Border Hydropower Project 3rd Edition PDF

Border Hydropower Development Project
Certificate
This is to certify that this report, the design of Border hydropower development project, is an
authentic work prepared and submitted by:-
1. Abel Alemayehu
2. Blihan Haile
3. Chalie Agez
4. Dagnachew Dawit
5. Daniel Kebede
6. Eyoal Assefa
7. Mussie Kebede
8. Nebiyu Letefe
9. Yared Worku
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering at Gondar university, under the guidance of
Wonwossen Beyene (Msc), and Getachew Smur, (Bsc).
UOG July, 2015

i
Hydraulic & Water Resources Eng’g
Approved by
Advisors
Name Signature Date
1. …………………………………….. …………………… …………………..
2. …………………………………….. …………………… …………………..
Examiners
Name Signature Date
1. …………………………………….. …………………… …………………..
2. …………………………………….. …………………… …………………..
UOG July, 2015

ii
Acknowledgement
We are deeply grateful to so many who have helped us make this final year Project practical. We
feel humbled and blessed by others contributions and our sentiment towards other is aptly
expressed by Albert Einstein, who said: ‘’ Every day I remind myself that my inner and outer life
are based on the labors of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to
give in the same measure as I have received and am still receiving”. So it is with this final
project. It could not have been successful without the help of many people for whom we are
genuinely thankful.
Special thanks to our Advisor, Ato Wondwossen Beyene, Msc for his very kind treatment
through the time he spent with us starting from the commencement. His motivation and
constructive comments rally round us to put our best effort on the work and encouraged us to
carry on long-sufferingly, even if we were in the middle of Deep Ocean.
Thanks also to:

 Ato Aweke Tiruye, Head of HWRE Department, for his remarkable support, boldness
and willingness to assign advisors.
 Ato Getachew Smur Co-Advisor for his willingness and interest to support us.
Most importantly, we acknowledge and thank God for blessings, insights and support we have
felt throughout this Project. For us, He is the source of all principles that bring joy and success in
life.
UOG July, 2015

iii
Abstract
The Border hydropower development project site is located on the Abay River (Blue Nile) some
30km downstream of its confluence with the Beles River and 20km upstream of the Ethiopia-
Sudan border. The catchment area for the Border Project comprises some 172254km2 of the
Abay river basin. Since the hydrological data available is at Kessie river, gauged site, some
distant from the Border site, ungauged site, the flow series from the ungauged is transposed to
gauged site by Area-ratio method. The flow duration curve is drawn by total period method, by
using the entire average monthly flow of 600 values of 50 years. The design flood is determined
by using L-moment and Lognormal II is used for design estimation from moment ratio diagram
and the estimated value is 20500m3/sec.
Based on the selection criteria of the dam type, especial availability of construction material
nearby the site and suitability of the topography and geology of the area, RCC dam is proposed
with total height of 83m, from area-elevation curve, which store 42066.8Mm3, by Prismoidal
formula, with maximum installed capacity of 1882.25MW. The Spillway design flood is
computed by flood routing procedure and it is 5116.04m3/sec, at the middle of the dam, having
192m crest width and it is designed as ogee shaped crest profile. The gross head available at the
site is 60.73m with net head of 60.43m.The steel lined penstock of 120m length with diameter of
6m is designed to convey discharge directly from the reservoir to the units. Since there is a
desired head, generating coefficient and turbine speed Francis turbine is considered as the
appropriate turbine type with vertical alignment to reduce surface requirement in the surface
powerhouse.
Under Power house design detail dimension of the turbine runner, scroll casing and draft tube are
comprehensively included.
The positive and negative impact due to the power development is also identified and mitigation
measures endorsed and the economic feasibility of the project is assessed by benefit cost ratio
method, which is 1.3, and internal rate of interest (IRR) is found to be 6.045 %.
UOG July, 2015

iv
Contents
Acknowledgement ...........................................................................................................................iii
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ iv
List of Table ..................................................................................................................................... xi
List of Figure...................................................................................................................................xii
Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1General ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Description of the project area ................................................................................................ 3
1.2.1 Location and topography .................................................................................................. 3
1.2.2 Geology of the area........................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Climate and rainfall ................................................................................................................. 5
1.3.1 Climate.............................................................................................................................. 5
1.3.2 Rain fall ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.3 Temperature ...................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 6
2. Data analysis ................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1 General .................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Availability of hydrological data............................................................................................. 6
2.3 Transposing of hydrological data to dam site ......................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Check for the transposed data ........................................................................................... 8
2.4 Flow duration curve ................................................................................................................ 9
2.5 Selection criteria for return period (t) ................................................................................... 11
2.6 Flood estimation .................................................................................................................... 12
2.6.1 General............................................................................................................................ 12
UOG July, 2015

v
2.6.2 The design flood and its importance............................................................................... 12
2.6.3 Estimation of designed flood .......................................................................................... 13
2.6.4 Flood frequency analysis ................................................................................................ 14
Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 21
3.1 Reservoir planning .................................................................................................................... 21
3.1 General ...................................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Reservoir site selection.......................................................................................................... 21
3.3 Reservoir capacity determination .......................................................................................... 22
3.4 Reservoir storage capacity determination ............................................................................. 24
3.4.1 Mass curve method ......................................................................................................... 25
3.4.2 Sequent peak algorithm .................................................................................................. 25
3.4.3 Bar graph method ........................................................................................................... 25
3.5 Reservoir yield ...................................................................................................................... 26
3.6 Storage zone of the reservoir ................................................................................................. 27
3.7 Reservoir sedimentation ........................................................................................................ 27
3.7.1 General............................................................................................................................ 27
3.8 Useful life of the reservoir .................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 4 ......................................................................................................................................... 30
4. Flood routing ........................................................................................................................... 30
4.1 General............................................................................................................................... 30
4.2 Inflow hydrograph ............................................................................................................. 30
4.3 Out Flow Hydrograph ........................................................................................................ 33
Chapter 5 ......................................................................................................................................... 35
5. Dam work.................................................................................................................................... 35
UOG July, 2015

vi
5.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 35
5.2 Classification of dams ........................................................................................................... 35
5.3 Selection of site for dams ...................................................................................................... 36
5.4 Selection of type of dam........................................................................................................ 36
5.5 Modes of failure and criteria for structural stability of dam ................................................. 38
5.6 Stress analysis ....................................................................................................................... 40
5.7 Design of gravity dam ........................................................................................................... 42
5.7.1 Forces acting on gravity dam .......................................................................................... 42
5.7.2 Determination of section of the dam .............................................................................. 45
5.7.3. Gravity profile selection ................................................................................................ 49
5.7.4 Inspection gallery ........................................................................................................... 49
5.7.5 Combination of forces for designs.................................................................................. 50
5.8 Dam construction .................................................................................................................. 62
5.9 Dam safety instrumentation and surveillance ....................................................................... 62
Chapter 6 ......................................................................................................................................... 63
6. Spillway ...................................................................................................................................... 63
6.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 63
6.2 Essential requirements of spillway........................................................................................ 63
6.3 Location and type of spillway ............................................................................................... 63
For Border hydropower project ogee spillway is provided as the dam is RCC gravity dam and
because it can be easily used on valleys, where the width of the river is sufficient to provide
the required crest length and the river bed below can be protected from scour at moderate cost.64
6.4 Ogee or overflow spillway .................................................................................................... 64
6.5 Crest shape of overflow spillway .......................................................................................... 64
6.6 Designing of the crest of ogee spillway ................................................................................ 65
UOG July, 2015

vii
6.7 Discharge of over flow spillway ........................................................................................... 66
6.8 Downstream profiles ............................................................................................................. 69
6.9 Energy dissipation ................................................................................................................. 71
6.9.1 Design of energy dissipater ............................................................................................ 72
6.10 Design of bottom outlet /hydraulics of outlet/ .................................................................... 75
Chapter 7 ......................................................................................................................................... 76
7. General layout and conveyance structures .................................................................................. 76
7.1 Intake ..................................................................................................................................... 76
7.1.1 Types of intake ............................................................................................................... 76
6.1.2 Selection of intake .......................................................................................................... 77
7.1.3 Design of bell mouth shape entry ................................................................................... 77
7.2 Penstock ................................................................................................................................ 82
7.3 Diversion works .................................................................................................................... 86
7.3.1 General............................................................................................................................ 86
7.3.2 Diversion requirements................................................................................................... 86
7.3.3 Selection of diversion flood ............................................................................................ 87
7.3.4 Estimation of design flood .............................................................................................. 87
7.3.5 Diversion tunnel ............................................................................................................. 88
7.3.6 Coffer dam design .......................................................................................................... 88
Chapter 8 ......................................................................................................................................... 96
8. Preliminary power assessment and power house layout ............................................................. 96
8.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 96
8.2 Gross head (Hg) .................................................................................................................... 96
8.3 Estimation of net head (HN) ................................................................................................. 96
UOG July, 2015

