
moratorium 236 muddle 96, 150
morbid 159 muddler 96
morceau 339 muffle(r) 96
mordant 158, 339 multifarious 256, 342
more 102, 281 multipartite 256
moron 307 (220) multiple 97
morphemic 309 (223) multiplex 97, 177
morsel 339 multiplicable 97
mortal 35 (28), 133 (70), multiplicand 97
153, 170 multiplication 31 (21), 38
mortality 133 (70) (32), 97, 220 (190)
mortify 153 multiplicative 30 (19)
mortuary 153 multiplicity 97, 220 (190)
most 79, 102, 281 multiplier 97
motel 307 (220) multiply 38 (32), 97, 123
motet 307 (220) (45), 220 (190), 372
moth 232 (218), 337 mum 98
mother 12, 96, 154, 367 mumble 96, 98
motherhood 96 mumbler 96
motion 16, 50, 376 mummery 98
mount 79 municipal 202, 208 (118),
mountain 79 354
mourn 137 (73) municipality 354
mournful 137 (73) munificent 292, 354
 477 n

murder(er) 135 (70) namesake 195

murderess 132 (68), 135 (70) napalm 307 (220)
murderous 132 (68), 135 napkin 310 (231)
(70), 153 narcotic 289
murine 323, 372 nares 323, 333, 367
murmur xxix (7) narrate 159, 194
muscat(el) 307 (220) narrative 159, 289
muscle 77, 214 (146), 261 narrow 18, 289
muscular 214 (146), 372 nasal 323, 333, 367
muse 131 (66) nasalization 31 (21)
mushroom 15, 270 nascent 139 (79), 289
musicale 307 (220) natal 139 (79), 194, 196,
muskrat 307 (220) 280, 289
must 343 nation 236, 243, 352
mustache 307 (220) national(ity) 236, 243
mutate 31 (21) native 243, 289, 352, 356
mutation 31 (21) nativity 305 (219)
mutton 307 (220) natural 243, 356
muzhik 171, 263, 382 (279) naturalist 243
muzzle(r) 96-7 naturalize 243, 356
mycelium 346 nature 243, 356
mycology 346 naught 223 (198)
myocardia 290 nausea 367
myopia 115, 167 nautical 367
myopic 115 naval 243, 367
myrmidon 307 (220) navel 128 (58), 328
mysterious 235 navigable 352, 367
myth 232 (218) navigate 243, 352, 367
navigation 367
navigational 243
navigator 367
n 278 navy 241, 243, 367
nabob 307 (220) nay 223 (198)
nacre(ous) 97 nebula 162
Nahuatl 185 necklace 150
naiad 307 (220) necromancy 343
nail 313 (249) necromantic 342
naïve 305 (219) necrophobia 119
naked 34 (26), 242, 368 necropolis 343
name 23, 195-6, 280, 301, 366 need 85, 226 (207)
n 478

needle 272 nibble(r) 96

nefarious 223 (198), 342 nicety 309 (223)
negate 9, 223 (198) nickname 310 (231)
negative 9 nicotine 305 (219)
neglect 223 (198) nicotinic 305 (219)
negligent 347 nide 120
negotiate 223 (198) nidology 120
Negro 79, 97 nidulant 120
Negroid 79, 97 nidus 120
neighbor 163, 228 (212), 268 Niels 79
neither 146 (108), 224 (198) nigger(ish) 97
nemesis lOOneologism 370 night 76, 200, 226 (204),
neon 307 (220) 373
neophyte 163 nightly 373
Nepal 307 (220) nihil 223 (198), 253
nepenthe 182, 232 (218), 291 nihilism 253
nephew 152 nimble 61 (40), 100, 260
nephology 162 nimrod 307 (220)
nepotism 151 nincompoop 271
nerve 237, 272, 377 nineteen 126 (57)
nest 111, 117, 120, 158, 291, nineteenth 126 (57)
369 ninety 84
nestle 111, 120, 291, 369 ninth 80, 126 (57)
nestling 111 niobic 257
net 271 niobium 257
nether 62 (40), 120, 249 niter 97
nethermost 120, 249 nitrate 31 (20), 97
neuralgia 224 (200) nitric 97, 309 (223)
neurasthenia 225 (202), 250 nitride 97
neuron 307 (220) nitrogen 97
neurosis 257, 317 (256) nitrous 97
neurotic 257 nival 168
neuter 97, 223 (198) nix 223-4 (198)
neutral 97 no 223-4 (198)
neutrality 97 Nobel 307 (220)
neutrino 97 nobility 136 (70)
neutron 97, 307 (220) noble 136 (70), 159, 194,
new 370 196, 308 (221), 369
newt 310 (231) nobless 136 (70)
nexus 46 nocent 119
 479 n

noctambulism 95, 200 nosegay 323, 333

nocturnal xxvii (6), 200, 373 nostril 24, 77, 79, 83, 154,
nocturne 200, 373 284, 287, 318 (262), 323,
nocuous 119 333, 367
node 257, 271 nostrum 287, 315 (253)
nodule 257 not 136 (70), 223-4 (198)
Noël 307 (220) notch 310 (231)
noise 131 (66), 367, 374 note 289
noisette 307 (220) nothing(ness) 223 (198)
nomad xx, 100, 307 (220) notice 159, 289
nomenclature 195, 257, 366 notify 159
nominal 195-6, 257, 366 notion 159, 289
nominate 195, 257 notorious 159, 289
nominative 195 Nouakchott 307 (220)
nonagenarian 271 noun 195, 366
nonagon 271 nourish(able) 260
nonary 271 nourishment 260
nonce 167, 310 (231), 374 novel xxvii (6), 370
nonchalant 379 (265) novelty 370
noncollegiate 30 (20) November xxvi (6)
none 223-4 (198), 260, 374 novena xxvi (6)
nones 271 novitiate 31 (20)
nonpareil 310 (231) noxal 119
noodle 271 noxious 119
nook 274 noyade 146 (107)
noon 237, 271 nozzle 96, 333, 367
noose 271-2 nubble 96
Nordic 202 nubbly 96
Norman 202 nubile 83, 162, 259
Norse 202 nuciferous 307 (220)
north 127 (57), 202, 207 nucleus 131 (66), 307 (220)
(113), 232 (218), 337 nude 34 (26), 242, 368
northern 337 nudge 239
northward(s) 56, 233 (218), nuisance 131 (66), 146
337 (107)
Norway 202, 368 null 223-4 (198)
Norwegian 202, 368 nullify 223 (198)
nose 24, 77, 79, 83, 131 numb 61 (40), 100, 260
(66), 150, 284, 323, 333 number 32 (22), 77, 136
367 (70), 260
 480

numerable 136 (70) oblique 48

numeral 260 oblivious 244
numerical 77, 136 (70) oblong 116
numerous 136 (70), 260 obnoxious 119
nuncupative 354 obscene 249
nuptial(s) 83, 162, 259 obscenity 249
nut 227 (210) obsequies 354
nutmeat 223 (194) obsequious 235, 354
nutmeg 307 (220) observance 327
nutrient 79, 260 observant 327
nutrify 79, 260 observation 31 (21), 352
nutriment 79, 260 observatory 352
nutrimental 260 observe 327
nutrition 79, 260, 355 obsess 369
nutritious 79, 335 obsolescent 210 (118), 247
nutritive 79, 260, 355 obsolete 210 (118), 247
nuzzle 96, 150, 333, 367 obstruct 260, 296, 298, 310
nuzzler 96 (233), 376
nyctalopia 225 (202), 373 obstruction 260, 296, 376
nylon 307 (220) obstructive 296
nymph 162 obstruent 49, 296, 298, 376
nympholepsy 162, 341 obtain(able) 360
nympholeptic 341 obtrude 49-50, 154, 338
obtrusive 49, 338
obtuse 49
obverse 49, 61 (39)
oak 28y obviate 202, 366
oar 20, 281 obvious 49, 202, 366
oath 232 (218), 281 occasion(al) 244
obedient 38 (32), 368 occipital 145 (106)
obese 247, 339 occlude 338
obesity 309 (223) occlusive 338-9
obey 38 (32), 368 occult 49, 156, 346
obfuscate 164-5 occupancy 343, 354
object 58, 60, 187 occupant 342-3, 354
objection 48, 187 occupation 236, 354
objurgate 187, 244 occupational 236
obligate 30 (19), 239 occupy 59, 354, 376
obligatory 38 (32), 48, 253 occur 49
oblige 38 (32), 48, 239, 253 occurrence 131 (66)
 481

ocelot 307 (220) oil 374-5

ocher 97, 135 (70), 183 ointment 296-8, 374
ocherish 97 okra 79
ocherous 97, 135 (70) old 210 (118), 215 (156),
ochery 97, 135 (70) 376
ochroid 97, 135 (70) olfactory 50
octagon 200 oligarch(y) 183
octane 200 olive 375
octant 200 Omaha 307 (220)
octave 200 Oman 307 (220)
octet 200, 307 (200) omelet(te) xxi, xxxi (10)
October xxvi (6) omen 133 (70), 135 (70),
octopus xxvi (6), 200, 207 257
(110) omicron 307 (220)
octoroon 200, 271 ominous 133 (70), 135 (70),
octosyllabic xxvi (6) 257
ocular 167, 178, 311 (243) omissible 49
oculist 311 (243) omit 59
odd xxiii (5) omnipotent 256
ode 60, 120, 157 omoplate 331
odometer 51, 54 once 8, 167, 310 (321), 374
odor(ous) 135 (70) oncoming 88
o'er 236 one 260, 374
oeuvre 256, 324, 329 oner 374
offend 59, 338 onerous 135 (70), 257, 323
offendress 132 (68) ongoing 88
offense 131 (66), 338 onion 308 (222)
offensive 168, 338 only 123 (45), 374
offer 36-7 (30), 49, 51, 60 onomancy 292
office 256, 293, 333, 365 onomastic 195
official 293, 365 onomatopoeia 292
officious 293, 365 onomatopoetic 195
offshoot 271 onslaught 367
ogle 96, 161, 167, 178, 216 onus 135 (70), 257, 323
(168), 279, 311 (243), onychoid 313 (249)
374 onyx 313 (249)
ogler 96 oodles 271
ogre 97 oolong 271
ogreish 97, 132 (68) oomph 274
ogress 97, 132 (68) oophore 267
 482

oospore 222 (193) orate 38 (32)

ooze 271, 273 oration 38 (32)
oozy 271 ordeal 370
opacity 244, 345 order(ly) 135 (70)
opaque 244, 345 ordure 331
opera 10, 136 (70), 256, ore 323
324, 365 organ 110, 133 (70), 347,
operable 256, 324 363
operate 10, 256-7, 324 organic 133 (70), 347
operatic 256, 324 organism 347
operative 256, 324 organist 347
operation(al) 324 organize 347
operator 324 orgasm 97, 347
operetta 136 (70), 256, 324 orgasmic 97
ophthalmolygy 164, 167, 311 orgiastic 110, 347
(243) orgy 347
opiate 31 (20) orifice 324, 333
opine 235, 253-4 original(ity) 133 (70)
opinion 235, 253-4 ornate 31 (20)
opinionated 138 (77), 253 ornithology 256
opponent 60, 333 orotund 324
opportune 232 (218) orthodontia 40 (35)
opportunity 314 (250) orthodontist 53, 60
oppose 49, 60 orthodox 40 (35), 53-4,
opposite 60, 333, 351, 355 119, 256
opposition 60, 351, 355 orthodromic 309 (223)
oppress 46, 49 orthoepy 54, 60, 166, 257
opprobrium 49 orthogonal 40 (35), 53,
opt 352, 354 224 (201), 289
optative 352, 354-5 orthography 257
optic(s) 178, 311 (243), 344 orthopedic 309 (223)
optical 150 orthoptic 60
optimum 256 oscitant 324, 346
option 150, 253, 352, 354 osculate xxv (6), 324
opulent 256, 365 Osirian 253
opus 10, 136 (70), 256-7, Osiris 253
323, 329, 365 osmosis 257
opuscule 323, 329 osmotic 257
oral 324 ossifrage 202
orange 238 ostensible 360
 483 P

ostentation 360 page 239, 244

ostentatious 360 pageant 308 (222)
ostler 331 paginal 244
other 146 (108), 154, 287 paginate 244
otitis 322 pagoda 157
otolaryngology 322 pain 130 (66), 234, 365
otolaryngoscope 256 paint 79, 130 (64)
otter 158, 212 (135) painter 366
ounce 131 (66), 261, 374 pair 20, 244, 365
our(s) xii, xxiii (5), 35 Pakistan 307 (220)
(28), 315 (253) palace 361
ouster 173 palatial 361
out 260 palaver(er) 135 (70)
outward(s) 56 palaverous 135 (70)
oval 38 (32) pale 152, 244, 278
ovary 38 (32) Palestine 235, 253
ovate 31 (20), 38 (32) Palestinian 235, 253
ovation 38 (32) palindrome 79
over 236, 329, 331 pall 152, 210 (123), 244
overdo 164 pallid 152, 244
overt(ure) 365 pallor 152, 244
ovulate 38 (32) palpable 152
ovum 38 (32) palsy 129 (61)
owe 278 palter 97
ox 24, 148, 228 (214), 331 paltry 97
oxlip 272 pamper(er) 135 (70)
oxyacetylene 246 pan 227 (209)
oxytone 360 panache 140 (80), 307 (220)
Panama 307 (220), 368
Panamanian 368
pancreas 131 (66), 344
pabulum 152, 164-5, 247, pancreatic 344
356, 362, 369 pancreatitis 344
pace 244 pandemonium 257
pacificate 38 (32) pander(er) 135 (70)
pacification 293 Pandora 319 (263)
pacifism 291-5 pane 244
pacifist 292-3, 295 panegyric 381 (277)
pacify 38 (32), 371 panel 135 (70), 244
paddle 20 paneler 135 (70)
p 484

