MASS TRANSFER OPERATIONS LAB MANAUAL

Experiment # 1
Objective
To study the process of leaching by extraction of pure salt (NaCl) from rock salt (mixture of salt and
sand) by using warm water as a solvent.

Theory
Leaching is a process in which we separate a mixture of solid components with the help of a suitable
liquid solvent which preferentially dissolves one or more components in it. An everyday example is
the preparation of coffee. Here, water (solvent) is used to remove the coffee flavors (transition
component) from the coffee powder (extraction material, consisting of solid carrier phase and
transition component). Ideally, this results in drinkable coffee (solvent with dissolved flavors), with
the completely depleted coffee grounds (solid carrier phase) remaining in the coffee filter.
In reality, the solid carrier phase will still contain some transition component after completion of the
extraction. In addition, some of the solvent will still be adsorptive bonded to the solid carrier phase.
To achieve the fastest and most complete solid extraction possible, the solvent must be provided with
large exchange surfaces and short diffusion paths. This can be done by pulverizing the solid to be
extracted. However, an excessively small grain size can cause agglutination and make it more difficult
for the solvent to permeate. In the simplest form of this unit operation, the extraction material and
the solvent are mixed well. The solvent and the dissolved transition component are then removed and
regenerated.

1) Warm Water 4) Impurities

2) Rock Salt 5) Brine Solution
3) NaCl

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Procedure
1) Take known quantity of salt say 15 grams and of sand say 7 grams in a beaker and shake it
well to mix them properly.
2) Add 80 ml of distilled warm water in the beaker and stirrer the solution to dissolve the salt in
water.
3) Keep on stirring the solution for at least 5 minutes.
4) Now filter the solution with the help of filter paper to separate the brine solution and the sand.
Brine solution will pass through the filter paper and sand will rest on the filter paper.
5) Place the filter paper with sand in a Petri dish and place it in oven maintained at 110 0C for
45 minutes.
6) Keep on weighing again and again till the constant readings are obtained.
7) Put the brine solution on hot plate with continuous stirring of solution. Evaporation of
solution will start and time will come when very small quantity of water will remain in the salt.
8) Now remove the beaker from hot plate and put it in oven maintained at 110 0C to remove
the traces of water.
9) Now weigh the salt again and again to get the constant reading.
10) Now perform the calculations and find the percentage recovery of salt.

Observations and Calculations

Before Extraction
Wt. of empty beaker
Wt of salt (NaCl) A
Wt of sand
Total wt of sand + salt
= _______________________ grams
= _______________________ grams
=_______________________ grams
=_______________________ grams

After Extraction
Wt. of empty beaker + salt
Wt of salt (B)
Difference in weight of salt
%age Recovery
= _______________________ grams
=_______________________ grams
= Wt. before Extraction – Wt. after Extraction
= (B / A) * 100

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Experiment # 2
Objective
To study and compare the properties of tap water, reverse osmosis water, distilled water and filtered
water.

Theory
Osmosis is a physical force. It is the natural tendency of water with a low concentration of dissolved
particles to move across a semi-permeable membrane to an area of water with a high concentration
of dissolved particles. The water will try to reach equilibrium on both sides. i.e. both sides of the semi-
permeable membrane will have the same concentration of dissolved particles. This is how plants
absorb nutrients from the soil.
Picture a tea bag placed in a mug of hot water. (The tea bag is the semi-permeable membrane). At
first, the water is free of tea. However, with time, the tea will appear to seep from the tea bag into the
mug. This is the process of osmosis. If you were to leave the tea bag in the mug for long enough, the
concentration of tea inside the teabag would equal the concentration of tea outside the teabag.

The process of reverse osmosis requires that the water be forced through a semi-permeable membrane
(the tea bag from the previous example) in the opposite direction of the natural osmotic flow; leaving
the dissolved particles in the more highly concentrated solution. For reverse osmosis to occur, the
amount of force or pressure applied must exceed the osmotic pressure. A semi-permeable membrane
is at the heart of a reverse osmosis system. Reverse osmosis works through a technique called
membrane separation. The membrane is permeable only to water molecules.

a. TDS of Feed Water:

Osmotic pressure is the force binding water molecules to dissolved ions or solids. The higher the
TDS, the higher the molecular forces. Before water molecules can start to separate and pass thorough
the membrane, these forces must be broken with the application of pressure. Every 100 mg/l of TDS
requires 1 psi (pounds per square inch) just to overcome osmotic pressure.