viii
8.4 Power house planning ........................................................................................................... 97
8.4.1 Firm power and installed capacity .................................................................................. 97
8.4.2 Determination of number of units .................................................................................. 98
8.4.3 Classifications of turbine ................................................................................................ 98
8.4.4 Selection of turbine ......................................................................................................... 99
8.4.5 Performance of turbine ................................................................................................. 100
8.4.6 Determination of turbine parameters ............................................................................ 101
8.4.7 Electrical and mechanical equipment ........................................................................... 108
8.4.8 Power house structure ................................................................................................... 111
8.4.9 Cavitation and turbine setting ....................................................................................... 115
Chapter 9 ....................................................................................................................................... 116
9. Environmental impact assessment ........................................................................................ 116
9.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 116
9.2 Impacts on physical environment ........................................................................................ 117
9.3 Impacts on hydrology .......................................................................................................... 117
9.4 Impact on water quality ....................................................................................................... 117
9.5 Impact of air quality ............................................................................................................ 118
9.6 Noise pollution and vibration effect .................................................................................... 118
9.7 Impacts on biological environment ..................................................................................... 118
9.8 Potential positive impacts.................................................................................................... 119
9.9 Negative impact................................................................................................................... 119
Chapter 10.............................................................................................................................. 121
10. Cost evaluation and economic analysis .................................................................................. 121
10.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 121
UOG July, 2015

ix
10.2 Cost evaluation .................................................................................................................. 121
10.3 Power developed versus operating and maintenance costs ............................................... 131
10.4 Valuation of benefit ........................................................................................................... 131
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 134
Recommendation .......................................................................................................................... 135
References ..................................................................................................................................... 136
ANNEXES .................................................................................................................................... 137
UOG July, 2015

x
List of Table
Table 1 Gauging stations Abay at Kessie ....................................................................................... 7
Table 2 Guide lines for selecting the return period....................................................................... 12
Table 3 Elevation area storage curve data .................................................................................... 23
Table 4 coordinates (x,y) from x=0 to x=7.51 .............................................................................. 70
Table 5 Coordinates points for bell mouth entry .......................................................................... 78
Table 6 unsupported length of bar in cm for velocities (m/se) ..................................................... 79
Table 7 coordinates of pheratic line for different values x and y (Seepage line) ......................... 90
Table 8 Types of Runner and Its Specification ........................................................................... 103
Table 9 Summary of environmental impact of Border hydropower project ............................... 119
Table 10 preliminary Estimate Grand Summery in US$ ............................................................ 121
Table 11 Summary of bill of quantity for structures and electromechanical equipment ............ 122
Table 12 Summary of power intake structure ............................................................................. 122
Table 13 Power intake structure ................................................................................................. 123
Table 14 Summary of power house and control building ........................................................... 124
Table 15 Power house and control building ............................................................................... 124
Table 16 Summary of River Diversion Work ............................................................................. 125
Table 17 River diversion work ................................................................................................... 126
Table 18 Summary of gravity dam ............................................................................................. 127
Table 19 Gravity dam and spillway ............................................................................................ 127
Table 20 Summary of waterway ................................................................................................. 128
Table 21 Waterways ................................................................................................................... 128
Table 22 Summary of access road and site compounds ............................................................. 129
Table 23 Access road and site compounds ................................................................................. 130
Table 24 Environmental and administration rough estimated cost ............................................. 131
Table 25 Detail calculation for internal rate of return ................................................................ 133
UOG July, 2015

xi
List of Figure
Figure 1 Location of Border dam site ............................................................................................. 4
Figure 2 Hydrograph of kessie and Border ..................................................................................... 9
Figure 3 Flow duration curve at Border dam site ......................................................................... 11
Figure 4 Moment ratio diagram of Border .................................................................................... 19
Figure 5 Elevation area storage curve ........................................................................................... 24
Figure 6 Flow mass curve ............................................................................................................. 26
Figure 7 Inflow hydrograph of Border.......................................................................................... 32
Figure 8 Reservoir routing of Border............................................................................................ 34
Figure 9 Gravity dam profile ........................................................................................................ 50
Figure 10 Forces act on the dam water pressure up to NPL ......................................................... 51
Figure 11 Forces act on the dam water pressure up to MPL ....................................................... 54
Figure 12 Forces act on the dam in extreme load combination .................................................... 57
Figure 13 Forces act on dam in empty case .................................................................................. 59
Figure 14 Spillway crest profile .................................................................................................... 71
Figure 15 Ogee spillway ............................................................................................................... 73
Figure 16 Solid roller bucket detail .............................................................................................. 75
Figure 17 Coffer dam layout ......................................................................................................... 91
Figure 18 Scroll case (spiral casing) detail ................................................................................. 106
Figure 19 Draft tube detail .......................................................................................................... 108
UOG July, 2015

xii
Abbreviation
Symbols/abbreviations Descriptions
B/C Benefit cost ratio
cm Centimeter
FDC Flow duration curve
GEV General extreme value
HFL High flood level
HRL High reservoir level
IRR Internal rate of return
kg Kilogram
KWh Kilo Watt-hour
M Million
MW Mega Watt
m meter
mm millimeter
Km Kilometer
MFL Maximum Flood Level
NPL Normal Pool Level
NPV Net Present Value
ICS Inter Connected System
SCS Self Contained System
Ton/yr tones per year
t tone
PMF Probable Maximum Flood
DF Design Flood
SPF Standard Project Flood
L-Moment Linear Moment
MRD Moment Ratio Diagram
RCC Roller Compacted Concrete
U/s Upstream
UOG July, 2015

xiii
D/s Downstream
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
NMSA National Metrological statistical Agency
UOG July, 2015

xiv
Chapter 1
1 Introduction
1.1General
Energy is the lifeblood of development and development in its basic form of description is about
reducing poverty and about increasing access to basic needs to result in an improved standard of
living.
Industrial development, which is the key factor for the economic development, requires energy
as its main input. Development in the power sector will encourage industrial development that
will create employment opportunities for more people and this will result in improved standard
of living.
Ethiopia has significant energy resources that are enough to the present and long term energy
requirement of the country. But only some of these resources are presently being exploited. The
main indigenous sources of energy are biomass, hydropower, fossil (fuels), natural gas, coal,
geothermal, solar and wind.
Although the country is known to have the potential sources, currently most of the energy
consumed comes from biomass.
Studies conducted on the country’s energy consumption show that around 91% of the need is
covered from biomass. As a result of this there is increased soil degradation due to erosion and
deforestation. And also the climatic change is causing erratic rainfall both in amount and
distribution that result in the fluctuation of hydropower energy supply.
Hydropower has a great advantage as it is continuous source of energy while thermal power has
a depleted fossil fuel sources, besides hydropower doesn’t consume the water.In addition to this
hydropower development also provides secondary benefit such as recreation, fishing, flood
control etc. where storage is contemplated.
UOG July, 2015

1
The hydro resources of the country is said to be an immense potential that can be utilized for any
water resources in the country. Due to the countries topography suitability and abundant river
flows, hydropower has been the cheapest and the main energy source in Ethiopia for supplying
energy for domestic, industrial and other energy consumption.
The gross hydropower potential of the countries is estimated at 650TWh/yr. More than three
quarter of which is available from mountain reservoirs with flow regulation. Generally, the
country has about 15000-30000MW hydroelectric potential that can be exploited to generate
electricity. However, only less than 3% of the country’s energy potential is known to have been
developed so far.
The total population of the country is estimated to be more than 77 Million of which about 85%
of the population lives in the rural areas and almost with no access to electricity, road, education
…etc.
In the near future sufficient energy and capacity appears to be available to satisfy the demand.
However a significant risk remains of continuing energy shortages depending on successful
completion of ongoing rehabilitation and construction project .It is clear that with the generation
project currently committed for implementation, the sustainability of electric demand of the
country will be guaranteed.
By this time inter connected system (ICS) consists of 8-hydro, 10-dieseal, and 1-geothermal
power plant with total installed capacity of 635.35MW, 22MW and 7.3MW respectively.
However due to aging of the plants the dependable total capacity is about 456.4MW excluding
the newly commissioned Gilgel-Gibe hydroelectric power plant and the peak demand is around
390MW. Over 98% of the total generation in the country comes from inter connected system
(ICS) and of the supply system 99% is from hydro.
UOG July, 2015

2
The self-contained system (SCS) consists of three small hydro powers and several diesel power
plants. Generation in this system is mainly by diesel power plant having an aggregate capacity of
13.86MW. The contribution of the small hydropower plant is only 6.15MW.
1.2 Description of the project area