panhandle(r) 95-6 paratroops 271

pantaloon(s) 271 pardon 135 (70), 318-9
pantheon 307 (220 (263)
panther 11 pardoner 135 (70)
pantheress 132 (68) parenthesis 60
pantomime 253 parenthetic(al) 54, 164
pantry 152, 362, 369 parimutual 310 (231)
pants 271 Paris(ian) 235
papal 278, 368 parisyllabic 244
paper(y) 135 (70) parity 310 (231)
papoose 271 parlance 288
papyrus 133 (70) parlay 310 (231)
par 310 (231), 365 parley 288, 310 (231)
parable 133 (70), 288 parliament 288, 310 (231)
parabolic 133 (70), 288 parlor 288
parachute 271 parody 60, 120
paradigm 54, 200, 251 parol(e) 288
paradigmatic 200, 251 paronchia 313 (249)
paradise 79, 131 (66) paronomasia 195
paradox(ical) 119 paronymous 195
paragon 307 (220) paronymy 60
parallel 54, 307 (220) parotid 322
paranoia 292 paroxytone 60
paranoid 292-3 parry 364
parapet 307 (220), 364, 380 parsimonious 6
(265) parsnip 307 (220)
paraphernalia 162-3 parson 278
paraphia 330 part(ial) 355
paraphrase 131 (66) Parthenon 307 (220)
paraphrastic 244, 333 participant 354
paraplegia 33 (24), 80, 249, participate 145 (106), 208
348 (118), 292, 354
paraplegic 309 (223), 348 participation 354
parasite 253-4 participator 354
parasitic 254 participial 354
parasol 307 (220), 327, 364, participle 354
369 particulate 31 (20)
parasympathetic 54 partition 252
parathymia 165 pass(age) 244
parathyroid 54 passenger 380 (267)
 485 P

passion 342 pause 131 (66)

passionate 30 (20) pavan 307 (220)
passive 244, 303, 342 Pavlov 307 (220)
paste 78-9 paxwax 380 (265)
pastel 307 (220) peace 131 (66), 371
Pasteur 356 peacock 307 (220)
pasteurize 356 peaked 139 (77)
pastor(al) 356 peal 81, 88
pastorale 307 (220) peasant 254, 334
pastry 79 pebble 96
pasture 356 pebbly 96
pat 81, 85, 124 (52) pecan 307 (220)
pâté 79 pecten 380 (265)
patella 152 pectinate 192, 380 (265)
patent 152 pectoral 380 (265)
paternal 22, 147, 152, 154, peculate 380 (265)
161, 176-7 peculiar 380 (265)
paternity 152 pecuniary 152, 380 (265)
path 171, 187, 232 (218), pedagogue 24, 249, 352
337 pedagogy 24
pathetic 182, 232 (218), pedal 22, 93, 147, 151,
291 158, 161, 176-7, 190-1,
pathos 182, 232 (218), 291, 207 (110), 249, 280
307 (220) pedaler 97, 133 (70)
patience 32 (21), 341 peddle 96-7
patient 32 (21), 244, 341-2 peddler 96-7, 103, 133 (70)
patio 152, 308 (222) pederast 249
patois 307 (220) pediatric 249, 351
patriarch 244, 367 pediatrician 351
patricide 152 pedicure 343
patrimony 244, 367 peel 16, 19, 88
patron 152, 244, 367 peep 152
patronage 152, 367 peer 310 (231), 365, 371
patronymic 22, 152, 195, peerless 310 (231), 365
244, 366 peignoir 307 (220), 380
patter(er) 135 (70) (265)
pattern 244 pell 210 (123)
paucity 152 pellagra 152, 210 (123)
pauldron 273 pellicle 152, 210 (123)
pauper 329, 376, 381 (272) pellucid 193
p 486

pelt 152, 210 (123), 215 percept 247, 354

(157) perceptible 208 (118), 354
pen 138 (77), 140 (80) perception 247, 354
penal 234, 249, 365 perceptive 354
penalize 249 perceptivity 354
penalty 234, 249, 365 percolate 49
penance 150, 342 perdition 165
pencil 20 peregrinate 352
pendant 357, 366 perennial 49
pendent 366 perfect 165, 248, 311 (238)
pending 357 perfection 248, 365
pendular 46 perfidious 232 (218), 364
pendulous 357, 366 perfidy 163-4, 232 (218),
pendulum 271, 357, 366 364
peninsula 252, 262, 342 perforate 49, 163, 176
penitence 150, 342 perfume 165
penitent(iary) 342 perianth 232 (218)
pennate 140 (80) periapical 240
penny 227 (209) periapt 330
pension 292, 366 pericardium 54, 290
pensive 338, 366 peril 135 (70), 152, 177,
pent 138 (77) 248
pentad 327 perilous 135 (70), 152
pentagon 22, 102, 152, 160, perimeter 54
167, 289 period 53-4
pentameter 152, 167 periodic 54
Pentateuch 152 periodontal 54
pentecost 152 peripatetic 54, 232 (218),
pentose 152 337, 382 (279)
penult(imate) 342 peripheral 163
penumbra 342 peritoneum 360
penury 342 periwinkle 96, 350
peon 307 (220) periwinkler 96
people 370 perjure 187
pepper 135 (70), 227 (209) permanent 48, 140 (81)
pepperer 135 (70) permissible 253, 344
peppery 135 (70) permissive 344
pepsin 312 (244) permit 48, 253, 344
perceivable 354 permute 49
perceive 247 pernicious 119
 487 P

perplex 177 petulant 109

perquisite 324 pewter(er) 135 (70)
persecute 354 phagocyte 160, 162
persecution 354 phalanx, -ges 83, 160, 162
persecutor 354 phallic 163
perseity 325 phantasm(al) 97
person 278 phantasmagoria 97
personnel 307 (220) phantasmatic 97
perspective 46 phantasmic 97
perspecacious 47, 145 (106) phantom(y) 135 (70)
perspicacity 49 pharmaceutical 314 (250),
perspicuous 254 371
perspire 57, 254 pharmacy 371
persuadable 339, 349 pharyngeal 33 (24), 83, 348
persuade 10, 338, 349 pharyngealize 83
persuader 349 pharyngitis 348
persuasible 338-9, 349 pharyngoscope 348
persuasion 349 pharynx 33 (24), 83, 163
persuasive 10, 338, 340, 349 pheasant 254, 334
pertinacious 360 phenol 249, 307 (220)
pertinacity 360 phenomenon 164, 307 (220)
pertinent 360 phenyl 249
pervade 338 Philadelphia 57
pervasive 338, 340 philander 94, 135 (70)
perverse 212 (131) philanderer 135 (70)
perversion 355 philanthropy xix, 312 (243)
pervert 50, 212 (131), 355 philately 225 (202)
pervious 202 philology xix, 256
peso 366 philomath 232 (218)
pester(er) 135 (70) philosophy xix
pesterous 135 (70) philter(er) 135 (70)
pesticide 202 philtrous 135 (70)
pestle 214 (146) phlegmon(ous) 135 (70)
petal phlogiston 160, 162
Peter 249 Phoenicia 168
petition 140 (80) Phoenician 168, 308 (222)
petrify 97, 249 phoenix 168
petrol(eum) 249 phone 115, 342
petrology 97 phoneme 176
petrous 97 phonemic 309 (223)
p 488

phonetic(ian) 351 piledriver 253

phonic 115 pilgrim 352
phonograph 306 (220) pill xix
phosphate 31 (20) pillar 253
phosphor 135 (70) pimento 79
phosphorous 135 (70), 163 pinafore 307 (220)
photograph 306 (220) pine 151-2, 234, 253, 365
photography xix pineal 253
photon 307 (220) ping 104
photostat 307 (220) pinguid 152
phrase 131 (66), 244, 333, pink 104
371 pint 79
phraseology 244, 371 pious 305 (219), 370
phratry 190 pipe 151-2, 176, 227 (209)
phygoid 347 piranha 226 (203)
phyllous 342 piracy 161, 343
physical 345 pirate 31 (20), 161, 343
physicist 293-4, 345 pirouette 307 (220)
physics 163, 293 piscatology 152
physiognomy 194 piscatory 22, 152, 253, 312
piazza 152, 244 (247), 357
picador 253 pisces 152, 253
picaroon 271 pisciculture 152
pick(ax) 253 piscine 152
pickerel 243, 253 piscivorous 152
picket 253 pismire 294
picky 101 pistology 163-4, 216 (164),
pictorial 79 364
picture 79, 130 (64) piston 271
piddle(r) 96 pit 16
piddly 96 pitch 15, 19, 152
piece 131 (66) piteous 163
Pierce 79 pith 232 (218)
piety 370 pithos 163
pig 27, 176 piton 307 (220)
pigment 79, 83, 193 pituitary 152
pigmentary 193 pity 370
pike 253 placable 346
pilaf 307 (220) placard 36 (30)-
pile 253 placate 146(106), 245,346,366
 489 P

place 244 please 16, 249, 333, 346,

placebo 346 361, 366
placid 146 (106), 159, 245, pleased 215 (153), 333
345, 366 pleasure 16, 249, 361, 366
placidity 245 plebe 249, 353
plague 80, 130 (64), 249, plebian 249, 353
348 plebiscite 249, 353
plain 152, 245 plebs 353
plaint(iff) 79 plectrum 80
plantive 79 pledge 239
plait 245 Pleiad 307 (220)
plane 152 plenary 77, 153, 249, 353
plangent 79, 348 plenipotentiary 353
plangorous 79, 130 (64), plenitude 353
348 plenteous 249, 353
plankton 80 plentiful 353
plant 227 (209, 210) plenty 77, 153, 249, 353
plantigrade 198 plenum 153, 249, 353
plasm(a) 97 pleonasm 249
plasmic 97 pleonastic 153
plaster 97, 135 (70) plethora 153, 249, 353
plasterer 135 (70) plexus 177
plastery 135 (70) plight xix
plastic 97 plink 104
plat 245 plinth 153, 232 (218)
plate 245 plow 227 (209)
plateau 245 plumb 99
platform 245 plumbago 99
Plato(nic) 115, 257 plumbeous 99
platoon 271 plumbic 99, 228 (212)
platter 245 plumbiferous 99
platyhelminth 232 (218) plumbous 99
platypus 152, 339 plumbum 99, 349
plaudit 338 plume 153, 208 (116)
plausible 338 plummet 99
play 81, 127 (58) plunder(er) 135 (70)
plaza 152, 244 plunderous 135 (70)
plea 249 plunge 238, 349
plead 90, 105-6, 249 pluperfect 260, 353
p 490

plural(ity) 324, 353 poltergeist 291

plus 260, 324, 353 poltroon 271
Pluto 257 polygamous 195
plutocracy 257 polygamy xix, 305 (219)
plutonic 257 polyglot 305 (219), 307
plutonium 257 (220), 344
pluvial 153, 273 polygon 307 (220)
Ply 253, 300, 372 polyhedron 327
pneumatic 192 polymath 232 (218)
pneumonia 257 Polynesia(n) 235
pneumonic 257 polynomial 195
poach xxiii (5) polyonymous 195
pocket 377 polyp 207 (110)
pockmark 377 pomegranate 31 (20), 242
podium 235, 257 pompom 307 (220)
poem 376 ponder(er) 135 (70), 366
poetic 376 ponderous 135 (70)
pogo 304 pontifex 232 (218)
pogrom 100, 307 (220) pontiff 232 (218)
poi 373 pontificate 38 (32)
poignant 130 (64), 376 pontoon 232 (218), 271,
point(ed) 376 337, 382 (279)
poise 338, 366, 374 pony 271
poison 135 (70), 373-4 pooch 271
poisoner 135 (70) pood 271, 382 (279)
poisonous 135 (70) poodle 271
Polak 307 (220) pooh(-pooh) 271
Poland 292 pool 227 (209), 271
polar xxix (7) poop 271
polarity 245 poor 178, 271, 376, 381
pole 167, 257, 278 (272)
polecat 271 pope 278, 368
polemic 193, 249 popular xxix (7)
polemize 193 populate 370
police 305 (219), 343 porcate(d) 153
policy 305 (219), 343 porch 232 (218)
politic(s) 309 (227), 343 porcine 346
political 253, 305 (219), porcupine 153
polliwog 76, 166, 257, 307 pore 176
(220) pork 153, 346
 491 P