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b. Water Pressure or Feed Pressure:

Net pressure across the membrane is a major factor in determining how much water is produced. As
the pressure increases, so does the rate of water production. The minimum water pressure required
for a residential RO unit is 50 psi. A booster pump can be added to any RO unit which will operate
with inlet pressure of as low 10 psi.

c. Temperature of Feed Water:

Water temperature greatly affects the actual rate of production. Membranes are rated in terms of
production in gallons per day (GPD) at 77 degrees Fahrenheit. The cooler the water, the lower the
rate of production. Water production increases or decreases for CTA (Cellulose tri acetate) membrane
- 1.5% per °F and for TFC (thin film composite) membranes 2.0% per °F above or below 77 °F. For
high output RO units, temperature is an important design factor.

Procedure
1) Collect the samples of different types of water like distilled water, tap-water and filtered- water
in different sample bottles.
2) Switch on the reverse osmosis plant to collect the sample of reverse osmosis water.
3) Insert PH meter, conductivity meter and TDS meter to determine PH, conductivity and TDS
in different samples of water.
4) Keep on running the RO Plant and also keep on taking different samples after a specific
interval of time and check its properties.
5) Note down all the readings in the table and compare what is the difference.
6) Also note what the effect of time on RO water properties is.
7) Draw the graphs between time vs TDS, Conductivity and pH in case of reverse osmosis water

Observations and Calculations

Tap Water Distilled Water Reverse Osmosis Water

TDS Conductivity TDS Conductivity Time TDS Conductivity

(ppm) (mho) pH (ppm) mho pH (min) ppm (mho) pH

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Cond.
pH

Time (min) Time (min)

TDS

Time (min)

Conductivity of Feed Water – Conductivity of Permeate Water

Rejection % = ∗ 100
Conductivity of Feed
Salt Removal = 1 − Rejection

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EXPERIMENT # 3
Objective
To determine the constants of the Heinchley’s Equation in order to find out rate of evaporation at
room temperature.

Theory
Evaporation is the vaporization of a liquid. Chemical process industries, in general, use
evaporator for the vaporization of a solvent from a solution. However, evaporation also takes place
in any temperature. It is important to have hand on expertise for chemical engineering to calculate
rate of evaporation at any temperature. Heinchley’s Equation use to calculate rate of evaporation
any temperature. The evaporation is so important operation in chemical process industry that it is
considered an individual operation.

It is suggested that reader should learn the difference between evaporator, drying and
crystallization. If we continue the evaporation process, the residual mater will be solid, which is
known as drying. However, our aim is not to study drying process moreover, we will also not deal
with the crystallization, in which the evaporation leads to formation of crystal in the solution. To
understand the better use of Heinchley’s Equation, following basic concepts are important to
understand.

Three most important quantities, namely, ‘temperature’, ‘humidity’ and ‘enthalpy’, are essential
terminologies in dealing evaporation.
1) Dry-bulb temperature: It is true temperature of air measured (or, any non-condensable and
condensable mixture) by a thermometer whose bulb is dry.

2) Wet-bulb temperature: It is the steady-state temperature attained by a small amount of

evaporating water in a manner such that the sensible heat transferred from the air to the liquid is
equal to the latent heat required for evaporation.

3) Relative humidity: It is the ratio of partial pressure of water vapor (pA) in air at a given
temperature to the vapor pressure of water ( ) at the same temperature.

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“Relative humidity does not ‘explicitly’ give the moisture content of a gas, but gives the ‘degree
of saturation’ of the gas at a given temperature. 100 %
humidity relative
4) Absolute humidity (simply humidity): It is the direct measurement of moisture content in a
gas. The mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry gas is called absolute humidity.

It is occasionally called ‘Grosvenor humidity’ after the name of the inventor.

5) Percent humidity or percent saturation: It is the relation between absolute humidity to that
of saturation humidity at the same temperature and pressure.

where, Y/ is absolute humidity of sample of air and is humidity at same temperature and pressure
if saturated with water vapor.

and vapor pressure of water can be calculated by Antoine Equation:

where, pressure is in bar and temperature is in K.