1.2.1 Location and topography
The Border project site is located on the Abay River (Blue Nile) some 30 Km downstream of its
confluence with the Beles River and 20 Km upstream of Ethiopia-Sudan border. And located
between latitudes 110 and 120 North and longitudinal of 350 and 360 East Catchment area for
Border comprises some 176,981Km2 of the Abay river basin.
Much of the upper part of the basin comprises the highland plateau with elevation generally
exceeding 2000m. The plateau exhibits extensive level areas with intensive agricultural divided
by incised valleys. Mountain peaks rises to over 4000m in North .The Abay flows generally
within a deeply incised gorge which has a relatively gentle gradient falling some 645m over 600
km from an elevation of El.1030m at Kessie bridg to El. 485m at the Sudan border.
The land around the Border dam site is mountainous having an elevation ranging from 490
meters above sea level (a.m.s.l) in the river bed at the dam site to locate peak of 1255 meters
a.m.s.l in hills on the right bank and 1241 a.m.s.l in hills on the left bank . Upstream of the
border dam site, the valley opens into a basin with low relief, typically surrounding land lying
between 500 and 600 a.m.s.l with a number of areas of high ground greater than 1000 a.m.s.l.
The Abay has confluences with two principal and perennial tributaries in this potential reservoir
area, Beles on the right bank and Debus on the left bank. Beles River joins Abay 30 km upstream
of the dam site. Other tributaries are shorter in length and are seasonal.
There are a series of rapids at the dam site, similar to cataracts on the main Nile in Sudan, but no
natural waterfall. The dam itself creates the head of the project for power generation.
UOG July, 2015

3
Figure 1 Location of Border dam site
1.2.2 Geology of the area

At the Border dam site the Abay river traverses an area of mountainous terrain with peaks rising
from river level at 490m up to elevation 1850m. These mountains are the topographic expression
of a complex intrusion of granite, granitic gneiss, and granodiorite gneiss. Typically the
mountains are dome shaped with concave slopes extending down to the river. The mountain
summits and upper slopes are often formed by large exfoliated domes of granite or gneiss. Where
the Abay river crosses these granitic rocks the valley becomes quite narrow and incised with a
rocky river bed and frequent rapids, indicative of relatively fast flow and only shallow
accumulation of alluvium. Immediately upstream of the dam center line the river valley opens up
dramatically in to a wide open plain.
This contrast in morphology between the two differing rock formations ensures a relatively
narrow valley for the dam on granitic foundation, with a wide-open valley upstream of the dam,
ensuring high storage potential. This combination of morphological factors determines the
favorable characteristics of Border dam site.
UOG July, 2015

4
Geological mapping at the site confirmed the existence of the two broad geological formations
divisions; namely the Granite /Granite Gneiss Formation and the Biotitic Schist / Marble
formations. The latte formation presents a significantly weaker rock mass than the former, and
needs to be avoided as a foundation rock for the dam.
The Border project area appears to be located in a relatively low seismic hazard zone. Mapping
of seismic activity in Ethiopia and the neighboring regions from 1906 until 2003 indicates that
Border dam site is 300km away from the nearest epicenter.
1.3 Climate and rainfall

1.3.1 Climate
Climate in the Ethiopian highlands is strongly influenced by the effects of elevation, which gives
rise to distinct zones and characteristics. Traditional classifications based on altitude and
temperature indicates presence of five zones, of which three are predominant in the Abay river
basin. Kola -tropical hot and arid type, below 1500 m altitude with mean temperature in the
range 20-28ºC. Woina Dega – sub-tropical warm, between 1500-2500 m altitudes with mean
temperature in the range 16-20ºC. Dega – temperate highland, climate above 2500 m altitude
with mean temperature in the range 6-16ºC.
1.3.2 Rain fall

In regard to Rainfall regimes and seasons, a standard nomenclature for Ethiopia has been
compiled by NMSA. In different parts of the country rainfall regimes are described as Mono-
modal, Bi-model and Diffuse. In much of the Abay river basin the mono-modal pattern pre
dominates, as defined by just two distinct seasons: wet and dry.
1.3.3 Temperature
Mean annual temperature in the border project area is between 25 and 300 c.
UOG July, 2015

5
Chapter 2
2. Data analysis
2.1 General
The primary objectives of hydrological investigations are mainly in connection with the design,
construction and operation of hydraulic structures. The established river flow characteristics are:
mean daily and monthly flow, daily and monthly flow duration curves, firm flows and probable
maximum flood. Hydrology is required in the design stage to determine the maximum, minimum
and mean flow of the river at the proposed location of the structure. Design flood corresponding
to a certain return period is required to design efficiently and economically functioning hydraulic
structures. The maximum flow is used to predict the higher level over the structure, which occurs
on average once every T-years of return period.
The design of water resource project like Hydropower project, the peak magnitude of the flood
are of great important to design economical as well as structures with less probability of failure.
If the selected design flood is too high, it results in a conservative and unnecessary costly
structure while adoption of a low design flood can, if a higher than this occurs, results in the loss
of the structure itself causing there by untold misery to the people residing down steam, besides
damaging valuable immovable properties. It is because of this that a detailed study of hydrology
is very essential in practice.
The development of power from stream flow depends firstly on the volume of flow and secondly
on the differential head that could be available for power production.
2.2 Availability of hydrological data

The availability of stream flow data is vital for the model calibration process in catchments
modeling. There is 50 years long flow series conventional for the Border dam site with the use of
flow records from Kessie gauging station located at Kessie Bridge in the Nile basin. Hence the
stream flow recordings are sufficient enough for analysis. The flow data at Kessie is tabulated in
ANNEX-3.
UOG July, 2015

6
Table 1 Gauging stations Abay at Kessie

S.NO. Location Drainage No of years
area(km2)
Station Latitude Longitude of record
1 Abay at Kessie 8052’ 37040’ 580 50
2.3 Transposing of hydrological data to dam site

Planning and designing of hydraulic structure need adequate hydrological information of a
specific area or the region at large. This includes observed stream flow at any site .But many
sites do not have adequate number of gauging stations or that is recently established or there may
not be gauging station in the catchments at all. In such cases, transfer of required information
(flood data) from gauging site to ungauged sites becomes very important. For transposing two
points, the stations should be homogeneous watershed and climatologically (rainfall, slope,
vegetation cover, and land use) the same.
Features to be considered for transposing hydrological data are soil type, land use, rainfall
distribution, evaporation rate, slope, catchment size, rainfall amounts, density and types of
natural vegetation cover.
The Nile at Border dam site has catchment area of 172,254 Km2 and at the Kessie Bridge
gauging station has catchment’s area of 65,784Km2. There are two methods to estimate the
weighted factor for transposing the flow data gauged site
i) Area ratio method
ii) Runoff coefficient method
i. Area ratio method is convenient when the ungauged and gauged sites have the same
stream (Upstream tributaries) and are hydro meteorologically the same. While runoff
coefficient method is used when there is multi gauged stations and the stations have
different features (density and type of vegetation).
UOG July, 2015

7
For Border Hydropower Area ratio method is suitable as the stations are hydro-metrologically
the same and the only difference is area.
Qu  W f * Qg
Where Qu – parameter of ungauged site

Qg – parameter of gauged site
Wf – weighted factor =Au/Ag
Au – area of ungauged site
Ag – area of gauged site
Therefore, W f  172284  2.62

65784
The transposed discharge from Kessie Bridge to the dam site is tabulated in ANNEX-4.
2.3.1 Check for the transposed data

In order to check the reliability of the transposed data’s at the dam site, the hydrograph for both
flows of each stations was drawn and the pattern of flow versus time is compared for the same
period of time with their respective flow values as shown in fig below. Since the pattern of flow
is the same, therefore the transposed data’s are reliable.
UOG July, 2015

8
Hydrograph of Border and Kessie

2500.00
2000.00
1500.00
Q(m3/s)
1000.00
500.00
0.00
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Yearly mean at Kessie Yearly mean at Border
Figure 2 Hydrograph of kessie and Border
2.4 Flow duration curve

Flow duration curve is a useful way of treating the time variability of water discharge in
Hydropower project. A flow duration curve is a plot of stream flow versus percentage of time of
a particular flow can be expected to be exceeded.
It is useful for estimating available water resources for different uses like Hydropower project,
study of flood control, computing sediment load, design of drainage system and comparing the
adjacent catchments with a view to extend stream flow data. It also reflects the nature of the
stream and analyses the available flow records at the site.
There are methods in order to utilize the flow data available for the entire period, such as;
 Total period method
 Calendar year method
UOG July, 2015

9
In Total period method, the entire available record is used for drawing the flow duration curve.
Thus the 50 year record would produce 600 values of monthly average flows. These are first
tabulated in the ascending order starting from the driest month period and ending with the
wettest month of the 50 years of duration or vice versa. The resulting flow duration curve would
then be drawn with the help of 600 values.
In Calendar year method, each year’s average monthly flow is first arranged in ascending order.
Then the average flow values corresponding to the driest month, second driest month and so on
up to the wettest months are found out by taking arithmetic mean of all values of the same rank.
These average values are then used for plotting flow duration curve. Such a curve would have 12
points.
The Total period method gives more accurate results than the calendar year method which
averages out extreme events. Therefore, for this particular project the total period method is
preferred.
Computation of flow duration curve using Total year method is tabulated in ANNEX-1.
The resulting flow duration curve would then be drawn with the help of 600 values and the
regulated flow is 31.702m3/s and average is 1341.972m3/s.
UOG July, 2015