porpoise 131 (66) pounce 261

porridge 380 (267) pound 271, 334, 366
porringer 380 (267) pousse-café 249
port 232 (218) pout 157-8
portable 48, 153 pountingly 157
portage 48, 153 poverty 178, 329, 376, 381
portend 358-9 (272)
portent(ous) 359 powder(er) 135 (70)
porter 48 powdery 135 (70)
portfolio 48, 342 powwow 185, 307 (220)
portico 232 (218) pox 377
portly 232 (218) Poznan 307 (220)
portmanteau 48 practicable 345
portrait xix, 341 practical 83, 345
portray 341 practice 345
pose 258, 375 praenomen 195
posit 258 pragmatic 83
post 80 praise 131 (66), 333, 366
postdate 49, 312 (245), 356 prate 245
posterior 249, 312 (245), prattle 96, 245
356 prattler 96
posterity 249 prattly 96
posthaste 49 praxis 83
posthumous 258, 356 pray 227 (209)
postnatal 49 preacheress 132 (68)
postorbital 49 preacherize 132 (68)
postulate 31 (20) preamble 49
potable 373 precede 49, 246, 249
potage 306 (220) precedent 249
potash 307 (220) precept 208 (118)
potency 32 (21) precious 236, 249, 366
potent 32 (21), 258, 355 precipitate 145 (106)
potentate 31 (20), 258 precise 251, 333, 356
potential 355 precision 251, 357
potion 373 preclude 338
potter(er) 135 (70) preclusive 338
pouch 377 precocious 256, 312 (244),
poult 271 358, 361
poulter(er) 135 (70) precocity 256, 312 (246),
poultry 135 (70), 271 358, 361
p 492

precursor 49, 135 (70) prescribe 254

precursory 135 (70) prescription 254
predator(y) 130 (64), 135 presence 341
(70), 158, 166, 229 present 333, 341
(217) presentation 31 (21)
predicator(y) 134 (70) preserve(s) 327
predict 49, 200 preside 49, 117, 158, 212
pre-eminence 32 (21) (136), 369
pre-eminent 32 (21) presidency 343
pre-empt 48-50 president 117, 158, 212
preface 131 (66), 342 (136), 343, 355
prefect 165, 311 (238) presidential 355
prefer 36-7 (30) presidium 145 (106)
prefigurativel66 press 49
prefigure 78 prestige 305 (219), 371
prefix 251 prestigious 305 (219), 371
pregnable 229 (217) presume 260
pregnant 30 (17), 109, 194, presumption 260
289 pretend(er) 359
prehensile 130 (64), 166, pretense 325, 358, 360-1
212 (133), 229 (217), 338 pretension 358-9, 361
prejudge 187 pretext 299
prejudice 49, 357 pretty 101
prejudicial 187 previous 212, 366
preliminary 253 prey 212 (133), 229 (217)
prelude 357 price 46, 131 (66), 305
prelusion 357 (219), 333, 366
prelusive 357 prim 324
premature 49 primal 253
premium 48 primary 253
premonition 50 primate 31 (20), 253
premonitor 135 (70) prime 253
premonitory 109, 135 (70) primeval 247
premonstrate 97 primitive 253
prepare 50, 364 primogeniture 159, 289
preponderance 366 prince 132 (66), 253, 354
preposterous 49, 312 (245) princely 132 (66)
prerogative 119, 348 princess 132 (66), 215
presage 160, 326, 348 (153), 354
prescind 130 (64) principal 208 (118), 253, 354
 493 p

principality 354 Procyon 155, 307 (220), 324

principia 354 profound 162, 261
principle 354 profundity 261
prior 133 (70), 153, 305 profuse 161
(219) profusion 161
priority 133 (70) progenitor 109
prism(atic) 97 progenitress, -ix 132 (68)
prison(er) 135 (70), 253 progeny xix, 159, 289
prissy 324 prognosis 54, 159, 194
pristine 253 prognosticate 159
privacy 343 progress 48-9, 51, 209
private 30 (20), 253, 343 (118)
privation 46, 343 progression 209 (118)
privative 46, 253 progressive 209 (118)
privilege 343 prohibit 146 (106), 331
privy 253, 343 prohibition 331
prize 131 (66), 253, 333, prohibitive 331
366 prohibitor(y) 134 (70)
probable 271 project 48-9, 58, 60, 187
probate 271 projection 187
probity 271, 309 (223) projector 60
problem 120, 288 prolegomenon 54, 164, 347
proboscis 344 proliferate 31 (21)
procedure 356 proliferation 31 (21)
proceed 49, 246, 339, 356 prologue 54, 82, 347
process 45, 49, 339 prolong(ation) 116, 347-8
procession 246 Prometheus 144 (102)
processive 246, 339 promote 50, 355, 376
proclaim(able) 241 promotion 340, 355
proclivity 251 pro-ulgative 303
procreate 120 pronoun 50
proctor 343 pronounce 46, 261
procumbent 49, 99 pronunciation 18, 31 (21),
procurator 134 (70), 343 261
procuratorial 132 (68) pronunciative 30 (19)
procuratory 134 (70) proof 129 (60), 271, 332
procuratrix 132 (68) proofread 332
procure 343 propaganda 244
procurer 132 (68), 343 propagate 244
procuress 132 (68) propagative 9
p 494

propel 47, 50, 52 protrude 49-50, 338, 340,

proper(ty) 97, 258 357
prophecy 305 (219), 343, 371 protrusion 357
prophesy 305 (219), 343, 371 protrusive 154, 338, 340
prophet 342-3 protrusiveness 154
prophetic 343 protuberance 154
prophylaxis 224 (200) proud 68, 262, 267, 372
proposal 16 Proust 80
propose 16, 50 prove 129 (60), 271, 332
proprietary 97 provide 50, 255
proprietor 97 province 131 (66), 361
proprietress, -ix 132 (68) provincial 361
propriety 97 provision 255
proprioceptive 97 provisory 136 (70)
propulsion 249 provocation 18, 167
propulsive 50 provocative 24, 30 (19)
prorogue 119, 234, 348 provoke 18, 24, 30 (19),
prosecute 354 50, 167
prosecution 354 prowess 372
prosecutor 354 prude 262, 372
prosody 60 pruinose 153
prospect(ive) 50 pseudonym 195
prosper(ous) 135 (70) psilosis 257
prostitute 352 psilotic 257
prostitution 352 psyche 192
prostrate 31 (20), 246, 299, psychiatric 305 (219), 371
310 (233) psychiatry 305 (219), 308
protagonist 347, 352 (222), 371
protect 154 psychic 309 (223)
protector 135 (70) psychopath 232 (218)
protectory 132 (68), 135 psychosis 257, 317 (256)
(70) psychotic 257
protectorate 132 (68) Ptolemy 192
protectress 132 (68), 135 ptosis 140 (80), 317 (256)
(70) pubic 314 (250), 345
prothetic 54 public 370
protogenic 248 publication 38 (32)
protoplasm(ic) 96-7 publicity 345
protract 45, 50, 353 publicize 345
protraction 45, 353 publish 38 (32)
 495 q

pucker 135 (70), 377 pursuit xix, 341, 354

puckerer 135 (70) purulent 324, 372
puckery 135 (70) pus 153, 260, 324, 344, 372
puddle 96, 271 push 249
puddler 96 pussy 271
puddly 96 pussyfoot 271
pueblo 370 pustulant 324
pug xii, xxiii (5), 130 (64), pustule 153, 260, 344, 372
260 putrefaction 344
pugilist 260 putrid 153, 260, 344, 372
pugilistic xii, xxiii (5), puzzle(r) 96-7, 375
130 (64) puzzlement 97
pugnacious 130 (64), 260 pylon 307 (220)
pullet 271 pyracanth 232 (218)
pulley 167 pyre 151, 153, 177
pulse 50, 249 pyromaniac 153
punch(eon) 261 python 307 (220)
punctuality 240, 309 (225)
puncture 376
pungent 130 (64), 376
Punic 314 (250) qua 167
punish(ment) 234, 260, 365 quadroon 271
punitive 135 (70), 234, 260, quadrangle 167
365 quadrille 307 (220)
punitor(y) 135 (70) quadruped 249, 307 (220)
punt 232 (218), 337 quadruple(t) 96
pup 271 quadruplex 177
puppy 271 quahog 307 (220)
purchase 354 quaint 80
purfle(r) 96 qualification 17, 31 (21)
purfly 96 qualify 17, 167, 256
purgative 30 (19), 244 quality 167
purge 239, 244 quantify 167
purity 314 (250) quantity 167
purloin 116 quantum 167
purple 96 quarrel(er) 135 (70)
purply 96 quart(er) 167
purport 48 quartet 307 (220)
purse(r) 157 quartz 131 (66)
pursue 354 quasar 307 (220)
r 496

quasi 167, 333 r 278

quatrain 167 rabbi 254
quaver(er) 135 (70) rabbinical 254
quavery 135 (70) rabid 76, 239, 245, 349
quean 218 (183) rabies 76, 245, 264, 349
Quebec 307 (220) raccoon 226 (203), 269, 271
queen 168, 218 (183) race 245, 272, 361
queenliness 168 racial 361
quell xix rack 343, 350
querulous 135 (70) radar 307 (220)
query 324 radiance 16
queue 122, 374 radiant 16
quest 324 radiate 16
question 15, 324 radiation 16
quetzal 307 (220) radiative 9
Quezon 307 (220) radical 158, 272, 317
quibble(r) 96 (256), 376
quick, -est 35 (28), 102, radish 245, 272
121, 168, 170, 289 raffle(r) 96
quid 158, 167 rage 239, 245, 349
quiddity 167 ragout 180, 259
quiddle(r) 96 rail(road) 234, 313 (249)
quiet 167, 254, 285, 305 rain 48, 217 (168), 313
(219), 370 (249)
quinquevalent 22, 167 rainbow 313 (249)
quit(s) 254 raise 324, 365
quixotic 155 rajah 119
quiz 171 ramble 96, 98, 174, 376
quod 167 rambler 96
quorum 167 rambly 96
quoits 373 ramification 317 (256)
quota 167, 258 ramify 272
quote 76 ramose 317 (256)
quoth 249 rampart 364
quotient 167, 258 ramulous 135 (70)
ramulus 135 (70)
rancid 346
rancor(ous) 135 (70)
range 160, 238
rank 160, 238, 346
 497 r

ransom(er) 135 (70) reason(able) 135 (70)

rape 245, 329 reasoner 135 (70)
rapine 245, 329 rebel 16, 268
rappel 307 (220) rebellion 16
rapport 48, 307 (220) rebellious 268
rapt 245 rebuff 307 (220)
rara 245 recant 350
rare xxiii (5), 245 recede 50, 246, 339
rasa 317 (256) receipt 305 (219), 311
rath 232 (218) (236), 354, 369
ratio 236 receive 247, 354, 369, 376
ration(al) 236 recent 310 (235)
rationale 307 (220) receptacle 208 (118), 354,
rattan 307 (220) 369
rattle 96, 227 (210) reception 247, 354, 369
rattler 96 receptive 208 (118), 354,
rattly 96 369
ravage 245 receptivity 354
Ravel 307 (220) receptor 354
ravel 307 (220) recess 45, 50, 339
raven 128 (58), 156, 192, recession 45, 246, 340
245, 274 recessible 339
ravenous 245 recessive 45, 50, 246, 339
ravigote 180, 348 recessor(y) 339
ravish 245, 329 recidivist 145 (106)
ravishing 329 recipe 354
raw 157, 192, 344 recipient 305 (219), 311
rayon 307 (220) (236), 369
raze 317 (256) reciprocal 230 (217), 346
razor 317 (256) reciprocate 230 (217), 346
reach 81 reciprocity 346
react 352 recite 346
read 90, 104, 157, 249 reckless 350
readout 14 reckon 119, 135 (70), 350
reality 371 reckoner 135 (70)
really 371 reclaim(able) 241
ream 265, 271 recline 156, 251
reamer 271 recluse 131 (66), 338
rear 250, 324, 365 recognition 252
rearm 249 recognizable 159
r 498