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6) Dew point: Dew point is a temperature at which a vapor-gas mixture must be cooled (at constant
humidity) to become saturated. The dew point of a saturated gas equals the gas temperature. If a
vapor-gas mixture is gradually cooled at a constant pressure, the temperature at which it just
becomes saturated is also called its dew point.
7) Humid volume: The humid volume, VH is defined as the volume of unit mass of dry air with
accompanying water vapor at a given temperature and pressure.

assuming ideal gas behavior. TG is gas temperature in ºC.

8) Humid heat: The humid heat, CH, is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of unit
mass of dry air with the accompanying water vapor by one (1) degree.
CH = 1.005 + 1.88Y’ kJ/(kg dry air)(K)
first part of right hand side is heat capacity of dry air in kJ/kg.K and second part is heat capacity
of water vapor in kJ/kg.K
9) Enthalpy: The enthalpy of a vapor-gas mixture is the sum of the relative enthalpies of gas and
vapor content.

where λ0 is latent heat of vaporization of water, 2500 kJ/Kg.

Procedure
1) Find the weight of empty beaker and then add some water in the beaker and find the total
weight. From the difference calculate the weight of water.
2) Heat the water at certain temperature for some period of time in the water bath. Then find
the weight of water evaporated at that temperature in a specified time.
3) Note the wet bulb and dry bulb temperature of air to find the percentage humidity.
4) Now change the heating temperature and repeat the same procedure for at least four to five
readings.
5) Take some more observations and perform calculations to find the constants of
Heinchley’s Equation.

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Observations and Calculations

Wt. of Wt. of W=
H2O H2O Water Rate of
Temperature +Beaker +Beaker Evaporated Time evaporation Dry bulb
(C) before after (gm) (min) (gm/hr) Temp. of air
heating heating (C)
(gm) (gm)

Ps = Pw =
Vapor Partial
Wet bulb Humidity pressure of pressure of (Ps – Pw) ln W ln (Ps – Pw)
Temp. of air water water
(C) (mm Hg) (mm Hg)

Heinchley’s equation is used to find the evaporation rate at any temperature.

Rate of evaporation “W” is related as.

W = C (Ps – Pw) n
Where
W = Rate of evaporation
Ps = Saturated vapor pressure of water in air
Pw = Partial pressure of water in air
C, n = Constants of Heinchley’s Equation

Taking (ln) on both the sides of the equation.

W = C ( Ps – Pw )n

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ln W = ln { C ( Ps – Pw )n }

ln W = ln C + ln ( Ps – Pw )n

ln W = n ln ( Ps – Pw ) + ln C........ Eq (1)

 Find vapor pressure by using Antoine equation

Ln (p*) = A- [B / C + T]

Where A, B, C are the constants of Antoine equation and T is the temperature in K.

 Determined enthalpy for each reading through psychrometric charts using calculated vapor
pressure and recorded WBT and DBT

 Now find partial pressure (Pw) of water on found enthalpies using pressure-enthalpy
diagram. at recorded temperatures.

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 In order to calculate ln W, divide rate of weight change in water before and after heating
with recorded time In the last , calculate Heinchley’s equation constants , n and C through
graph.

Graph Instruction.

Draw the graph between ln (Ps – Pw) and ln W

The slope of the curve “n” for the above-mentioned graph is given by:

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Safety forethoughts

 Wear lab coat and gloves.

 Don’t touch hot surfaces without for oven mittens.
 Shut off all electric devices e.g water bath after the experiment.

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Experiment # 4
Objective
To study the effect of gas flow rate on the overall mass transfer co efficient in Gas-absorption
column.

Theory
Gas absorption:

It is a mass transfer operation in which one or more gas solutes is removed by dissolution in a
liquid. The inert gas in the gas mixture is called “carrier gas”. In the absorption process of ammonia
from air-ammonia mixture by water, air is carrier gas, ammonia is „solute” and water is absorbent.
An intimate contact between solute gas and absorbent liquid is achieved in a suitable absorption
equipment, namely, tray tower, packed column, spray tower, venture scrubber, etc. Desorption or
stripping operation is the reverse of absorption. Absorption operation is of two types; physical and
chemical.