10
Flow duration curve at Border dam site

12000
11000
10000
9000
8000
Q(m3/s)
7000
6000
5000 FDC
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of exceedance
Figure 3 Flow duration curve at Border dam site
2.5 Selection criteria for return period (t)

Return period (T) is the average interval in year between events where equal or exceeded to a
given magnitude. However it may be clearly understood the concept of return period does not
imply that the event of any given magnitude will occur at a constant or even approximately
constant interval of n years. It only indicates the average frequency of occurrence of an event
over a long period of time.
Selecting higher return period means the corresponding flood magnitude also very high. Such a
very high flood may never occur during the life of the structure.
On the other hand, if a very low discharge corresponding to low return period is chosen for
design, it will result in the failure of the structure causing damage of the structure.
Subramania, (1994) has given better guide for selecting the return period.
UOG July, 2015

11
Table 2 Guide lines for selecting the return period

Type of structure Return period
1 Spillway for project with 1000
3
storage > 60 Mm
2 Barrage and miner dams 100
with the storage <60 Mm3
3 Spill ways of small reservoir dam 10-20
In considering not endangering urban residences
4 Dam 1000+
For this particular project, it is expected that the total storage is greater than 60 Mm3 and it is
expected that the failure of the dam may cause hazard on property and lives of people in the area
as the dam is located in high flood area. Taking the reasons into consideration the return period
has been considered as 10,000 year.
2.6 Flood estimation

2.6.1 General
A flood may be defined as an overflow coming from some river or from some other body of
water. A river may get flooded due to excessive rainfall or excessive melting of snow or due to
some other form of ice obstruction in the form of jams. Whenever the water over flows, the
banks of the river, the river is said to be flooded.
2.6.2 The design flood and its importance

Whenever an important structure is to be constructed on a river or in the vicinity a river, it must
be properly planned and designed keeping in view the damage to which it is susceptible and the
catastrophe which it is going to create in the event of its failure. Hence, while designing any
important engineering structure, provision must be made for the flood that is likely to occur
during the life time of that particular structure. Therefore, while designing structure, we have to
think of a flood value against which these structures can be designed to be safe.
UOG July, 2015

12
So, depending up on the magnitude, the floods can be classified in to the following three classes:
i) Design Flood (DF)
This is a flood selected for the design of a structure. It is selected in such a way that it
accommodates any negative effects that are to be imposed on the structure intended. It is also
sometimes taken as a flood corresponding to a certain desired frequency of occurrence
depending up on economy and practical consideration.
ii) Probable maximum flood (PMF)

The extreme flood that is physically possible in a region as a result of severe most combination
including the combinations of meteorological and hydrological factors. It is used in situations
where the failure of the structure could result in loss of life and catastrophic damage.
iii) Standard project flood (SPF)

The flood that would result from a severe combination of metrological factors that are reasonably
applicable to the region and it is also the flood that is likely to be exceeded in magnitude at rare
occasions and thus constitutes standard for design of structures that would provide enough flood
protection. The standard project flood is generally much less than the probable maximum flood
(PMF) that might occur under the most meteorological and hydrological conditions.
At a given location in the stream, flood peaks enable one to assign a frequency to a given flood
peak value. In the design of all hydraulic structures, the peak flows that can be expected with an
assigned frequency are of primary importance to adequately proportion the structures to
accommodate its effect
2.6.3 Estimation of designed flood

To estimate the magnitude of peak flood the following alternative methods are available:
i) Rational method
ii) Empirical method
iii) Unit hydrograph technique and
iv) Flood frequency analysis
UOG July, 2015

13
The use of a particular method depends up on the preferred objective, the available data and the
importance of the project. The rational method is only applicable to small catchments (<70) and
the unit hydrograph method is restricted to moderate size of catchments area less than 500Km2.
The empirical formula is essentially regional formula based on statically correlation of the
observed peak and important catchments characteristics. Flood frequency analyses are the
statistics method of frequency studies. Therefore, based on the available data, project type and
the size of the catchment’s area (172,254 Km2) the frequency analysis method is selected for
Border Hydropower project.
2.6.4 Flood frequency analysis

Frequency analysis is a method which involves study and analysis of past records (historical
data) of hydrologic events to predict the future probability of occurrence.
Water resource projects must be planned for future events for which there is no exact time of
occurrence can be forecasted. Hence, probability that stream flow will be equaled or exceeded a
specified value must be estimated accurately.
2.6.4.1 Available data for analysis

For the flood frequency analysis, it is advisable to use daily maximum discharge value in annual
series; the data are given in the form of monthly discharges.
To obtain the maximum daily discharge, it is required to have some conversion factor based on
regional and the catchment area.
For Border Hydropower project, the peaking factor is given as 1.3, since the catchment area is
65,784Km2.The daily maximum discharge at the dam site is obtained by multiplying the
maximum monthly discharge by the peaking factor, since the monthly data couldn’t consider the
fluctuation’s daily precipitation. Hence, the data multiplied by the factor in order to get accurate
result. The factored data tabulated in ANNEX of plotting position, ANNEX-3.
UOG July, 2015

14
2.6.4.2 Plotting position

Probability analysis seeks to define the flood flow with a probability P, of being equaled or
exceeded in any year. Return period Tr is used in lieu of probability to describe a design flood.
Return period and probability are reciprocals.
P=1/T
To plot a series of peak flows as cumulative frequencies curve, it is necessary to decide on a

probability or return period to associate with each peak.
The most commonly used formula for determining Plotting position used for PWMs is APL
method.
 i  0.35 
Fi    Where; Fi= plotting position
 N 
n= number of years record and
i= the rank of the events in order of magnitude
The computation of plotting position is tabulated in ANNEX-3.
2.6.4.3 Selection of parameter estimator

Fitting a distribution to data set provides a compact and smoothed representation of the
frequency distribution revealed by the available data, and leads to a systematic procedure for
extrapolation to frequencies beyond the range of the data sets.
Some of them are:

a) The Method of Moments
b) Method of Maximum Likelihood
c) The Probable Weighted Moment
d) L-Moment
UOG July, 2015

15
In wide range of hydrologic application L-moments provide simple and reasonable efficient
estimators at the characteristic of hydrology data and of a distribution.
2.6.4.4 Advantage of L-Moment

Sample estimators of L-Moment are linear combinations (hence the name L-Moments) of the
ranked observations and thus do not involve squaring or cubing the observations as do the
product-moment estimators.
As a result, L-Moment estimators of the dimensionless coefficients of the variation and

Skewness are almost unbiased and have very nearly a normal distribution; the product-moment
estimators of the coefficients of variation and of Skewness are both highly biased and highly
variable in small samples. In many hydrologic applications an occasional event may be several
times larger than other values; when product moments are used, such values can mask the
information provided by the other observations, while product moments of the logarithms of
sample values can overemphasize small values. In a wide range of hydrologic applications, L-
Moments provide simple and reasonably efficient estimators of the characteristics of hydrologic
data and of a distribution’s parameters.
2.6.4.5 Estimation of L-Moment

L-Moments are another way to summarize the statistical properties of hydrologic data. The first
data L-Moments is the mean:
1=E x------------------------------------------------------(1)
Let X (i/n) be the ith largest observation in the sample size of n and (i=1 correspond to the largest).
Then for any distribution the second L-Moments is a description of scale based on the expected
difference between to randomly selected observation:
2=1/2 E X(1/2) –X(2/2)-----------------------------------(2)
UOG July, 2015

16
Similarly, the third and the fourth L-moments measures of Skewness and Kurtosis respectively
as:
3 = 1/3 EX (1/3) -2X (2/3) + X (3/3)-----------------------(3)
4= 1/4 EX (1/4) -3X (2/4) + 3X (3/4) - X (4/4)--------------(4)
L-Moment can be written as a function probability weighted moment (PWM s) which can be
defined as:
βr =E {X [F(X)] r} -------------------------------------------(5)
And unbiaseness is important; one can employ unbiased PWM estimators.
b0  X m  8030.265
n 1
 n  j X 
j 1
j
b1   4755.695 -------(6)
nn  1
n 2
 n  j n  j  1X 
j 1
j
b2   3434.157
nn  1n  2
n 3
 n  j n  j  1n  j  2X 

j 1
j
b3   2710.024
nn  1n  2n  3
According to the given data the values of L-Moment parameters are computed below:
1=bo=8030.265
2=2b1-bo=1481.125
3=6b2- 6b1+bo= 101.036
4=20b3- 30b2+12b1 – b0=213.855
LCV=τ= 2/1= 0.184
LCS=τ3= 3/2=0.068
LCK=τ4= 4/2= 0.144
UOG July, 2015