recognize xxv (6), 159, 252, reduct 45

289 reduction 16, 45, 259
recommend(ation) 31 (21) reduplicate 9
recompense 292, 338, 366 reduplicative 9
reconcile 251 refer 36-7 (30)
reconaissance 159, 194-5 refine(d) 251
reconnoiter 159, 195 reflect 50, 177, 344
record 249, 290 reflector 50
recording 290 reflex 50, 344
recourse 50 reflexive 50, 303, 344
recover 135 (70), 259, 329, refractory 6
354, 369 refresh 357
recoverer 135 (70) refuge 347
recovery 259, 329, 354, 369 refund 260, 372
recreative 9 regal 119-20, 234, 250,
recruit 274 299, 348, 350
rectification 119 regalia 119, 348
rectify 83 regale 242
rectilinear 371 regard 365
rector 119 regelate 213 (138)
rectorate 132 (68) regency 119, 348
rectoress 132 (68) regenerate 50
rectory 132 (68) regent 119, 348
rectress 132 (68) regicide 119, 235, 250, 348
recumbent 99 régime '119, 234
recuperable 354 regimen 119, 348
recuperate 259, 329, 354 regiment 119, 348, 350
recuperation 354 regina 348
recuperative 354, 369 region 119, 348
recurrent 259 regional 348
recurvate 290 regionalism 119
red 18, 164-5, 227 (207) register 97
redact(ion) 50 registrant 97
redeem 48, 50, 247 registrar 97
redeemer 247 registration 97
redeliver 50 registry 97
redemption 50, 247 regnal 119
redolent 50 regnant 119, 348
redstart 173, 175 regress 48, 51, 209 (118),
reduce 16, 45, 50, 259 340
 499 r

regression 209 (118) religious 347

regressive 209 (118) relinquish 50, 141 (92),
regret(s) 248 167, 344
regular xxix (7), 119, 348, relinquishment 167
350 reluctance 32 (21)
regularity 119, 348 reluctant 32 (21)
regulate 83, 119, 313 (249), rely xii
348, 350 remain 48, 140 (81)
regulative 348 remainder 173
regurgitate 347, 377 remand 243, 318 (263)
rehabilitate 136 (70) reme 375
Reich 119, 234 remedial 249
Reichstag 119 remedy 257, 343
reign 150, 234, 350 remember 50, 97-8, 140 (81)
reimburse 59, 157 remembrance 97, 137 (73)
rein 360 remex, -miges 83
reincarnate 350 remind 109
reincarnation 210 (121) remissible 253
reject 48, 58, 60, 187 remit 48, 253
rejection 187 remnant 140 (81)
rejoice 50, 347, 377 remonstrance 97
rejoin 187 remonstrate 97, 109, 291
rejoinder 173, 187, 296, 374 remorse 339
rejuvenate 186, 200 remunerate 354
relapse 131 (66) renal 250
relate 9, 31 (21), 141 (91), renascence 194
243 rend 90
relation 31 (21) render 135 (70), 318 (263)
relative 9 renderer 135 (70)
relax 17, 160, 245 rendezvous 318 (263)
relaxation 17, 31 (21), 160 rendition 318 (263)
relay 249 renegade 223 (198)
relent 11, 13, 153 renege 223 (198)
relentless 153 Renoir 307 (220)
relevance 32 (21) renounce 261
relevant 32 (21), 249 renovate 249
relic(t) 141 (92), 344 renown 195
relief 129 (60), 248, 332 rent 90, 318-9 (263)
relieve 129 (60), 248, 332 renunciation 261
religion 253, 347 renunciative 30 (19)
r 500

reopen 249 resembler 96

repair 364 resent 361
repast 152, 369 reserve 327
repeal 249 reservist 327
repeat 249 reservoir 327
repel 50, 249 reside 158, 212 (136), 254,
repellant 249 305 (219), 369
repentance 150 resident 158, 355
repetition 140 (80) residential 355
repetitive 249 residual 145 (106), 158,
repine 234, 365 254, 369
replenish 153, 249, 353 residue 117, 158, 212 (136)
replete 153, 249, 353 resilience 172
replicate 9, 177 resilient 60, 146 (106),
replicative 9 172, 209 (118), 334
report 48 resin 135 (70)
reprehend 338 resiner 135 (70)
reprehensible 212 (133), 338 resinous 135 (70)
reprehensive 212 (133), 338 resolute 270
representation 31 (21) resolve 270
representative 30 (19) resound 333, 375
repress 49 resource 126 (56), 131 (66)
reprieve 271 respire 254
reprisal 212 (133), 253 respite 254
reprobate 271 resplendence 32 (21)
reproduce 50 resplendent 32 (21)
reproof 332 respond 10, 339
reptile 254 response 10, 131 (66), 339
reptilian 254 responsible 339-40
repulse 50 responsive 339
request 324 restrict 80
requiem 305 (219), 370 result 48, 172, 209 (118)
require 254, 324 resultant 172, 209 (118)
requisite 324 resume 260
requisition 324 resumption 260
rescind 45, 130 (64) resurgent 348
research 350 resuscitate 346
resemblance 97 retail 246
resemble 96-8, 313 (249), retain 368
326, 333 retainer 173
 501 r

retaliate 308 (222) reward 365

retardation 31 (21) rhapsodic 120
retardative 30 (19) rhapsody 157
retch 211 (125) Rhenish 305 (219), 371
retention 360, 368 rheostat 192
retentive 360 rheum(atic) 110
reticence 32 (21) rheumatism 192
reticent 32 (21), 146 (106) Rhine 305 (219), 371
retinue 360 rhinoceros 131 (66), 140
retract 45, 50, 353, 371 (85), 156
retraction 45, 353 rhizo- 272, 317 (256)
retreat 353, 371 rhyme 76, 148-9
retroflect 176, 344 rhythm 96-7, 110, 148, 192
retroflex 344 rhythmic 96-7
retrograde 198, 242, 339, rhythmize 97
367 rial 307 (220)
retrogress 51, 209 (118), rib xix
339, 367 rice 254
retrogression 209 (118) rich 235
retrogressive 209 (118), riddle 156-7, 164, 192, 249
339, 367 ride 15, 26, 88, 104, 112,
reveal 367 254, 278, 281, 283
reveille 348 ridge 239
revelation 31 (21) ridicule 254
revenge 238 ridiculous 46, 254, 338, 357
reverberate 157 riel 307 (220)
reverse 131 (66), 212 (131) riffraff 307 (220)
reversion 355 rifle(r) 96
revert 45-6, 50, 212 (131), rift 254
355 right(eous) 119, 234, 356
revile 255 righteousness 234
revise 255 rigid 159, 219 (186), 348
revitalization 31 (21) rigidity 348
revision 255 rigor(ous) 135 (70), 348
revive 168, 170, 255, 289 rim xix
revocation 18 rime 148
revoke 18, 167 ring 104, 145 (104), 211
revolt 258 (125)
revolution 237, 351, 377 rink 104
revolve 237, 258, 377 rip 13-4
r 502

ripe 227 (209) room 265, 271

ripple(t) 96 roomette 307 (220)
rise 88, 104, 107-8, 112, roost 80, 271
254, 324, 365 rooster 80, 272
risible 46, 357 root 158, 237, 272, 317
risotto 254 (256), 376
rite 148, 254, 355 rooter 272
ritual 148, 254, 355 rope 282
rive 254 Rorschach 307 (220)
river(y) 135 (70) rosemary 243
Riyadh 307 (220) rosette 307 (220)
road 142 (96), 278, 281, rosin 135 (70)
283 rostrum 317 (256)
roam 26, 98, 376 rotary 315 (256)
roast 80 rotate 31 (21), 315 (254)
rob xix, 278 rotation 31 (21)
robe 85 rote 353, 375
robot xx, 307 (220) rotund 315 (254)
robust 324 rotunda 315 (254)
rod 315 (254) rotundity 315 (254)
rodent 272, 317 (256), 357, roue 315 (254)
368 rouge 81, 349
rough 148, 181
rodeo 315-6 (254) roulette 307 (220), 315
Roderick 315 (254) (254)
Rodin 307 (220) round 262, 315-6 (254), 334
rodomontade 79, 315-6 (254 rout 353
roister(er) 135 (70) route 262, 353
roisterous 135 (70) routine 260, 353, 375
roll 315 (254) rove(r) 278
Rolls 80 row 280, 375
romance 341 rowel 315 (254)
romantic 341 Roy 373
rondeau 315 (254) royal 119-20, 235, 295,
rondo 315 (254) 299, 350, 374
rondure 315 (254) royalty 119, 235
rood 271 rubber(y) 135 (70)
roof 129 (60), 237, 271 rubefacient 349
rook 156, 274 rubicund 164, 340, 349
rookie 274 rubify 164
 503 s

rubric 349 Sabine 328

ruby 164-5, 349 sabotage 306 (220)
rudder 375 saboteur 307 (220)
ruddy 164, 340 saccharin 361
rue 232 (218) sacerdotal 97, 137 (74)
ruff 148 sachet 350-1
ruffian 148 sack 350-1
ruffle(r) 96 sacrament 97, 245
ruffly 96 sacred 97, 130 (64), 138
rufous 164, 340 (77), 209 (118), 245
ruin(er) 135 (70) sacrilege 97, 347
ruinous 135 (70) sad 215 (156)
rule 119, 234 saddle 117, 120, 291, 369
rumble 93, 96, 98, 100, 174, safe 245, 326, 332, 349
260 saffron(y) 135 (70)
rumbler 96 saga 216 (168), 279, 367
rumbly 96 sagacious 160, 325, 348-9
rummage 271 sagacity 348
rumor 100, 260 sage 146 (106), 239, 326,
run 14-5, 92, 104, 116, 145 349
(104) sagebrush 349
rune 262, 334 saint xxii (3), 80, 130 (64)
rung 92 sake 55, 160, 326
runic 314 (250) sal 326
rupture 353 salaam 307 (220)
rural(ism) 324 salacious 172, 209 (118),
ruralite 324 334
ruralize 324 salacity 172
russet 260 salad 326, 367
Russia 235 salamander 97
rust xviii, 164, 260, 340-1, salamandroid 97
363 salami 326
rustic(ate) 324 salaried 326
rusticism 324 salary 245
rusticity 324 sale 367
rusticize 324 salicylate 31 (20)
rustle(r) 96 salience 172
rut 260, 375 salient 146 (106), 172, 209
ruth 232 (218) (118)
rye 314 (249) salify 326, 367
s 504

saline 245, 326, 367 sassafras 307 (220)

Salkoff 307 (220) Satan(ic) 133 (70)
sally 146 (106), 172, 209 satchel 350-1
(118), 334 sate 245
salon 307 (220) satiate 245
saloon 271-2 satin(y) 135 (70)
salt 129 (61), 245, 326, 367 satire 115, 254
saltant 172, 209 (118), 334 satiric 254
saltarello 172 satirical 115, 254
saltation 172, 209 (118) satis 215 (156), 356
saltatorial 172 satisfaction 165
saltatory 172, 209 (118) satisfactory 241
saltigrade 172, 198, 209 satisfy 215 (156), 245, 356
(118), 334 satrap 307 (220)
saltimbanco 172, 334 saturate 215 (156)
saltine 326 saturation 356
saltpeter 97, 249 sauce 131 (66), 326, 367
saltus 172 saucer 326
salutary 326, 332, 349 saucy 101
salutation 31 (21), 340 saunter(er) 135 (70)
salute 349 sausage 326, 367
salvage 245, 326, 349 sauté 172, 334
salvarsan 349 savant 307 (220), 329, 349
salvation 245, 326 save 245, 332
salve 128 (58) savin 328
same 326, 331 savior 349
samovar 307 (220) savoir-faire 146 (106),
Samoyed 247, 307 (220) 329, 349
sampan 307 (220) savor 135 (70), 349
sample(r) 94 savorer 135 (70)
sanctify 130 (64) savorous 135 (70)
sanctity 130 (64) savory 135 (70), 349
sane viii, xxii (3), xxviii savvy 146 (106), 329, 349
(6), 12, 207 (113), 245 saw 179, 216 (168), 279,
sapid 326, 329, 349 367
sapient 146 (106), 329, 349 Saxon 179
saponify 282, 329 say 91, 104, 127 (58), 216
saraband 307 (220) (168), 279, 367
sarcophagous 54 scab 245
sartorial 236 scabble(r) 96
 505 s

scabies 245 scombroid 97

scalawag 307 (220) scoop 260, 272, 358
scale 61 (37) scoot 272, 358, 369
scallion 357 scooter 272
scalp(el) 332 scope 115
scamper(er) 135 (70) scoundrel 363
scan 61 (37), 209 (118), 334 scour 261
scansion 209 (118) scourge 239
scandal(ous) 136 (70) scowl 261
Scandinavia(n) 235 scrabble 96, 130 (64)
scapegoat 41 (35) scrabbler 96
scarce 80 scramble 96, 130 (64)
scatter 135 (70), 357 scrambler 96
scatterer 135 (70) scrap 245
scattery 135 (70) scrape 245
scavage 357 screech 350, 358
scavenge 380 (267) scribble 77, 96
scavenger 357, 380 (267) scribbler 96
scene 369 scribe 76-7, 83, 128 (58),
scène 369 161, 328, 358, 372
scenery 369 scrimmage 223 (195)
scenic 309 (223) script 83, 161, 372
scent 361 scrivener 128 (58), 135
schism 45, 95, 97, 357 (70), 328, 358, 372
schismatic 95, 97, 357 Scrooge 272
schizophrenia 249 scrounge 238
schizophrenic 249 scrub 358
Schnauzer 272 scrutinous 135 (70)
scholar 272 scrutiny 314 (250)
school 272 scuffle 96, 358
schooner 272 scuffler 96
science 32 (21), 341 sculpt 332, 356
scientific 32 (21), 341 sculptor 356
scimitar 307 (220) sculpture 332, 356
scintilla(te) 254, 358, 369 scupper 260
scissile 130 (64) scurry 261
scission 130 (64) scuttle 96, 358, 369
scissors 357 scuttler 96
scissure 130 (64) scythe 179, 277
sclerosis 317 (256) Scythia(n) 235
Scomber 97 seal 76, 88
s 506