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒+𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑡+𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠

Equilibrium solubility of gases in liquids

For the determination of driving force in any mass transfer operation, the solubility of a species in
a solvent, i.e., equilibrium distribution between phases is important. With the increase in
temperature, solubility of a gas in liquid decreases. Hence, absorption is done at lower temperature.
On the contrary, desorption is done at higher temperature. The equilibrium characteristics of a gas-
liquid system has discussed in topic of Mass Transfer Coefficient

Selection of solvent for absorption and stripping

If the objective of absorption is separation of a particular component from a mixture, selection of

absorbent plays a great role and when absorption operation is used to prepare a solution, solvent
is selected according to final product.

Few criteria for the selection of an absorbent are as follows:

(A) Gas Solubility: High solubility of a gas in the solvent is preferred, utilizing low quantity of
solvent. Absorbent should not dissolve carrier gas. Similar chemical nature of solute and absorbent

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(solvent) gives a good solubility. If chemical reaction takes place between solute and solvent, rate
of absorption is extremely high. But the reaction should be reversible to recover solvent during
desorption.

(B) Volatility: Low volatility or low vapor pressure of the solvent enhances the adsorption
operation as solvent loss with carrier gas is very small. Sometimes, a second less volatile solvent
is used to recover the first solvent.

(C) Viscosity: For better absorption, a solvent of low viscosity is required. In mechanically agitated
absorber, greater amount of power is required for high viscous solvent and flooding is also caused
at lower liquid and gas flow rates.

(D) Corrosiveness: Non-corrosive or less corrosive solvent reduces equipment construction cost
as well as maintenance cost.

(E) Cost: The solvent should be cheap so that losses will be insignificant and should be easily
available.

(F) Toxicity and Hazard: The solvent should be non-toxic, nonflammable, non-hazardous and
should be chemically stable. Steam is generally used in desorption or stripping medium as stripped
solute can be recovered very easily by condensing steam leaving desorption tower.

Design of single stage counter-current flow absorption tower (packed tower)

Two common gas absorption equipments are packed tower and plate tower. Other absorption
equipments are, namely, spray column, agitated contactor, venture scrubber, etc. The gas and the
liquid phases come in contact in several discrete stages. Thus, a stage wise contact is there in a
plate column. But in packed tower, the up-flowing gas remains in contact with down-flowing
liquid throughout the packing, at every point of the tower. Therefore, packed tower is known as
“continuous differential contact equipment It is different from the stage-wise distillation column.

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In the stage distillation column the equilibrium in each stage will vary not in a continuous fashion
whereas in the packed column the equilibrium is changed point wise in each axial location.

Steps for the design of packed tower

(A) Selection of solvent

(B) Selection of packing

(C) Calculation of minimum solvent flow rate as well as actual solvent flow rate

(D) Column diameter

(E) Height of column

(F) Design of solvent distributors and redistributors (if needed)

(G) Design of gas distributor, packing support, shell, nozzles, column support.

Types of Absorption

Absorption is of two types:

 Physical Absorption
 Chemical Absorption

Physical Absorption:

Physical absorption involves no chemical reaction and it usually follows the Nernst Partition
Law which states that "the ratio of concentrations of some solute species in two bulk phases
in contact is constant for a given solute and bulk phases.” The value of constant KN depends
on temperature and is called partition coefficient. This equation is valid if concentrations are not
too large and if the species "x" does not change its form in any of the two phases "1" or "2". If
such molecule undergoes association or dissociation then this equation still describes the
equilibrium between "x" in both phases, but only for the same form - concentrations of all
remaining forms must be calculated by taking into account all the other equilibria. In many
technologically important processes, the chemical absorption is used in place of the physical

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process, e.g. absorption of carbon dioxide by sodium hydroxide - such processes do not follow the
Nernst partition law

Chemical Absorption
Operations in which one or more components of a gas phase are absorbed into a liquid phase are
common throughout the chemical process industries and frequently serve to achieve desired
reactions among components in the two phases (Lee & Tsui, 1999). Such operations are often
called reactive absorption because of the combination of reaction and absorptive mass transport.
There are number of cases in which a gas, on absorption, reacts chemically with a component of
the liquid phase. In such processes, the conditions in gas phase are similar to those of an entirely
physical absorption process, but in the liquid phase, there is a liquid film followed by a reaction
zone. As an example, in the absorption of carbon dioxide by caustic soda, the carbon dioxide reacts
directly with the caustic soda. An advantage of absorption plus reaction is the increase in the mass-
transfer coefficient. This may be due to a greater effective interfacial area. The process
hydrodynamics can also be directly involved via correlations for the hold-up, pressure drop, and
mass transfer coefficients, etc.