17
To select the type of distribution which fit to the given data are computed as follows:
a) Uniform Distribution
Z3=0 Z4=0
b) Exponential Distribution
Z3=1/3 Z4=1/6
c) Normal Distribution
Z3=0 Z4=0.1226
d) Gumbel distribution
Z3=0.1699 Z4=0.1504
e) Log Normal Distribution
Z4=0.12282+0.77578 (τ3) 2 +0.12279 (τ3) 4 -0.13638(τ3) 6 +0.113638(τ3) 8
=0.12641
f) General Extreme Value (GEV)
Z4=0.1070+0.1109 (τ3) 2 -0.0669 (τ3) 3 + 0.60567(τ3)4 - 0.04208(τ3) 5 +0.03763(τ3) 6
=0.1075
g) Pearson Distribution
Z4=0.1224+0.30115 (τ3) 2 +0.95812 (τ3)4 -0.57488(τ3)6 + 0.19383(τ3) 8
= 0.123813
Based on the L-Moment estimator, the value of sample Z4 is close to the value of Z computed
using Log Normal II distribution. To get the most fitted probable distribution for this specific
project, the graphical representation of the relationship between L-Skewness (Z3) and Kurtosis
(Z4) and the values of Z3 and Z4 of the dam site is given below.
The computation of Moment ratio diagram is tabulated in ANNEX-5.
UOG July, 2015

18
0.8
Moment ratio diagram
GPAR
0.6
GLOG
0.4
Kurtosis(LCk)
GEV
0.2
P-III
0 LOGN2
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
WKB
-0.2
OVB
-0.4
Skewness(LCs)
Figure 4 Moment ratio diagram of Border
Lognormal II distribution
The Lognormal distribution can be written as X t    exp  y  u *  y 
Where ξ- location parameter

μy- Mean
σy- Standard deviation
 PWM parameter estimation of Lognormal II parameters are tabulated in ANNEX-9.
 Quantile estimation at T years tabulated in ANNEX-10.
Therefore, the design flood for Border hydropower project for 10000 year design period is
20500m3/s.
UOG July, 2015

19
2.5 Risk and reliability

The design of a hydraulic structure always faces a nagging doubt about the risk of failure of
structures .This is because of the estimation of the hydrologic design values such as design flood
involves or inbuilt uncertainty and such as hydraulic risk of failure.
Risk (R) is the probability of occurrence of an event (X≥ XT) at least once of over a period of n
years, where n is the useful life of the reservoir (1000 years).
Reliability (Re) is the probability of non-occurrence of the events (X≤ XT) in n years.
n
 1
R  1  1  P   1  1  
n
 T
n
 1
Re  1  R  1   Where; P =probability of event (X>XT) =1/T
 T
Re= reliability
R= risk
n= expected life of the structure
T = return period
Since a useful life of 100 and a return period of 10000 years are considered.
100
 1 
R  1  1  P   1  1   1%
n

 10000 
Re  1  R  99 %
Thus the possible risk of flood damage by a flood magnitude exceeding the 10,000 years
frequency in the assumed life of the reservoir is about 1 % with the reliability of confidence of
99%.
UOG July, 2015

20
Chapter 3
3.1 Reservoir planning
3.1 General
Reservoirs are manmade lakes aimed to store water during the time of day to day load
fluctuation, for balancing such fluctuations small amount of storage is required and met through
pondage or reservoir. A reservoir is created behind a dam built across a river or stream to
impound part of the runoff from the catchment upstream of the dam site. Storage is done during
wet season when flow is in excess of the demand to maintain continues hydropower generation
in addition to meet up the requirements for the various purposes such as irrigation, public water
supply and hydropower. The demand is met from the runoff of the river when the flow is in
excess and from the reservoir storage during load period. When a barrier is constructed across
some river in the form of dam, water gets stored on upstream side of the barrier forming pool of
water called dam reservoir.
Depending upon the purpose served by a given reservoir, the reservoir may be divided in to the
following three types:
1, Storage or conservation reservoirs
2, Flood control reservoir
3, multipurpose reservoirs
3.2 Reservoir site selection

Criteria for reservoir site selection
The selection of the reservoir site depending on the following factors as general considerations
i) Geological factors (including geology of the catchment area and geology of the reservoir
basin)
ii) Topographic factors
iii) Climatologically and sociological(cultural) factors
iv) Economic considerations
UOG July, 2015

21
It is virtually impossible to locate a reservoir site having completely ideal characteristics.

General rules or guidelines for choice of reservoir sites are:
1. A suitable dam site must exist; the cost of the dam is often a controlling factor in selection
of a site
2. The cost of real estate for the reservoir (including road, railroad, geometry and
dimensioning relocation) must not be excessive.
3. The reservoir site must have adequate capacity.
4. A deep reservoir is preferable than a shallow one because of lower land costs per unit of
capacity, less evaporation loss, and less likelihood of weed growth.
5. Tributary areas which are usually productive of sediment should be avoided if possible.
6. The quality of stored water must be satisfactory for its intended use.
7. The reservoir banks and adjacent hill slopes should be stable. Unstable banks will
contribute large amount of soil material to the reservoir.
3.3 Reservoir capacity determination

Area-Elevation curve
Area –Elevation Curve is one of the methods used to determine the capacity of reservoir area on
the selected site. The water spread of the reservoir at any elevation is determined by measuring
the area between the contours by plan meter.
To determine the dam height, we have two options:

1) From the area-elevation curve
2) From the site conditions
1) From the Area-Elevation curve

By calculating the live storage, dead storage and the evaporation volume, we can compute the
total capacity of the reservoir corresponding to this volume. Then, we can fix the dam height.
UOG July, 2015

22
Volume determination
Volume of storage (V) or capacity of the reservoir at equal intervals (H) is calculated as under
i) Trapezoidal formula
V   A1  A2  * H Where A1 and A2 are areas of succeeding contours

2
H- The vertical distance between successive contours
ii) Cone Formula

V  H * A1  A2 
3
 A1  A2   Where A1 and A2 are areas of succeeding contours and
H– Is the vertical distance between two alternative
contours
iii) Prismodal Formula
V  H *  A1  A3  4 A2  Where A1, A2 and A3 are areas of succeeding contours

6
H- The vertical distance between successive contours
For this particular project from all the above methods prismodal formula is adopted since
our site condition is characterized by concave slope extending down to the river from
dome shaped mountainous.
Table 3 Elevation area storage curve data

Elevation(m) Area(km^2) Cumulative Volume
480 0.0 0.0
500 10.5 206.7
520 20.0 908.3
540 120.0 3975.0
560 420.0 12175.0
580 660.0 24845.0
UOG July, 2015

23
Elevation - Area storage curve

30000 0
25000 100
cummulative volume(m3)
200
20000
Area (m2)
300
15000
400
10000
500
5000 600
0 700
480 500 520 540 560 580 600
Elevation (m)
Elevation vs cummulative volume Elevation vs Area
Figure 5 Elevation area storage curve
3.4 Reservoir storage capacity determination

The storage capacity of reservoir is aimed to meet the demand of continuous supply. Determined
with the help of the observed discharge data of stream or river on which the dam is to be built.
Methods that are used to determine the storage capacity:

A. Mass Curve Method
B. Sequent Peak Algorithm
UOG July, 2015

24
3.4.1 Mass curve method

A Mass Curve is a curve of cumulative net reservoir inflow against time and as such it rises
continuously. Any point on the curve indicates total inflow from the beginning of the period up
to the given time.
The slope of the tangent to the mass curve at any time is measure of inflow at that time. The
Mass Curve thus gives the relationship between the accumulated inflow and outflow and the
available for the storage at any given time from the beginning of the year, demand line is the
straight line rising from the origin for a uniform rate of demand.
3.4.2 Sequent peak algorithm

In Sequent Peak Algorithm a mass curve of cumulated net flow volume against chronological
time is used. The residual mass curve will have peak (local maximum) and troughs (local
minimums). For any peak ‘p’, the next following peak of magnitude greater than p is sequent
peak.
3.4.3 Bar graph method

In this method the average inflow of driest years are plotted as ordinates against time on abscissa
to get stepped graph known as bar graph.
For this particular project, reservoir capacity is determined by Mass Curve method by taking two
consecutive driest years (1983 and 1984). Mass Flow calculation is tabulated in ANNEX-6.
UOG July, 2015

25
Flow mass curve

50000
45000
cummulative volume(Mm^3)
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
S
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (month)
comm vol
Figure 6 Flow mass curve
Then the vertical intercept between these two straight lines (S) represents the minimum storage
volume required to permit continuous release (yield) of water at this average discharge rates for
the entire period.
From the above analysis the minimum live storage required is 23000Mm3. So lives storage
capacity of 23000Mm3 is taken.
3.5 Reservoir yield