seam(stress) 305 (219), 369 44), 160, 199, 228

sear 143 (100) (214), 250, 326
search 350 seem(ly) 250, 313 (249),
Sears 80 326
season 135 (70), 370 seer 143 (100)
seasoner 135 (70) seesaw 307 (220)
seat 117, 158, 305 (219), seethe 179
369 segment 83, 179
secant 83 segregate xxviii (6), 50,
secede 50 279, 347
seclude 333, 338 segregation 347
seclusive 338 segregative 9
second 13, 21, 178-80, 235, seismic 254, 309 (223)
354 seize 361
secrecy 343 seizure 361
secret 156, 250, 343 select 50-1, 53, 279
secrete 156, 343 self 325, 332
secretariat 343 sell 91-2, 104, 116, 265,
secretary 250, 343 276, 367
sect 179, 354 selvage 332
section 60, 83, 179, 354 semantics 163, 366
secular 370 semaphore 49, 163, 307
secure 343 (220), 366
security 151, 314 (250), 343 semblance 250, 313 (249),
sedan 307 (220) 326, 333
sedate 9, 31 (20), 117 semble 313 (249)
sedative 9, 117, 158, 369 semen 250, 370
sedentary 117, 145 (106), semester xxvi (6), 11, 97,
158, 327, 369 270
sediment 117, 158, 369 seminal 250, 370
sedimentary 369 seminar 250, 307 (220), 370
sedition 50-1 seminary 250, 370
seduce 45, 50, 259, 279 Semite 254
seduct 45 Semitic 254
seduction 45, 259 sempiternal 326
sedulous 279 senate 31 (20), 250
see xii, xix, 86, 104, 130 senatorial 132 (68)
(66), 305 (219), 370 send 68-9, 90, 104
seed 370 Senegal 307 (220)
seek 62 (40), 68, 123 (43, senile 250, 254
 507 s

senility 254 sequester 97

senior 250 sequestrai 97
señor 307 (220) sequestrate 97
sensate 344, 361 sequitur 235, 354
sensation 236, 344 sequoia 185
sensational 236 Serbo-Croatian 256
sensationalism 344 serene 250
sense 131 (66), 344, 361 serenity 250
sensible 344, 361 serf(dom) 349
sensibility 361 serial 27
sensitive 344, 361 serpent 327
sensitize 361 serum 110, 192, 318 (260)
sensor(y) 344, 361 servant 349
sensual(ity) 361 serve 237, 327, 349
sensualize 361 service(able) 349
sensuous 361 serviette 349
sentence 27, 32 (21), 131 servile 222 (194), 252,
(66), 176, 361 349
sentential 361 servitude 349
sententious 361 servility 222 (194), 252
sentient 47, 344, 361 sesquicentennial 136 (70)
sentiment(al) 344, 361 sesquipedalian 207 (110)
sentinel 344, 361 set 111, 117, 158, 369
separate 17, 31 (20), 31 settle 96-7, 111, 117, 158,
(21), 50, 279, 329, 352 291
separation 17, 31 (21), 352 settlement 97, 158, 291
September xxvi (6), 178 settler 96-7
Septembrist 97, 327 seven 93, 128 (58), 178,
septempartite xxvi (6), 178 327
septic xxvii (6), 344-5 seventh 13, 327
septicemic 309 (223), 345 seventy 84
septuple 327 sever(al) 329
sepulcher 97 severance 329
sepulchral 97 severe 250, 279
sepulchrous 97 severity 250
sequel 49, 307 (220), 354 sew 16, 369
sequela 354 sex 131 (66)
sequence 354, 379 (264) sextet 327
sequent 354 sexton 137 (74)
sequential 379 (264) sfumato 165
s 508

shackle(s) 96, 245, 368 shimmer 135 (70), 254,

shackler 96 358, 369
shade 245, 367 shimmery 135 (70)
shadow 367 shin 45
shake 245, 274, 368 shindig 307 (220)
shakedown 368 shine 254, 358, 369
shallot xx, 307 (220), 357 shiner 369
shallow 376 shingle 45, 96, 358
Shalom 307 (220) shingler 96
shamrock 307 (220) ship 227 (209), 358
Shangrila 307 (220) shipyard 221 (193)
shan't 211 (123) shirt 222 (193), 358
shantung 307 (220) shiver(y) 135 (70)
shape 245, 329, 357 shoal 376
sharp 227 (209) shoddy 101
shatter 135 (70), 357 shoe 91, 105-6, 314 (252),
shatterer 135 (70) 376
shave 329 shoo 272
sheaf 332 shook 145 (105)
shears 210 (121) shoot 90, 104, 221 (193),
sheath 45, 232 (218), 337, 260, 264, 271-2, 314
358 (252), 358, 369
sheathe 250, 337 shoplift(er) 151, 157, 176
sheave 332 shorn 138 (77)
shed 250, 357, 367 short xii, 18, 222 (193),
sheen 357 357
sheep 227 (209), 250 shot 16-7, 264, 272, 314
sheer 369 (252), 369
sheet(s) 272, 369 shove 221 (193), 260, 358
shelf 332 shovel 95, 135 (70), 155,
shell 16, 250 221 (193), 260, 273, 358
shellac 307 (220) shoveler 135 (70)
shelter 20, 135 (70), 250 show 208 (116), 357
shelterer 135 (70) shower(y) 135 (70)
sheltery 135 (70) shriek 350, 358
shelve 237, 332 shrift 83, 254, 358, 372
shepherd 250, 330 shrink 92, 104-6
shibboleth 232 (218), 307 shrive 83, 254, 328, 358,
(220) 372
shield 250 Shrove(tide) 83, 372
 509 s

shrub 358 simpleton 97

shrubbery 358 simplex 97, 326
shudder(y) 135 (70) simplicity 97
shuffle 96, 358 simplify 97
shuffler 96 simply 97, 103, 292
shuttle 155, 221 (193), 260, simulate 98, 313 (249),
272, 358, 369 326
Siam xx, 307 (220) simultaneity 368
sib(ling) 325 simultaneous 313 (249), 326,
Siberia(n) 235-6 334, 368
sic 333 since 11
sickle 179 sine 40 (35), 254
sidelong 12, 97 sinecure 343
sidle(r) 97 sing 16, 71, 92, 104, 118,
sidling 97 131 (66), 375
siege 239 singer 102
sieve 21, 128 (58) single 96-7, 313 (249), 326
sift 21 singlet 96-7
sight xix, 305 (219), 370 singleton 97, 313 (249)
sightseer 143 (100) singly 97
sign(al) 179, 254, 313(249) singular 97, 313 (249), 326
significance 32 (21) singularity 97, 313 (249)
significant 32 (21) sinister 97, 287
signification 32 (21) sinisterly 97
significative 30 (19) sinistrous 97
signify 254, 313 (249) sink 92, 104-5, 117
silence 16, 32 (21) Sino-Tibetan 195
silent 16, 32 (21) sinuous 40 (35), 254
silhouette 307 (220) sinus 40 (35)
silicon 307 (220) sis 208 (114), 324
silly 242, 327 sissy 324
silver(er) 135 (70) sister 208 (114), 324-5
silvery 135 (70) sistrum 254
similar xxix (7), 133 (70), sit 90, 104, 111, 116, 158,
313 (249), 326 191, 369
similarity 133 (70), 326 site 254, 355-6
simile 313 (249), 326 situate 254, 355-6
similitude 313 (249) six 327
simper(er) 135 (70) sixth 13, 179, 230 (217)
simple 97, 103, 313 (249), sixty 84
326 sizzle(r) 96
s 510

sizzly 96 sleuth 232 (218)

skedaddle(r) 96 slice 254
skeet 272, 369 slide 90, 105, 107, 112,
skeleton(y) 135 (70) 254
skeptic 293, 345 sling 92, 104, 142 (100)
skeptical 345 slink 104
skepticism 293, 345 slip 272
ski 45, 357 slippery 272
skiff 358 slit 254
skin 16 slither 135 (70), 254
skirmish 223 (195) slithery 135 (70)
skirt 222 (193), 358 slobber(er) 135 (70)
skit 272 slobbery 135 (70)
skitter 272, 369 sloop 272
skittish 272 slop(s) 272
skittle 96, 358 slope 272
skittler 96 sloppy 272
skittles 272, 369 sloth 203-4, 231 (218), 258
skulk 261 slough 181
slabber(er) 135 (70) Slovak 307 (220)
slack 160, 245 Slovakia(n) 308 (222)
slacken 245 slow xii, 203-4, 231 (218),
slake 245 258, 280
slander 135 (70), 136 (70) sludge 239
slanderer 135 (70) sluggard 122
slanderous 135 (70), 136 sluice 338
(70) slumber(er) 135 (70)
slat 245 slumberous 135 (70)
slate 245 sly 200
slaughter 135 (70), 367 small 129 (61)
slaughterer 135 (70) smart 158, 227 (210)
slaughterous 135 (70) smegma 193
slay 367 smile 41 (35)
sled 142 (94) smit(e) 92, 112, 254
sledge 239, 367 smith 232 (218)
sledgehammer 367 smooth 272
sleep 76, 78, 89, 104, 236-7, smother(y) 135 (70)
250 smuggle(r) 96
sleigh 142 (94) snail 367
sleight xix, 200, 207 (113), snake 367
226 (204) snare 245, 289
 511 s

snarl xvii, 245, 283 solicitous 346

snath 232 (218) solicitress, -ix 132 (68)
sneak 105-6, 145 (105), 367 solid 159, 258
sneer xvii, 283 soliloquy 325
snicker(er) 135 (70) solitaire 325
snood 271-2 solitary 24, 325
snooker 274 solitude 258, 325
snoop 272 solution 16, 236-7, 377
snoot(y) 262, 272 solve 16, 236-7, 270, 377
snooze 272 somber 97-8
snore xvii, 283 somberly 103
snort xvii sombrero 97
snot 272 sombrous 97
snout 262, 272 some 326
snow 15, 168, 280, 282 somersault 172, 334
snowdrift 251, 372 somnambulism 95
snuck 92 somnifacient 164, 241
snuffle 96, 99 somnolent 291
snuffler 96 sonant 115, 375
snuffly 96 sonar 307 (220), 375
snuggle(r) 96 song 16, 71, 375
snuggly 96 songstress 132 (68)
so 278, 325 sonic 115, 375
soap 278, 282 sonnet 375
sober, -er, -est 97, 102-3 sonorous 135 (70)
soberer 135 (70) soon 272
soberly 103 soot 111, 117, 158, 212
soberness 97, 103 (136), 264, 274, 291,
sobriety 97, 103, 135 (70) 369
sodden 138 (77), 179 sooth 272, 337
sofa xix, 76 soothe 273, 337
soi-disant 325 soothsayer 272, 337
solar xxix (7), 245, 327, sooty 291
369 sophomore 307 (220)
solarium 236, 245 soporific 121, 291, 334
solder 135 (70), 258 sorcerer 132 (68), 135 (70)
solderer 135 (70) sorceress 132 (68)
sole 24, 258, 325 sordid 159
solicit 202, 346 sore 214 (152), 2*82
solicitation 31 (21) sororicide 324
s 512

sorority 324 specification 220 (190),

sorrow ix, x, 27, 214 (152) 250, 345
sorry ix, x, 27, 214 (152), specificity 220 (190), 345
282 specify 220 (190)
sostenuto 360 specimen 145 (106), 250
sound 76, 333, 375 specious 308 (222)
soundproof 375 spectacle(s) 46, 145 (106),
soupçon 307 (220) 166, 250
source 126 (56), 131 (66) spectator 31 (21), 46, 60,
souse 326 145 (106), 250
south xviii, 77, 127 (57), specter 47, 98, 250
207 (113), 233 (218), spectral 98
261, 334, 337, 369 spectrophotometer 98
southbound 334, 337 spectrum 98
southerly 337 speculate 9, 30 (20), 250
southern 77, 79, 127 (57), speculative 9
261, 334, 369 speech 161, 350, 371
soviet 307 (220) speed 90, 105-6, 130 (65),
sow 280, 327, 370 236-7, 250
soybean 373 speedometer 110
space 48 speedy 250
spade 245 spell 105
Spain 245, 308 (222) spend 90, 104, 292, 366
Spaniard 308 (222) sperm 95, 111
spaniel 308 (222) spew 376
Spanish 245 sphere 250
spar 364 spherical 250
sparkle(r) 96-8 sphincter 83, 171
sparklet 97 Sphinx 83
sparse 57 sphygmomanometer 83
spasm(ic) 96-7 spider 135 (70), 254
spasmodic 97 spidery 135 (70)
spastic 97 spike 278, 282
spatula 245 spill 105-6, 375
speak 88, 103-4, 116, 161, spilth 233 (218)
208 (116), 228 (214), spin 143 (100), 221 (193),
237, 350, 371 254
special 308 (222) spindle 95-6, 98, 143 (100),
species 250 155, 221 (193)
specific 250, 345 spindler 96
 513 s