During the absorption, heat is evolved, and it is necessary to fit coolers with the equipment to keep
the temperature sufficiently low for an adequate degree of absorption to be obtained. For the
concentration of most gases, the equilibrium relationship is given by Henry’s Law.

Henry's law is a gas law that states that the amount of dissolved gas is proportional to its
partial pressure in the gas phase. The proportionality factor is called the Henry's law
constant.

PA = H CA

Where PA = Partial Pressure of Gas

H = Henry’s Constant

CA = Concentration of component.

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Experiment Procedure

1) Allow the water to flow from top of the column in the downward direction and adjust it to
obtain a constant flow rate and note its value.
2) Introduce the mixture of air and CO2 in the ratio of 1:1 from the bottom of the column.
3) Adjust the flow-rates of both air and CO2 by means of rotameter.
4) Note flow rates of gas containing air and CO2.
5) Collect the sample of water from bottom of the column.
6) Take 20 ml of N/20 KOH solution and mix with 20 ml of carbonic acid collected from the
bottom.
7) Titrate this mixture with N/20 HCl using Phenolphthalein as an indicator till light pink color
is colorless.
8) Add 2 or 3 drops of methyl red as an indicator and again titrate it against N/20 HCl till orange
end point.
9) Note the volume of N/20 HCl used separately for phenolphthalein and methyl red indicator.
10) Now change the flow rate of gas and repeat the above procedure several times.
11) Plot a graph between gas flow rate and mass transfer co-efficient, NoL and HoL.
12) Following reaction are assumed to be taken place:
CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
2KOH +H2CO3  K2CO3 + 2H2O
KOH + HCL  KCl +H2O
K2CO3 + HCl KHCO3 + KCl
KHCO3 + HCl KCl +CO2 + H2O

Observations and Calculations

Volume of N/20 KOH used = 20 ml
Volume of H2CO3 taken = 20 ml
Total volume = 40 ml
Diameter of packed column = ---- cm
Height of packed column = ---- cm
Henry’s constant (H2CO3) = 1.84 × 103 atm/mol. Fraction

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Density of H2O = 0.999 gm/cm3

Mol. Wt of H2O = 18 gm/gm-mol
Mole fraction of gas in liquid phase = Xa
Mole fraction of H2O in g phase = Xb
Pressure of gas = Pa = 1 atm
Pa = Ha Xa
Xa= Pa/Ha = 1/1.84 × 103 = 0.000543 mole fraction
Xb= 1 – Xa
Ce = Concentration of gas in equilibrium with liquid
Ce= (Xa/Xb) (ρ H2O/M.H2O) M.H2O= 18
Molar Flux = Lm = L/A
Where L = liquid flow-rate.

Calculation Tables
Sr. No. Gas flow rate Phenolphthalein as indicator Methyl Red as indicator
(gm/min)

IBR FBR Vol. of IBR FBR Vol. of N/20

N/20 HCl HCl used (V)
used

Total Normality of Strength C Lm=L/A NoL= HoL= KLa=

vol. of H2CO3 of CO2 ln Z Lm/HoL.
N/20 N2 = (N1.V1/V2) (N2×22) Ce NoL
HCl V2=40 gm Ce  C cm
used liter
(V1=2V)

Graph Instructions
1) Draw a graph between gas flow rate and over all mass transfer coefficients.

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2) Also draw a graph between gas flow rate and HoL (Height of transfer units).

Safety forethoughts
1) Carefully handle the alkaline and acidic solutions.
2) Avoid the bending of the gas flow pipes which may cause stoppage of gas supply.
3) Handle the glass wares carefully.

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Experiment # 5
Objective
To study the effect of gas flow rate on the overall mass transfer co efficient in wetted-wall Gas
absorption column.

Apparatus:
Wetted wall gas absorption column with accessories.