Reservoir yield is defined as uniform rate at which water can be drawn from the reservoir
throughout a dry period of specified scarcity without depleting the contents to such an extent that
withdrawal at the rate is no longer feasible.so the maximum possible yield is equal to
735.02m3/s.
UOG July, 2015

26
3.6 Storage zone of the reservoir

1. Normal pool level (NPL): is the maximum elevation to which the reservoir water surface
will rise during normal operation conditions. It is equal to the elevation of spillway
crest or the top of the spillway gates.
2. Minimum pool level is the lowest water surface elevation, which has to be kept under
normal operating condition in a reservoir. This level may be fixed by the elevation of
lowest outlet in the dam or may be guided by the minimum head required for efficient
functioning of turbine.
3. Useful and dead storage: the volume of water stored in a reservoir between the minimum
pool and normal pool levels is called useful storage. The water stored in the reservoir
below the minimum pool level is known as dead storage.
4. Maximum pool level: During high flood, water is discharged over spillway, but will
cause the water level to rise in the reservoir above the normal pool level. The maximum
level to which the water rises during the worst design flood is known as the maximum
pool level.
3.7 Reservoir sedimentation

3.7.1 General
All rivers water carries silt. The flow impounded in the reservoir during monsoon is heavily silt
laden. The fine sediment in the river water is carried in suspension as suspended load, while the
larger solids move on or near the bed load. When the river water reaches a reservoir its velocity
and turbulences are reduced and as a consequence the bed load generally sets deposited along the
pre-reservoir course, but the suspended sediments which take a long time to settle down spread
more evenly all over the reservoir bed and frequently the thickest deposit of such sediment are
below the deepest standing water near the dam.
The bed load and part of suspended sediment is deposited in the reservoir bed if the reservoir
discharges the surplus freely for long time which is the case when runoff the river is large in
comparison to reservoir capacity that is small capacity inflow ratio.
UOG July, 2015

27
However if the capacity inflow ratio is large i.e the reservoir is large in comparison to the annual
runoff, all the water borne sediment brought by runoff is deposited in the reservoir bed.
The specific weight of settled sediment seems to vary with the age of the sediment samples from
reservoir range from about 650kg/m3 to 1800kg/m3 with an average of 1000kg/m3 for fresh
3
sediments and 1300 kg/m for old sediments.
The amount of sediment deposition depends on the extent of erosion in the catchment area which
depends on the following factors:
1. Nature of soil in the catchment area
2. Topography of the catchments
3. Vegetation covers
4. Intensity of Rainfall
3.8 Useful life of the reservoir

The life of a reservoir can be expressed under various concepts such as the following:
 Useful life: it is usually taken as the period through which the capacity occupied by
sediment does not prevent the reservoir from serving its intended primary purpose.
 Design life: this is either useful life or shorter of the expected economic life or fixed span
of life of 50/100000 years keeping in view of various criteria.
 Full life: it is the number of years required for the reservoir capacity to be fully depleted
by sedimentation.
The rate of sedimentation depends on the trap efficiency. Trap efficiency is a function of the
reservoir capacity to the total inflow.
total sediment retained
Trap efficiency, T  *100%
Total sediment
From most reservoirs the useful life is assumed as 100 years. For Border hydropower project
monthly sediment inflow from the local area (i.e. 172254km2) is given at the dam site. The
inflow at 31.7m3/s from the regulated flow of Border is without bed load(i.e. desilted water).The
mean annual suspended load entered into the reservoir is calculated as below.
UOG July, 2015

28
Annual inflow=318Mtone/yr
Old sediment density=1.55Mtone/m3
318M t
yr 3
Annual sediment inflow   205.16M m
1.55M t yr
m3
3
The dead storage  205.16M m *100 yr  20516Mm3
yr
Total reservoir = dead load + live load
Total reservoir = 20516Mm3  2300Mm3  43516Mm3
Therefore, from area elevation curve area of reservoir at normal pool level is 597.6Km2.
 Annual average evaporation depth(Et)=1639mm/yr
 Pmean=1236mm/yr
Total volume of evaporation = A mean * Et * K
Where K is pan evaporation coefficient from 0.6-0.8 hence, 0.7 is mostly recommended by
K.Subramanya (1994).
A mean  2 Amax  2 * 597.6  398.4 Km 2

3 3
Net evaporation = 403mm/yr
403
Volume of evaporation = 398.4 *  160.56Mm3
1000
Total storage capacity = dead storage + live storage + net evaporation volume
Total storage capacity  20516  23000  160.56
Total storage capacity  43676.56Mm3
volume of dead storage 20516Mm3

Dead load height =   34.3m
area of reservoir 597.6Km 2
UOG July, 2015

29
Chapter 4
4. Flood routing
4.1 General
The extent by which the inflow hydrograph gets modified, due to the reservoir storage can be
computed by a process known as reservoir routing.
Reservoir routing is a process of computing water level in the reservoir and out flow rates
corresponding to a particular inflow hydrograph at various instant of time. It is carried out to
determine the maximum water level and the corresponding out flow rates when the maximum
flow passes over the spillway. The maximum water level is required for fixing the height of the
dam while the maximum out flow rate is required for the design of spillway.
4.2 Inflow hydrograph

It is a graph of inflow versus time. In order to develop an inflow hydrograph:
 Hourly measured stream flow data or
 UH (unit hydrograph) development for the basin
However such information is not available for the Border dam site locations. In order to
construct a unit hydrograph for this project empirical equations of a regional validity, which
relate the salient hydrograph, cross section to the basin are available.
The unit hydrograph derived from such relationships are known as synthetic unit hydrographs.
Synthetic unit hydrograph is one of the Snyder’s methods that are based on the study of large
catchments in United States. The basin characteristics considered by Snyder’s synthetic unit
hydrograph are the area and shapes of the catchments.
The basin lag time tp is given by
t p  ct* L * Lc  …………. By Vente chow (1985)

0 .3
But Linsley suggested that the basin lag tp is better correlated with the following catchment’s
parameters.
UOG July, 2015

30
n
 L * Lc 
t p  ct*  
 s 
Where t p = the basin lag in hours
L =the basin length is measured along the watercourse from the

basin divide to the gauging station in (Km)
L c = Distances along the main water course from the gauging station to a point opposite to
the watershed centroid in (Km)
c t =a regional constant representing watershed slope and storage. (
c t =1.2 for mountainous drainage area)
A typical dimensionless unit hydrograph developed by the US soil conservation services (SCS)
has its ordinate expressed by the ratio of (Q/Qpk) and the abscissa is expressed as a ratio of time
to peak (t/tpk). This dimensionless unit hydrograph provides a shape to the unit hydrograph and
these leads to a better result than the synthetic unit hydrograph.
And the shape of the dimensionless unit hydrograph is more agreed with the unit hydrograph that
is likely to occur in nature.
'
tr
t pk  t P 
'
2

 21 t
tp  *tp  r , So for our given data the values are as follows
22 4
n=0.38 constant adopted from…………………. K. SUBARMANYA (1994)
c t = 1.6 Interval between 1.36-1.65 from….…... K. SUBARMANYA (1994)
645m
Slope(s) =  0.0011 L=580Km Lc=60%L=0.6*580=348Km
600km
n 0.38
 L * LC   580 * 348 
But, t p  ct    1.6   47hr
 s   0.0011 
tp 47
tr    8.5177hrs Take tr = 9hr
5.5 5.5
UOG July, 2015

31
Taking the storm duration of 9 hour cause the flood

 21 t 21 9
tp  tp  r  * 47   46.97hr
22 4 22 4
 t 9
t pk  t p  r  46.97   51.4hr
2 2
The time base tb is given by:


tb  5 * t p ....(USSCS )
tb  5 * 46.97  234.84hr
The inflow hydrograph is calculated by multiplying t pk and QPK with the ratio given by USCS.
For QP =20500m3/s (design flood obtained from flood frequency analysis) and time to peak t pk 
calculated above; tpk=51.4hr the following inflow hydrograph table is formulated in ANNEX-8.
Inflow hydrograph of Border

25000
20000
Q (m3/s)
15000
10000
5000
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time(hr)
Inflow hydrograph
Figure 7 Inflow hydrograph of Border
UOG July, 2015