spindly 96 sprig 217 (168)

spine 278 sprightly 254
spirant 61, 254 springbok 306 (220), 349
spire 278 sprinkle(r) 96, 98
spirit(s) 51, 57, 254 sprite 51, 254
spiritless 254 sprout 111
spiritual 254 spume 153, 317 (257)
spit 90, 104, 278 spur 273
spitoon 271, 376 spurn 273
spittle 376 spurt 111
splanchnic 371 sputnik 171, 232 (218),
splay 80 263, 337, 382 (279)
spleen 371 sputter(er) 135 (70)
splendid 122, 159 sputtery 135 (70)
splendor 122 sputum 376
splint 153 spy 305 (219), 371
splinter 135 (70), 153 squabble(r) 96
splintery 135 (70) squalid 159
split 153 squander(er) 135 (70)
splurge 239 squaw 185
splutter(er) 135 (70) stability 136 (70)
spoil(s) 375 stabilize 245
spoke 278, 282 stable 136 (70), 245
spokesman 371 stack 245
sponge 238 stadium 245
sponsor 339 staff 332
spontaneity 368 stage 239, 245
spontaneous 368 stagger(er) 135 (70)
spoof 273 stain 80
spook(ish) 273 stake 245
spool 273 stale 236
spoon 245, 273 stalk 367, 369
spoonerism 273 stall 55, 236
spoonful 273 stallion 25, 236
spoor 273 stamen 245
sporadic 111 stamina 245
spore 95, 111 stammer(er) 135 (70)
sport 48, 80 stance 310 (232)
spouse 334, 339 stanchion 310 (232)
spray 111, 217 (168) stand 91, 274, 310 (232), 362
s 514

standard(ize) 360 stichometry 377

stapes, stapedes 174 stick 160, 214 (146), 350
staple(r) 96 stickle 96, 160
star 132 (67), 278, 300-1, stickler 96
303, 362 stickleback 160
starch 174 stifle(r) 96
stare 174 stiletto 214 (146)
stark 173-5 stimulate 214 (146)
starkly 174 sting 104
start 174 stink 350
startle 96, 98, 174 stipend 292-3
startler 96 stipple(r) 96
startly 96 stipulate 292
starve 128 (58), 174, 237 stirrup xx
state 245 stitch 350
static 236, 246 stochastic 183
station 245 stoichiometry 300, 374, 377
stationary 236, 245 stone 278, 282
statue 245 stooge 273
statuette 307 (220) stool 237, 273
stature 246 stoop 273
stay 245 stork 174
steal 15, 77, 88, 104, 116, stove 128 (58)
227 (210), 233 (218), straddle 96, 98
237, 250, 367, 369 straddler 96
stealth 18, 77, 233 (218), straggle(r) 96
250, 369 straggly 96
stealthily 369 straight 40 (35)
stealthy 77, 250 strain 80, 310 (233)
steep(le) 273 straint 80
steeplejack 42 (35) strait 80
steer 267 strange 238, 287
stellar xxix (7), 278, 300, strangle(r) 96
304, 362 strangulate 80
stem 98 strata 246
stench 350 stratagem 246, 299, 352
stencil(er) 135 (70) strategic 309 (223)
stentorian 111 strategy 246, 299, 352
stern 174 strath 233 (218)
sternum 310 (233) stratify 299
 515 s

stratosphere 299 stumbler 96

stratum 299 stumbly 96
straw 299, 310 (233) stun 111, 143 (100), 153,
stray 299 261, 360, 377
stream 110, 192, 318 (260), stung 92
325 stunk 92
street 299, 310 (233) stupor(ous) 135 (70)
strength xii, 83, 204, 206, stutter(er) 135 (70)
231 (218) Stygian 83
stress 80 stylus 214 (146)
strew 299, 310 (233) Styx 83
strict 80 suave 328, 349
stricture 80 subclavian 241
stride 98, 254 subcutaneous 259
stridence 32 (21) subjacent 187
stridency 32 (21) subject 48, 50, 58, 187
strident 32 (21) subjection 187
strife 142 (97), 332, 372 subjugate 187, 296, 372
strike 145 (105), 254, 282-3 subjugational 296
string 80, 104-5 subjunct 296
stringent 80 subjunctive 187, 296
strive 88, 112, 254, 332, sublime 253
372 subliminal 253
stroke 228 (214), 282-3 submerge 221 (192), 239
stroma 299 submersion 221 (192)
strong, -er 80, 83, 204, submit 48
206, 231 (218) subordinate 31 (20), 50
strophic 309 (223) subpoena 234, 249, 365
structure 49, 296, 299, 310 subrogate 348
(233), 376 subsequence 354
strung 92 subsequent 354
struggle(r) 96 subservient 349
strut 174 subside 212-3 (136)
stubble 96 subsidiary 212 (136)
stubbly 96 subsidy 212 (136)
student 260 substance 341
studio 260 substantive 341
studious 236, 260 subsultory 172
study 236, 260 subterfuge 347
stumble 93, 98 subtle 98, 103
s 516

subtleness 98 suffrage 36 (30), 98, 347

subtly 98, 103 suffragette 98, 307 (220),
subtract(ion) 45, 353 347
subtrahend 353 suffuse 50
subversion 355 sugar 361
subvert 50, 212 (131), 355 sugent 160
subway 50 suggest 50, 53, 60
succeed 50, 246, 280, 339 sui (generis) 325
success 280, 339-40 suicide 146 (106), 325
successible 339 suit(or) 354
succession 246 suite 354
successive 246, 339 suivez 354
successor(y) 339 sulfur 135 (70), 314 (250)
succor 60, 135 (70) sulfuric 314 (250)
succorer 135 (70) sulfurous 135 (70)
succotash 307 (220) sulfury 135 (70)
succulence 32 (21) sullen 325
succulent 32 (21) sultry 127 (57), 369
succumb 99 summer(y) 135 (70)
such 325 summon 50, 135 (70)
suck 160 summoner 135 (70)
suckle 96, 160 sun 127 (57), 369
suckler 96 sundry 98
suckly 96 superb 51, 236, 250, 271
sucrose 361 superficial 146 (106), 164,
Sudan 307 (220) 251
sudation 48, 61, 158, 328 superintendence 359
suds(y) 179 superintendent 358-9
Suez xxi, 307 (220) superior 236, 250
suffer 36-7 (30), 60, 98-9, superlative 18, 30 (19),
135 (70) 141 (91), 303
sufferer 135 (70) superman 51
sufferable 98 supersonic 51, 375
sufferance 98 supervise 235
suffice 235, 251, 305 (219), supervision 235
333, 365 supple 98, 103
sufficient 235, 251 suppleness 98
suffix 251 supplement 153, 353
suffocate 345 supplicate 98
suffocative 9 supplicatory 146 (106), 366
 517 s

supply 98, 103, 153, 353 swaddly 96

support 48, 50 swadeshi 325
supportive 303 swagger 161, 216 (168)
suppose 60 swami 325
suppress 49 swan 334, 375
suppurate 324, 372 swarm 88
suprarenal 51 swath 233 (218), 337
supremacy 250 swathe 337
supreme 250 sway 161, 216 (168)
sure 343 swear 55, 86-7, 104, 116,
surety 151, 343 362
surface 164, 333 sweat 61, 158, 183, 328
surfeit 164 sweep 76, 273, 369
surge 119, 126 (56), 235, sweet 158, 183, 328, 349
239, 348 sweetheart 43 (35)
surgeon 141 (86), 347 sweetmeats 223 (194)
Surinam 307 (220) swell 108, 376
surmise 253 swelter 98, 127 (57), 369
surplice 210 (123) sweltry 98
surplus 307 (220) swerve 237
surrender 318 (263) swift 369
surreptitious 60 swim 28, 67-8, 92, 104,
surrogate 31 (20), 119, 348 112-3, 142 (99)
surveillance 23, 160, 348 swimmer(et) 135 (70)
susceptible 60, 208 (118), swindle(r) 96, 98
354 swine 327
susceptive 354 swing 104
suspect 50, 60, 145 (106) swipe 369
suspend 60, 338 swivel 369
suspense 338, 340 swoon 273
suspensive 338 swoop 273, 369
suspensor(y) 135 (70) syllable 334, 354
suspicion 47, 145 (106), 254 syllogism 54, 347
suspicious 50 symbiosis 51, 60, 115, 168,
suspire 254 344
sustain 60, 360 symbiotic 115, 344
sustenance 360 symbol 54, 120, 133 (70),
sutra 16, 369 288
suture 16, 369 symbolic 120, 133 (70), 288
swaddle(r) 96 symbology 292
t 518

symmetrical 60 systemic 133 (70)

symmetry 54, 97 systole 54
sympathetic 60 syzygy 54, 60, 296
sympathy xix, 54, 232 (218),
291
symphonious 60
symphony 54 tabernacle 154, 157, 176,
symposium 373 328
symptom 317 (256) tabid 153
synagogue 54, 352 tablature 246
synaphea 330 table 77, 100, 246
synapse 330 tableau 100, 246
synchronic 54, 183, 256, 345 tablet 77, 100, 246
synchronicity 345 tabloid 100, 246
synchronize 54 taboo 273
synchrony xix, 54 tabula 100
syncope 52, 54, 155 tabular 100, 246
syndactyl 54 tabulate 100, 246
syndicate 31 (20) tacit(urn) 146 (106)
syndrome 79 tack 350
synergetic 54, 347 tackle(r) 96
synergy 347 tact 246
synod 54 tactic(s) 293, 344
synonym 52, 195, 224 (200), tactician 293
307 (220), 366 tactile 82, 146 (106), 246
synonymous 54, 195 tadpole 76, 257, 376
synonymy xix tag 20
synopsis 54, 344 tail 227 (210)
synoptic 167, 311 (243), 344 taint 80
syntactic 344 Taiwan 307 (220)
syntax 54, 344 take 88, 104, 106, 118, 145
synthesis 137 (74), 311 (238), (105), 274, 368
341 tale 16, 309 (224), 367
synthesize 341 talent 141 (91)
synthetic 54, 164, 341 talk 71, 309 (224), 367
syringe 238 talkative 30 (19)
syrinx 238 tall 129 (61)
syssarcosis 54, 60 tallith 233 (218)
system 54, 133 (70) tally 246
systematic 60 Talmud 307 (220)
 519 t

tame 158, 227 (210) teen 158, 250

tanager 98 teens 250
tanagrine 98 teeny 371
tanagroid 98 teethe 250, 265-6, 337
tangent 146 (106), 193, 246, Tehran 307 (220)
310 (234), 348 teknonymy 154
tangible 193, 246, 310 (234), Telamon 110
348 telekinesis 248, 344, 346
tangle(r) 96 telekinetic 248, 344
tangly 96 teleological 250
tantalize 23, 141 (91), 182 telephone 20, 115, 250,
Tantalus 141 (91) 257
tap 227 (209, 210) telephonic 115, 257
tape 246, 360 telescope 258
tapestry 246, 360 telescopic 258
tar 210 (123) telescopy xix
Tarmac 307 (220) televise 255
tarpaulin 210 (123) television 255
tarragon 307 (220) tell 16, 71, 75, 91-2, 104,
tartar xxix (7), 136 (70) 116, 265, 276, 309 (224),
tartaric 136 (70) 367
tartrate 136 (70) tellurous 135 (70)
Tashkent 307 (220) temenos 33 (23), 108
tassel(y) 135 (70) temper 98, 135 (70), 360
taste 80 temperance 98
tat xxiii (5) temperant 98
tatter(y) 135 (70) temperate 30 (20), 98
tattle(r) 96 temperament 98, 360
tattoo 20, 159, 273 temperance 360
Taurus 267 temperate 360
taut 158, 279 temperature 98, 360
tavern 328 tempest(uous) 360
tax 82, 246 template 31 (20), 98, 360
tea xvi temple 98, 130 (66), 360
teach 68, 158, 199-200, 227 templet 98
(210), 282, 371 temporal 325, 360
tear 86, 104, 116, 227 temporary 325, 360
(210), 282 temporize 325, 360
technical 299 tempt(ation) 360
ted 227 (210) tempus 325, 359
t 520