Theory
Wetted Wall Column

Wetted-wall gas absorption column is a vertical cylindrical tube in which the liquid is flowing as
a film either outside of the tube or inside of the tube and the gas flow may be co-current or counter
current to the liquid. This is very much useful for laboratory mass transfer experiments since in
this case, the surface area or the interfacial area among the gas and liquid is known so we can vary
the gas liquid interfacial area depending on the design of the wetted-wall tower. Moreover, the
interfacial area, is also can changed according to desired rate of absorption control as the liquid
flows in the form of thin film.

Wetted Wall absorption column.

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Convective mass transfer happens in case of wetted wall columns, between a surface and fluid
moving over the surface. In terms of absorption processes, the feed is a gas introduced at the
bottom of the column and the solvent is fed to the top, as a liquid. The absorbed gas and solvent
leave at the bottom and the unabsorbed components leave as gas from the top. Such column are
also used for distillation However, the essential difference between distillation and absorption is
that in distillation the vapour has to be produced in each stage by partial vaporisation of the liquid
which is therefore at its boiling point, whereas in absorption the liquid is well below its boiling
point. In general, the ratio of the liquid to the gas flowrate is considerably greater in absorption
than in distillation.

Procedure
1) Allow the water to flow from top of the column in the downward direction and adjust it to
obtain a constant flow rate and note its value.
2) The mixture of air and CO2 in the ratio of 1:1 is introduced from the bottom of the column.
3) Flow rates of both air and CO2 are adjusted by means of Rota meter.
4) Note flow rates of gas containing air and CO2.
5) Collect the sample of water from bottom of column.
6) Take 20 ml of N/20 KOH solution and mix it with 20 ml of carbonic acid collected from
the bottom.
7) Titrate this mixture with N/20 HCl using Phenolphthalein as an indicator till light pink
color is colorless.
8) Add 2 or 3 drops of methyl red as an indicator and again titrate it against N/20 HCl till
orange end point.
9) Note the volume of N/20 HCl used separately for Phenolphthalein and methyl red indicator.
10) Now change the flow rate of gas and repeat the above procedure a number of times.
11) Plot a graph between gas flow rate and mass transfer coefficient, NoL and HoL.
12) Following reaction are assumed to be taken place:

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3

2KOH +H2CO3  K2CO3 + 2H2O
KOH + HCL  KCl +H2O
K2CO3 + HCl KHCO3 + KCl
KHCO3 + HCl KCl +CO2 + H2O

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Observations and Calculations

Volume of N/20 KOH used = 20 ml
Volume of H2CO3 taken = 20 ml
Total volume = 40 ml
Diameter of wetted wall column = ---- cm
Height of wetted wall column = ---- cm
Henry’s constant (H2CO3) = Ha = 1.84 × 103 atm/mol. Fraction
Density of H2O = 0.999 gm/cm3
Mol. Wt of H2O = 18 gm/gm-mol
Mole fraction of gas in liquid phase = Xa
Mole fraction of H2O in g phase = Xb
Pressure of gas = Pa = 1 atm
Pa = Ha Xa
Xa= Pa/Ha = 1/1.84 × 103 = 0.000543 mole fraction
Xb= 1 – Xa
Ce = Concentration of gas in equilibrium with liquid
Ce= (Xa/Xb) (ρ H2O/M.H2O) M.H2O= 18
Molar Flux = Lm = L/A
Where L = liquid flow-rate.

Observation and calculations:

Sr. No. Gas flow rate Phenolphthalein as indicator Methyl Red as indicator
(liter/min)

IBR FBR Vol. of IBR FBR Vol. of N/20

N/20 HCl HCl used (V)
used

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Total vol. Normality of Strength of C Lm=L/A NoL= HoL= KLa=

of N/20 H2CO3 CO2 (N2×22) Ce Z Lm/HoL.
HCl used N2 = (N1.V1/V2) ln
gm Ce  C NoL
(V1=2V) V2=40 liter cm

Graphs:
1) Draw a graph between gas flow rate and over all mass transfer coefficients.
2) Also draw a graph between gas flow rate and HoL (Height of transfer units).

Precautions:

1) Carefully handle the alkaline and acidic solutions.

2) Avoid the bending of the gas flow pipes which may cause stoppage of gas supply.
3) Handle the glass wares carefully

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