32
4.3 Out Flow Hydrograph

There are different techniques that are used in the determination of reservoir routing like trial and
error, modified Pul’s method, and Good rich method.
From these equations the trial and error method is adopted as it is widely used. The equation of
continuity used in all the hydrograph routing methods, as the primary equation, states that the
difference between the inflow equation and out flow rate is equal to the rate of change of storage
I –Q= ∆S/∆t Where I =inflow rate
Q =out flow rate
∆S = storage
∆t = time interval
Alternatively, in a small time interval ∆t, the difference between the total inflow volume and the
total out flow volume is equal to the change in a storage volume.
i.e. S  It  Qt
I1  I 2
There fore I avg 
2
Q1  Q2
Qavg 
2
S  S 2  S1
Where the suffixes 1 and 2 denote the beginning and the end of the time interval ∆t,
The above equation can be written as:
 I  I2   Q  Q2 
t  1   t  1   S 2  S1
 2   2 
 I  I 2   S1 Q1   S 2 Q2 
 1      
 2   t 2   t 2 
In order to determine the out flow hydrograph first the inflow hydrograph is divided in to a
number of small intervals; for this project ∆t=9hrs. Then calculate the average inflow for the
time interval. As the second term in the bracket is known, at the first time interval, the value in
the right hand side is obtained. The next head is determined by adopting computer (excel spread
sheet).
UOG July, 2015

33
For the computation of the above steps the storage is determined by assuming a constant increase
in height for the horizontal surface area (normal pool level) at the top, which is assumed in the
routing technique.
Therefore; S=A*H
Where A=the surface area at normal pool level = 37Km2
H= head of water measured above the crest (normal pool level)
And the routing process is done for overflow spillway and discharge over it is computed
by the general equation.
Q  C * L * H 1.5 ) where C is
From pre-feasibility study effective length of spillway is 192m.
The reservoir routing is tabulated in ANNEX-7
Resevoir routing of Border

25000
20000
Q(m3/s)
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time(hr)
inflow hydrograph Outflow hydrograph
Figure 8 Reservoir routing of Border
UOG July, 2015

34
Chapter 5
5. Dam work
5.1 General
Dam is a solid barrier generally impervious in nature constructed at the narrow out let of a
catchments area in a valley .It holds up the flow of water to raise the water level to a fixed level
to form a reservoir on the upstream side .Generally dam fulfills two fundamentals functions:
A) It develops a reservoir which has a capacity to store water and
B) Builds up head and thus potential for the river water
In most of the high head and medium head hydroelectric projects, a dam across the river is an
important component.
5.2 Classification of dams

Dams may be classified in various ways according to:
1) The material used in the construction of dams they can be classified as
i) Rigid Dam: timber, steel arch, solid gravity etc.
ii) Non Rigid: rock Fills, earth or the combination of both.
2) Hydraulic design
i) Non Over Flow and
ii) Over Flow Dams
3) Function of the dam
i) Diversion Dams
ii) Detention Dams
iii) Storage Dams
4) Design criteria / stability consideration
i) Gravity Dams
ii) Non-Gravity Dams
UOG July, 2015

35
5.3 Selection of site for dams

While selecting a site for a dam following points should be taken into consideration:
1. The water storage should be largest for the minimum possible height and length.
Naturally site should be located in a narrow valley.
2. Good foundation should be available at moderate depth.
3. Good and suitable basin should be available.
4. Construction materials should be available at a dam site or nearby it this is because if
materials are to be transported over a long distance it increases the cost of the dam.
5. There should be good and suitable for spillway construction. It may be in the dam itself
or near the dam on the periphery of the basin.
6. The reservoir created downstream of the dam should be submerged area of sufficiently
low in comparison with the benefits expected from the project.
7. Dam site should be easily accessible in all seasons.
8. There should be suitable site available for providing living accommodation to the labors
and engineering staffs.
9. Overall cost of construction and maintenance of the dam should be taken into
consideration
5.4 Selection of type of dam

In selecting the type of dam for the site, the physical features of the site and adaptation to the
purpose of the dam supposed to serve as well as economy, safety and other limitations are
consider. In addition to these the following points are considered.
I. Topography: topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam. The dam site of Border
Hydropower project is mountainous having the topographic expression of a complex intrusion of
granite, granitic gneiss, and granodiorite gneiss and dome shaped with concave slopes extending
down to the river.
UOG July, 2015

36
II. Geology and foundation condition: - A dam is a very large structure in which all the loads
acting on it including its own weight is ultimately transferred to the foundation. The geological
mapping of the Border Hydropower project confirmed the existence of the two broad geological
formations divisions; namely the Granite/Granite Gneiss formation and the Biotite Schist/Marble
formations. The latter formation presents a significantly weaker rock mass than the former, and
needs to be avoided as a foundation bed rock for the dam.
III. Availability of materials: - in order to achieve economy in the dam, the materials required
for its construction must be available locally or at a short distance from the dam site. For border
hydropower project dam site there is sand cover and a large amount of rock material available for
the purpose of aggregate, which means that gravity dam, is suitable for the area.
IV. Earthquake zone: - If the dam site is located in seismic zone, the most suitable type of dam
is one, which can resist the earthquake shake without much damage. Therefore the Border
Project area appears to be located in a relatively low seismic hazard zone. Mapping of seismic
activity in Ethiopia and the neighboring regions from 1906 until 2003 indicates that Border dam
site is 300 Km away from the nearest epicenter. Therefore the effect of earthquake for the dam is
neglected as it is not that much significant.
V. Spillway size and location: - the selection of the most suitable type of a dam for a particular
site is sometimes governed by the size and location of spillway.
VI. Economy: - Roller compacted concrete (RCC) gravity dam is constructed in much the same
way as an embankment dam. Because the RCC gravity dam construction method is quicker and
requires less labor, it is most cost effective than conventionally placed mass concrete. The RCC
approach is best suited to wide valley giving scope for unobstructed end-to-end continuous
placing. The construction saving realized are at maximum for high volume dams and align from
a 30% reduction in construction time as well as from reducing unit cost for the RCC. The vertical
rates of the raising of (2-2.5) m/week are attainable for RCC gravity dams, which can also lead
to be more economical.
UOG July, 2015

37
Therefore considering all the above points and specially its technological acceptance, a roller
compacted concrete gravity dam (RCC) is selected for Border hydropower project.
5.5 Modes of failure and criteria for structural stability of dam

A Gravity dam may fail in the following ways:
A. Overturning (rotation) about the toe.
B. By shear failure (sliding)
C. By development of tension, causing ultimate failure by crushing
D. By crushing
The failure may occur at the foundation plane (i.e. at the base of the dam) or at any other plane at
higher level.
A. Overturning stability: - If the resultant of all the forces acting on a dam at any of its
sections, passes outside the toe, the dam shall rotate and over turn about the toe.
 M  ve
FO   M  ve Inclusive of moment generated by up lift
 M ve
F O > 1.25 may be acceptable, but F O > 1.5 is desirable.

B. Sliding stability: - sliding or shear failure will occur when the net horizontal force above any
plane in the dam or the base of the dam exceeds the frictional resistance developed at that
level. Factor of safety against sliding, Fs, estimated using
I. Sliding factor (F SS )
II. Friction factor (F SF ) or

III. Shear Limit equilibrium factor (F LE )
I. Sliding factor (Fss)
H
Fss  , if it has a horizontal plane F SS >  , where  = 0.75
V
UOG July, 2015

38
If the foundation plane inclined at a small angle 
Fss  

 H
V
 tan 


 1  H
V

tan 

F SS Should not be permitted to exceed  , (where  = 0.75) But under (extreme load
combination) ELC it can be up to 0.9, which is acceptable.
II. Shear friction factor (SFF) – is defined as the ratio of total resistance to shear and sliding
which can be mobilized on a plane to the total horizontal load.
V   * q
SFF 
H
Where, B = width of the dam at the joint.
q = average shear strength of the joint which varies from about 1400 km/m2 for poor
rocks to about 4000 km/m2 for good rocks.
- The Value of  generally varies from 0.65 to 0.75
 SFF > 3 (for normal load combination) (NLC)
 SFF>2 (unusual load combination) (ULC)
 SFF>1 (ELC)(extreme load combination)
III. Limit equilibrium factor (FLE)

 This fallows conventional soil mechanics logic in defining FLE, as the ratio of shear
strength to mean applied shear stress across a plane i.e.
f
FLE  Where  -the shear stress generated under the applied loading.

f -the shear strength available and expressed by Mohr coulomb
failure criteria.
UOG July, 2015

39
C. By development of tension
 Masonry and concrete gravity dams are usually designed in such a way that no tension is
developed anywhere, because these materials cannot with stand sustained tensile stresses.
 The maximum permissible tensile stress for high concrete gravity dams, under worst
loadings, may be taken as 500kN/m2. Therefore, in order to ensure that no tension is
developed anywhere in the dam, it must be proved that P min is at most equal to zero.
Hence, the maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on either side of the center is
equal to B/6 i.e. the resultant must be with in the middle third of the base.
D. Cracking or compression
A dam may fail by failure of its materials, i.e. the compressive stresses produced may exceed
the allowable stresses, may get crushed.
V  6e 
P max/min =
B 1  B  where e = eccentricity of resultants from the center of base.
 = Total vertical force