temulent 250 termagant 286

ten 84, 103, 158, 227 (210), terminal 285
250 terminate 286
tenable 360, 368 terminous 286
tenacious 240, 246, 358, terminus 286
360-1 termite 286
tenacity 240, 246, 358, ternary 154
360-1 Terpsichore 307 (220)
tenant 360 terra 154
tend 145 (106), 339, 358-9 terrain 154
tender 98, 135 (70), 173, terramycin 346
359 terrible xxiv (6)
tenderer 135 (70) terrific xxiv (6), 220
tenderize 98 (190)
tenderloin 98 terrify xxiv (6)
tendon 145 (106), 359 territory 286
tendril 98 terror xxiv (6)
tenebrous 250 tertiary 223 (195)
tenement 360 tetanus 360
tenet 360 tetrad 167, 327
tennis 360 tetralogy 292
tenor 360 tetrapterous 135 (70)
tense 325, 339, 359-60 textile 299
tensible 339, 359 thalamus 164
tensile 359 than 39 (34)
tension 145 (106), 359 thane 154
tensity 339 thank 200, 227 (211)
tensive 339, 359 tharm 227 (211)
tensor 359 that 39 (34), 227 (211)
tent 359 thatch 154, 160, 227 (211)
tenter(hooks) 145 (106), thaumaturge 141 (86), 347
359-60 thaw 39 (34), 153, 161,
tenth 227 (210) 227 (211)
tenuity 360 the 39 (34), 154, 227 (211)
tenuous 145 (106), 154, 360 theater 98
tenure 360 theatric(al) 98
tenuto 360 Thebes 39 (34)
tepee 185 theft 76, 250, 332
terebinth 233 (218) their(s) 39 (34)
term 285 theism 164, 191
 521 t

them 39 (34) think 16, 39 (34), 68, 104,

theme 95, 137 (74), 164, 199, 227 (211), 228
311 (238) (214)
then 39 (34), 227 (211) third 13, 178-80, 223 (195)
thence 167 thirst 154, 227 (210, 211)
Theodore 319 (263) thirsty 154, 227 (211)
theologian 115, 236 thirteen 180, 227 (211)
theologic 115 thirtieth 35 (27)
theological 236 thirty 8, 84, 154, 180
therapy xix, 190, 371 this 39 (34)
therapeutic(s) 314 (250), thistle 96, 214 (146),
371 227 (210)
there 39 (34) thistly 96
therm 169 thither 146 (108)
thermal 168, 204, 219 (186) thixotropy 79
thermodynamics 168 thole 154
thermometer 110 thong 39 (34), 348
thermos 35 (28), 169 thoracic 345
thermostat 246, 307 (220) thorax 345
thersitical 165 thorn 227 (211)
thesaurus 362 thorough 285
these 39 (34) thoroughfare 285
thesis 137 (74), 164, 341 thoroughgoing 285
Thessalonica 39 (34) thorp 154, 157, 176, 227
they 39 (34) (209, 211)
thick 39 (34), 227 (211), those 39 (34)
228 (214) thou 228 (211)
thief 76, 227 (211), 250, though 39 (34)
332 thought 16-7, 69
thieve 76, 250, 332 thousand 260-1
thievery 76, 332 thrash 154, 228 (211),
thievish 332 255, 285
thigh 39 (34), 154 thrashing 285
thigmotropism 79, 165 thrasonical 165
thimble 95, 100, 154, 221 thread 227 (207), 228
(193) (211), 255, 285
thin 39 (34), 154, 227 (211), threadbare 285
360 threat 158, 176, 228 (211),
thine 227 (211) 285, 340
thing 227 (211) threaten 135 (70), 154, 158,
t 522

176, 228 (211), 285, 340 thunderous 135 (70), 153,

threatener 135 (70) 360
three 154, 161, 187, 223 thy 39 (34)
(195), 285 thyroid 149, 165, 219 (186)
threnetic 120, 165 Tibet xx, 307 (220)
threnode 120, 278, 285 tibia(l) 235
threpsology 161, 165 Tichodroma 79
thresh 255, 285 tick 227 (210), 228 (214)
threshold 154, 285 tickle 40 (35), 96, 98
thrice 8, 167, 285 tickler 96, 98
thrift 83, 254, 285 tickling 98
thrifty 83 ticklish 98
thrill 154, 284-5, 318 (261) tickly 96
thrive 83, 254, 285 tide 95, 227 (207, 210)
throat 227 (210), 228 (211), tienda 360
258, 285 tiger 98
throaty 285 tigerish 98, 133 (68)
throb 285 tigress 98, 132 (68), 215
throe(s) 285 (153)
thrombosis 285 tigrine 98, 133 (68)
throne 285 tigroid 98, 133 (68)
throng 228 (211), 285 till 227 (210)
throttle 96, 258, 285 tilth 233 (218)
throttler 96 timber 158, 227 (210)
through 228 (211), 285 timbre(1) 98
throughout 285 time 95, 227 (207, 210)
throw 39 (34), 76, 86-7, timorous 135 (70)
100, 104, 255, 280, 285, tin 227 (210)
376 tinct(orial) 80
throwback 285 tincture 80, 238
thrush 155, 285 tinder 135 (70), 227 (210)
thrust 154, 285, 340, 363 tindery 135 (70)
thruway 285 ting 104
thug 39 (34) tinge 80, 238
thumb 100, 154-5, 228 (211), tingle(r) 96
260-1 tingly 96
thunder 32 (22), 111, 135 tinkle(r) 96
(70), 143 (100), 153, tinkly 96
228 (111), 261, 360, 377 tint 80
thunderer 135 (70) tiny 371
 523 t

tip 227 (209, 210) tonsils 11

tipple(r) 96 tonsure 11, 32 (23), 35
tired 138 (77) (28)
Tisiphone 168 too 227 (210), 237, 273
tit xxiii (5) tool 155, 221 (193), 237,
titanic 246 273
titanium 246 toot(le) 273
titer 98 tooth 10-13, 35 (28), 67,
title 255 77, 127 (57), 147, 153,
tithe 227 (210) 158, 161, 176, 227
titrate 98 (210), 233 (218), 237,
titter(er) 135 (70) 250, 260, 263-6, 273,
titular 255 276, 301, 304, 312
tmesis 33 (23), 35 (28), (247), 337, 367
108, 120, 224 (201) topaz xxi, 307 (220)
to 159, 227 (210), 273 topple(r) 96
toad 76, 257, 278, 376 toponym 195
toast 80 toreador 267
toboggan(er) 135 (70) torment 36 (30)
toddle(r) 96 torn 88
toe 227 (210), 278 total(ity) 133 (70)
toga 154 totter(er) 135 (70)
toilet 270 tottery 135 (70)
toils 295, 299, 374 tough 181
token 158, 200, 278, 282 tousle(r) 96
tolerability 136 (70) tously 96
tolerable 136 (70) tow 158, 279
tolerably 136 (70) toward(s) 56
tolerate 31 (21), 110, 154, tower 76, 261
258 toy 93, 130 (66), 131 (66)
tomahawk 185 trachea 236, 286
tomb 100 tracheal 236
tome 120, 258 tract(able) 353
tom-tom 307 (220) traction 353
tone 24, 115, 258, 360 tractive 353
tongs 181, 227 (210) tractor 353
tongue 181, 227 (210) trade(mark) 286
tonic 24, 115, 258 tradition 318 (263)
tonite 360 traduce 60
tonitruous 360 traffic 286
t 524

tragedy 119, 157 tranship 60

tragic 120 transient 46, 51, 60
tragicomedy 292-3 transilience 146 (106), 172
train xxviii (6), 353 transilient 60, 172, 334
traipse 286 transistor 60
trait 286 transit 50
traitor 135 (70), 318 (263) translate 141 (91), 243
traitoress 132 (68) translucent 51, 253
traitorous 135 (70) transmissible 253
traitress 132 (68) transmit 48, 51, 253
traject 60 transom 286
trajectory 51, 58, 187, transparent 51, 58, 249,
209 (118) 278
trammel 135 (70), 286 transpire 51, 60, 254
trammeler 135 (70) transport 48, 51, 153, 285
tramp 130 (64), 286 transship 60
trample 96, 130 (64), 286 transsubstantiate 61
trampler 96 transude 61
trance 286 transverse 60, 212 (131)
tranquil 60, 254, 285 transvestite 60, 325
tranquility 254, 370 trap 130 (64), 286
tranquilize 60, 254, 285 trapeze 286
transact 352 trash 286
transatlantic 285 trauma(tic) 154
transcend 51, 60, 61 (37), travel(er) 135 (70)
209 (118), 285 travelogue 347
transcendental 209 (118) traverse 60
transcontinental 51, 285 travesty 60, 325
transcribe 60 trawl(er) 286
transect 51, 60 tray 286
transfer 36-7 (30), 51, 60, tread 221 (193), 265, 286
163, 366 treadle 155, 221 (193), 286
transfigure 78, 164 treasonous) 135 (70), 318-
transfigured 164 9 (263)
transfiguration 78 treasure 362
transfix 251 treat 286, 353
transfuse 50 treatable 353
transgress 51, 198, 209 treatise 286, 353
(118), 285-6, 339 treaty 353
transgression 209 (118) treble 300
 525 t

tree xvi, 286 286

tremble 96, 98, 174, 286 trine 255
trembler 96 Trinidad 307 (220)
trembly 96 trinity xxviii (6), 255
tremendous 98 trinominal 195
tremolo 98 trio 154, 161
tremor 96 trip 286
tremulous 96, 98 triple 96-7, 300
trenchant 350 triplet 96
trepan 307 (220) triplex 177
trepidation 38 (32), 286 triplicate 177
trespass 244, 285 tripod 22, 235, 255, 257,
tress 286 331, 339
tressilate 172 trireme 375
trestle 286 trisyllabic 235
triad 307 (220) trivet 22, 331
triangle 255 trivium 235
triangulate 31 (20) trochaic 368
tribe 255, 286 trochee 368
tribunal 255 Trojan 376
tribune 255 troll 258, 286
tribute 255 trolley 258
triceps 209 (118) trollop 286
trichotomous 120 trombone 286
trick 286 troop 271, 273, 286
trickle 96, 286 trooper 273
trickier 96 trophy 286
trickly 96 trot 286
tricycle 94 troth 231 (218)
Tridacna 181 troubadour 307 (220)
trifid 158, 162 trouble 96, 223 (195), 286
trifle 93, 96, 286 troubler 96
trifler 96 trousers 286
trigonometry 110 Troy 376
trill 284, 286 troy 373
trillion 286 truce 286
trilobate 31 (20) truck(age) 286
trilogy 255, 292, 347 truculence 32 (21)
trim 286 truculent 32 (21)
trimester xxvi (6), 97,270 trudge 239
t 526

true xix, 203-4, 231 (218), twain 8

286 twelfth 13, 83, 179, 230
truffle 286 (217)
trump 286 twelve 8, 13, 29-30 (17),
trumpet 286 30 (18), 35 (28), 83,
truncate 286, 350 227 (210)
trundle(r) 96 twentieth 35 (27)
trust 286 twenty 8, 35 (28), 84, 126
tsetse 185 (57), 227 (210)
tsunami 226 (203) twice 8, 167
Tübatulabal 307 (220) twiddle(r) 96
tuber 135 (70), 154 twiddly 96
tuberous 135 (70) twig 227 (210), 228 (213)
tubercle 154 twilight 8
tuberculosis 154 twin 8
tuck 227 (210) twine 227 (210)
tuft 227 (210) twinge 348
tug 158, 227 (210), 279 twinkle 93, 96, 227 (210)
tumble 93, 96 twinkler 96
tumbler 96 twinkly 96
tumbly 96 twist 227 (210)
tumid 95, 100, 154, 260 twitch 227 (210)
tumor 100, 135 (70), 154 twitter 136 (70), 227 (210)
tumorous 100, 136 (70) twitterer 136 (70)
tumult 100 twixt 8
tuna 260 two 8, 11-12, 21, 35 (28),
tune 360 147, 158, 161, 179
tunnel 95, 136 (70) tycoon 273
tunneler 136 (70) type 254
tunny 260 typhonic 315 (252), 376
turbulent 223 (195) typhoon 76, 273, 314 (252),
turdoid 155 376
Turdus 155 typhus 165
turn 76 typical 254
turpeth 233 (218) typify 254
turret 261 tyrannical 255
turtle(dove) xxix (7) tyrannize 255
tusk 77, 260, 312 (247) tyrannous 255
tutorial 236 tyranny 255
twaddle(r) 96 tyrant 254, 334
 527 u

uberous 165 unfinished 138 (77)

ubiquitous 167 unfold 56, 153
udder 165 unfortunate 287
Ulan (Bator) 307 (220) ungainly 56
ulcer(ous) 136 (70) ungual 313 (249)
ulna 211 (123) unguent 81, 83, 296
ulterior 287 unguiform 313 (249)
ultimate 30 (20) ungulate 81, 313 (249)
umber 98 unguligrade 313 (249)
umbilical 328 unholy 56
umbra 98 unicorn 109, 156, 374
umbrage 98 unidirectional 374
umbrella 98 uniform 374
umbriferous 98 unify 374
umpire 310 (231), 365 union 374
unable xxi, 56 unique 374
un-American 224 (199) unison 374
unanimous 374 unit 260, 374
uncanny 160 unite 374
uncia 374 unity 260, 374
uncial 261, 374 universe 212 (131), 374
uncle 81 unkempt 56, 82
unconcerned 156 unless 81
uncouth 56, 160, 180, 258, unload 56
289, 368 unorthodox 119
unction 296 unsung 138 (77)
unctuous 81, 83, 296 untie 56
under 164, 182, 190, 286, until 81, 227 (210)
363 unveil 367
undergo 87 unwieldy 56
underneath 249 unwitting 255
understand 91 up 329
undies 363 upbraid 367
undo 56 upholster(er) 136 (70)
undress 56, 138 (77) uranic 246
undulate 81 uranium 246
unearth 81 urbane 240
uneaten 138 (77) urbanity 240
uneven 56 Urdu 330
unfair 56 uremic 309 (223)
V 528

urge 239, 343 value 246

urgency xix, 343 valve 258
urgent 343 vamoose 273
us 315 (253) van 23
usage 334 Vandal 371
use 334, 341, 362 vane 23
usher 324 vanish 366
usherette 307 (220) vanity 246, 366
usual 362 vanquish xxvii (6)
uterus 331 vapid 23, 246
utility 334, 341 vapor 136 (70), 246
utilize 334 vaporize 246
utmost 260 vaporous 136 (70)
utter 133 (70), 136 (70), variable 371
260 variation 31 (21)
utterance 95, 133 (70) variegate 243
utterer 136 (70) variety 305 (219), 371
uxorious 148, 331 various 305 (219), 371
Uzbek 307 (220) varnish 171
vary 22, 305 (219), 371
vase 22, 334
vast 22
vacancy xix, 32 (21) vat 22
vacant 22, 32 (21), 246,366 vault 22, 258, 358
vacate 246, 366 vaunt 366
vaccine 268 vector 166, 202, 250
vacuity 246 Vedic 309 (223), 368
vacuous 246, 366 vehement 166, 202
vacuum 246, 366 vehicle 161, 166, 183, 202,
vagrant 80 250, 331
vague 80 vehicular 161, 331
vain 246, 366 veil xxv (6), 367
vale 22, 246 vein 368
valence 246 velar 367
Valhalla 156, 180 veld 23
valiant 236, 246 velocipede 249
validity xix, 246 velocity 217 (176), 312
Valkyrie 180 (243)
valley 22, 246 velum xxv (6), 367
valor(ous) 136 (70) venal 250, 303
 529 v

vend 28, 250, 303-4 Vesta 325

vender 250 vestige 348
venerate 250, 325 vestry 325
venereal 325 vesture 325
venery 250 Vesuvius 236
venial 250 vet 22
venom(ous) 136 (70) veterinarian 155
venous 368 vex 202, 217 (172)
vent 365 vexation 217 (172)
ventilative 9 vexatious 202
venture 368 vibrant 157
venue 250, 368 vibrate 157, 255
Venus 250, 325 vibrato 157
verb 150, 165, 190, 216 vicar 255
(166), 363 vicarious 255, 346
verbal 150, 165 vice 255
verbiage 165, 190 vice-gerent 323
verbose 24, 165, 258 viceregal 120, 313 (249)
verbosity 24, 258 viceroy 120, 235, 313 (249),
verdict 251 346
verecund 164 viceroyal 120
verge 239 vice versa 346
verify 123 (45) vicious 255
verisimilitude 313 (249) vicissitude 346
verity 279 victor xxvii (6)
vermicide 212 (131) victorious 133 (68)
vermifuge 347 victory xxvii (6), 133 (68)
vermin 136 (70), 212 (131) victress, -ix 132-3 (68)
verminous 136 (70) victuals 170, 255
vermouth 233 (218), 275 Vietnam 307 (220)
verse 131 (66) view 15, 22, 81
vertebra 212 (131) vigil 23, 160, 183, 348
vertebrate 31 (20) vigilance 23
vertex 212 (131), 345 vigilant 160, 348
vertiginous 109, 136 (70) vigilante 160
vertigo 22, 109 vignette 307 (220)
very 138 (77), 279 vigor 22-3, 136 (70), 348
vespiary 294, 364 vigorous 136 (70), 348
vespine 294 vile 22, 255
vest 325 vilify 255
V 530

vinaigrette 308 (220) vocable 166

Vincent xxvii (6) vocabulary 166
vine 22, 212 (131) vocal 22, 133 (70), 166,
vinery 22 346, 375
vinegar 136 (70), 212 (131) vocalic 133 (70)
255 vocalist 166
vinegary 136 (70) vocalize 22
vintage 212 (131), 255 vocation 18, 38 (32)
vintner 212 (131), 255 vocative 30 (19), 375
vinyard 255 vocation 166
viol(a) 23 vocative 166
violative 9 vociferate 166
violence 32 (21) vociferous 166
violent 32 (21) vodka 212 (135)
violin 23, 308 (220) voice 346, 374-5
violoncellist 23 void 366, 374
viper(ous) 136 (70) voile 367
vipery 136 (70) volcanic 246
virtuosity 258 volcano 246
virtuoso 258 Volga 328
visage 305 (219) volition 212 (131)
vis-à-vis 305 (219) volley 22
vista 207 (113) volt 258
vita 168 volte-face 258
vital 168, 255, 289 voluntary 212 (131)
vitality 168 volunteer 212 (131)
vitamin 168, 170, 255 voodoo 22, 269, 273, 304
vitiate 255 voodooism 273
vivace xii voracious 246, 377
vivacious xii, 170, 240, voracity 246
246, 358 vortex 22, 109
vivacity xii, 168, 240, vortical 109
246, 255, 358 vortiginous 109
vivid 168, 170, 255 votary 353
vivify 168, 170 vote 353, 376
viviparous 35 (28), 135 votive 353
(70), 168, 256 vow 81, 353, 376
vivisection 179, 255 vowel 22, 353, 375
vixen 21-5, 39 (35), 121, voyage 203, 366
144 (102) vulgar 22, 305 (220)
 531 w

vulgate 31 (20) ware(s) 365

vulpine 39 (35) warehouse 365
vulva 258 warlock 308 (220)
warm xix, 12, 18, 35 (28),
168-9, 203-4, 231 (218)
warmth xix, 18, 168-9,
waddle 96, 340 203-4, 207 (113). 231
waddier 96 (218)
wade 340 warn 365
wafer(y) 136 (70) warp(ed) 157
wag 166, 202 warpath 231 (218)
wage 239, 314 (249) warranty 279
wager(er) 136 (70) warren(er) 136 (70)
waggle 96, 166, 202 wary 56, 365
waggier 96 was 32 (22), 39 (33), 114,
wagon 136 (70), 166, 183, 127-8 (58), 171, 179,
202, 216 (168), 246 325
wagoner 136 (70) wasn't 136 (70)
wagonette 308 (220) wasp 294, 329, 364
wail 279, 368 waste 80
wain 202, 216 (168), 246 wastrel 363
waist 80 watch 160, 348
wait 348 water 111, 136 (70), 212
waiver 173 (135)
wake 106, 160, 183, 331, 348 waterer 136 (70)
waken 160, 348 watershed 337, 357
walleye(d) 202 watery 136 (70)
Walloon 273 wave 364
walrus 129 (61) waver 136 (70), 364
wampum 226 (203) waverer 136 (70)
wan 366 wavery 136 (70)
wand 371 wax 80, 131 (66)
wander 136 (70), 371 way 166, 202
wanderer 136 (70) Wayles 80
wangle(r) 96 weak 228 (214)
want 366 weal 233 (218), 250
wanton 366 wealth 233 (218)
warble(r) 96 wean 366
warbly 96 weapon 187, 362
ward(en) 365 weaponry 362
w 532

wear 86, 104, 116, 282, 325 whelm 143 (100)

weasel(er) 96 when 167
weave 76, 128 (58), 251, whence 167
264, 274, 328-9, 364, where 167
381 (270) whether 146 (108), 167,
weaver 329, 364 223 (198)
web 251, 328, 364 which 167
webbing 364 whiffle(r) 96
wedge 239 while 167, 370
wee 202 whimper(er) 136 (70)
week 228 (214) whine 255
weep 76, 89, 104, 250 whinny 255
weevil 364 whip 157, 255
weft 76, 251, 364 whipoorwill 267
weigh(t) 166, 200, 202, 341 whirl 143 (100)
weir 365 whiskey 218 (182)
weird 80, 233 (218) whisper(er) 136 (70)
welcome 88, 168, 212 (131), whistle 96, 98, 214 (146)
368 whistler 96, 98
welfare 232 (218) white 344
well vii, viii whither 167
Welsh 273 whittle(r) 96
welt 250 whiz 81, 85, 93
wend 90, 371 who xii, 167
went 21, 28 whole 222 (193), 232 (218),
were 32 (22), 39 (33), 114, 278, 281, 366
127-8 (58), 171, 179, 325 whom xii, 167
weren't 136 (70) whoop 270
werewolf 151 whore 155, 222 (193)
west 127 (57), 207 (113) whorl 143 (100)
wet 111, 212 (135) whose 167
wether 155 why 167
wharf 332 wick 228 (214)
wharfage 280 (267), 332 wide 18, 77, 83, 203-4,
wharfinger 280 (267) 231 (218), 255
what 158, 167 width 18, 77, 83, 203-4,
wheedle(r) 96 207 (113), 221 (193),
wheedly 96 231 (218), 255
wheel 167 wife 332
wheelbarrow 99, 116, 241, 366 wiggle 96, 99, 166, 202
 533 w

wiggler 96 wondrous 97-8, 136 (70)

wiggly 96 wont 366
wigwam 308 (220) won't 211 (123)
wild(erness) 255 wonted 366
wile 255, 280 woo(er) 273
will 128 (58), 212 (131) wood(chuck) 274
win 103-4, 366, 381 (276) woof 264, 274, 364, 381
winch 350 (270)
wind 104, 114, 262, 371 woofer 274
windlass 262, 371 wool 210 (123), 274
window 279, 311 (243), 374 woolen 274
wine 212 (131), 255 woolies 274
winery 212 (131) wooly 274
wing 85-6, 104, 238 woozy 273
winger 85 word 165, 190, 216 (166),
wingless 85 363
winglet 85 work 14, 81, 85, 110, 141
wink 104 (87), 159, 363
winsome 313 (249) worm 212 (131), 233 (218)
winter 15, 98, 136 (70) wormwood 275
winterize 98 worn 88
wintery 98, 136 (70) worry 233 (218)
wipe 157 wort 272, 317 (256)
wisdom 77, 255 worth 233 (218), 338
wise 77, 151, 255, 280 worthy 338
wish 366 would 128 (58), 212 (131)
wit 255, 280 wound 92
witch 255 wrack 343
withdraw(al) 366 wraith 233 (218)
withstand 91 wrangle(r) 96
wive 332 wrath 215 (153), 231 (218)
wobble 96, 364 wreak 343
wobbler 96 wreath 231 (218), 233 (218),
wobbly 96 338
woe 278, 368 wreathe 338
wolf 151, 332 wreck 343
won 92 wrench 109, 212 (131), 233
wonder 97, 136 (70) (218), 239
wonderer 98, 136 (70) wrest 233 (218)
wonderment 98 wrestle(r) 96, 98
z 534

wretch 343 yeast 80

wriggle 96, 212 (131) yellow 166, 217 (168),
wriggler 96 290, 375
wriggly 96 yesterday 216 (168)
wright 110 yoga 296-7
wring 109, 140 (82), 212 yogi 296
(131), 233 (218) yoicks 373
wrinkle 96, 233 (218) yoke 160, 187, 224 (201),
wrinkier 96 258, 296-7, 372
wrist 212 (131), 222 (193) yolk 76, 217 (168), 375
writ 142 (98), 255, 372 Yom Kippur 153
write 88, 104, 107, 112-3, yon(der) 55
129 (62), 222 (193), yoo (-hoo) 273
255, 372 young 186, 207, 231 (218),
writhe 212 (131), 233 (218) 260
wroth 231 (218), 233 (218) younger 186, 200, 207
wrought 110 youngster 200, 207
wry 212 (131), 233 (218) your 143 (100), 315 (253)
you're 143 (100)
youth 186, 200, 207, 231
(218), 260, 338
xebec 226 (203), 308 (220) youthfulness 186
xenon 308 (220) Yucatan 308 (220)
xenophobic 309 (223)
xylophage 347
xylophageal 347
xylophagous 347 zeal(ot) 251
xylophagy 347 zealous 251
zemstvo 331
zenith 231 (218), 233 (218)
yahoo 273 zephyr(ous) 136 (70)
yammer(er) 136 (70) zeugma 54, 296-7, 372, 374
yard 155, 166, 216 (168), Zhukov 39 (34)
221 (193), 232 (218), 291 zigzag 308 (220)
yarn 166, 190 zinc 228 (214)
yawn 166, 341 zing 104
yclept 56 zircon 308 (220)
yeah 76 zirconic 258
year 150, 331 zirconium 258
yearn 166, 331 zodiac 168
 535 z

zombie 185
zone 258
zoo 35 (28), 168, 170, 273, 289
zoology 170
zoom 273
Zoroaster 98
Zoroastrian 98
zouave 226 (203)
zwieback 190, 241
zygodactyl 296
zygoma 296
zygomatic 296
zygosis 296
zygote 258, 296
zygotic 258