B=base with
If P min is negative, it means that tension shall be produced at the appropriate end and P max
must not be greater than 3000kN/m2 for concrete.
5.6 Stress analysis

I. Average Vertical Stresses
II. Principal Stress
III. Shear Stress
I. Average vertical stress: - (P max or P min)

The vertical stresses intensity, P max or P min determined from equation shown below is
not the maximum direct stress produced anywhere in the dam.
V  6e 
P max/min =
B 1  B 
UOG July, 2015

40
V  6e 
Pmin  1  B  , Pmin=0
B
V  6e 
=
B 1  B  =0
 6e  B
0  1    e 
 B 6
 Hence maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on either side of the
B
center is equal to , which leads to the famous statements that the resultant must lay
6
within the middle third of the base.
II. Principal stress: -(σ 1 and  2 ):

The maximum normal stresses will in fact, be the major principal stress that will be
centered on the major principal plane. To study the principal stress that will develop near
the toe, considering a small element ABC the following equations are derived.
At the toe  1  P toe  sec2 
At the heel,  2  p vheel  sec 2   p w  tan 2 
III. Shear stress:

 Shear stress on the horizontal plane near the toe
A shear stress  will act on the fact the face of CA on which vertical stress, acting.
 At the toe
 o toe   Pv toe * tan  , Where; tan  0.85
 At the heel,
 o heel   Pv heel   P tan  
  Ve Sign shows that the direction is reversed.
UOG July, 2015

41
5.7 Design of gravity dam

A gravity dam is a structure, which is designed in such a way that its own weight resists the
external forces. This type of structure is most durable, solid, and requires very little maintenance.
And as it transfers the loads to the foundations by cantilever action, good foundations are
prerequisite for the gravity dam.
5.7.1 Forces acting on gravity dam

The structures integrity of a dam must be maintained across the range of circumstances or events
likely to arise in service. The gravity dam is subjected to the following main forces.
A. Primary loads
1. Water pressure
When the upstream face is vertical, the intensity is zero at the water surface and equal to
 w * H at the base, where  W the unit weight of water and H is the depth of water. The
H
resultant force due to this external water is 0.5 *  w * H 2 and acting at from the base.
3
When the upstream face is partly inclined, the resulting water force can be resolved in to
H
two components. The horizontal component Ph  0.5 *  W * H 2 acts at from the base
3
and vertical component,  is equal to the weight of water stored in the upper inclined
portion of the dam and acts at the center of gravity of the area.
For this particular project, as there is no tail water condition given, its value is neglected
for the designing analysis at normal pool level.
2. Up lift pressure
The pressure variation along the base of the dam is assumed to be linear between the
upstream and the downstream faces.
Total upstream force on the base of the dam
u  Average pressure intensity* area
UOG July, 2015

42
Pu   w * H  H ' * 
 L*B 
 And
 2 
5* H  2* H '
z , From the base. When drainage galleries are provided to relieve the
3( H  H ' )
uplift, the recommended up lift at the face of gallery u 
Pu   w H '  1  w H   w H ' 
3
3. Weight of the dam
The weight of the dam body and its foundation is the major resisting force. In two-
dimensional analysis of gravity dam, a unit length of the dam is considered. The cross –
section can then be divided in to rectangles and triangles. The weight of each along with
their center of gravities can be determined. The resultant of all these down ward forces
will represent the total weight of the dam.
w  c. Where,  c  unit weight of concrete
  Area of dam profile acting at the centroid

B. Secondary loads
1) Wave pressure
Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir by the blowing winds, which cause a
pressure towards the downstream side. Wave pressure depends on the wave weight.
h  0.032 UF  0.763 – 0.271 (F) ¼ … for F< 32km
h  0.032 UF For F>32km

Where, h  height of water from top of the crest to bottom of trough in meters
V = wind velocity in meters
F =Fetch or straight length of water expansion in (km)
The maximum pressure intensity due to wave may be given by
h
p he =2.4*  w h w and acts at above the still water surface
2
- The total force due to water action (F  )
i.e. F  2   h 2and this force acts at a distance 3

8h above the reservoir surface.
UOG July, 2015

43
2) Ice pressure
The ice that may be formed on the water surface of the reservoir in cold countries may
sometimes melt and expand. For this particular project as Ethiopia is in tropical zone, this
force is not considered for design.
3) Silt pressure
Silt is deposited in the reservoir on the upstream of the dam. Silt exerts the earth pressure on
the dam, similarly to that in case of an earth retaining wall. The generated horizontal thrust
Ps has vertical and horizontal component and it is a function of the sediment depth h s ,
submerged unit weight  s , and active natural pressure coefficient ka.
a. s .hs
'
hs
Ps = = acts at above the base of the dam.
2 3
 s   s   w  ; Where  s ' -Submerged unit weight

 s -Saturated unit weight
And ka = 1  sin  , where s is the angle of shearing resistance
1  sin 
4) Wind load: - When the dam is full, wind acts only on the down streamside thus contribute to
stability.
C. Exceptional loads
1. Seismic load.
If the dam is to be located in a region, which is susceptible to earthquake allowance, must be
made for the stress generated by the earth. If the ground under the dam moves the dam must
also move with this to avoid rupture. Inertia force always acts opposite to the direction of
earthquake acceleration.
 Earthquake force on the body of the dam

 The horizontal acceleration has effect when the reservoir is full and empty condition.
UOG July, 2015

44
 When the reservoir is full, the worst condition is if the earthquake acceleration moves
towards upward and corresponding inertia force acts on the down direction. And
when the reservoir is empty the worst case is if the acceleration moves towards the
downstream direction and corresponding inertia force moves to the upstream
direction.
2. Earthquake force on the body of the water

The horizontal acceleration acting upstream towards the reservoir causes momentary increase
in water pressure. The hydrodynamic pressure is calculated by using Vankorman’s and
Zingers formula. For this particular project, the effect of earthquake is neglected. This is
done because, the border hydropower project is found in zone zero and the gravitational
acceleration has negligible effect on the dam.
5.7.2 Determination of section of the dam

1. Freeboard height ( FB ) - is the margin between the maximum reservoir level and the top of
the dam. This is provided in order to avoid the possibility of water spilling over the dam top due
to wave action.
The free board is generally provided ( FB ) =3/2* hw , where
FB =3/2* hw where hw = wave length -------------------------------------- S.K. GARG (2005)

However, these days a free board of (4-5%) of dam height is provided--- S.K. GARG (2005)
Taking FB= 4% (H)  FB (4/100)* (80) = 3.2 m
Therefore  FB  3 m
2. Height of water above normal pool level up to the maximum flood level
HW = MFL- NPL
Where MFL is the maximum flood level and
NPL is normal pool level
Height of storage from reservoir routing= 560-480=80m
UOG July, 2015

45
MFL =River bad level +height of storage=500a.m.s.l+80m

MFL =580 a.s.m.l
H=5.27m from reservoir routing
And NPL = MFL-H=580a.m.s.l-5.27m
NPL = 574.73 a.s.m.l
3. Water depth at the upstream face of the dam (H)

H = NPL – RBL Where: NPL – normal pool level
RBL – Reduced bed level
NPL = 574.73 a.m.s.l and RBL = 500 a.m.s.l
H = NPL– RBL = 574.73m - 500m
H= 74.73m
4. Total height of the dam above the riverbed level (H Total)
H Total = N.P.L+ free board + height of N.P.L to M.P.L
= 74.73 + 3 + 5.27 = 83m
H Total = 83m
Low and high gravity dam

A low dam is of limiting height such that the resultant of all forces passes through the middle
third and the maximum compressive stress at the toe doesn’t exceed the permissible limit, while
the height of the high dam exceeds the limiting height.
In a high dam the maximum permissible compressive stress is exceeded, if the resultant of all
forces were to pass thought the middle third. Approximate downstream slope in terms of its
angle to vertical  d , required for no tension to occur at vertical up stream face is given by:
1/ 2
 
 
tand   1  ………… …………… P.NOVAK, (1996)
  c 
     
   w  
Where  C - Density of concrete
UOG July, 2015

46
 w - Density of water
 - An area reduction coefficient and (  =1) for analytical purpose…P.NOVAK, (1996)
  C  24KN / m2 and  w  10kN / m2 ………P.NOVAK, (1996)
1/ 2
 
 
tan  d   1 
  
  c    
   w  
1
tand  [ ]1 / 2  0.845
24
(  1)
10
 d  40 .2 0
Top width (crest width)

The top width of the dam is generally dictated by the requirement of roadway to be provided.
The most economical top width is taken as 0.55 H
B  0.55 H 1 ….. R.K Sharma, (2003)
Where H1=is maximum water depth

H1 =MFL-RBL
=580m – 500m=80m
And B  0.55 H 1  0.55 80  4.92 m
So take B=5m
Base width
The base width of the dam should be safe against overturning, sliding and no tension in the dam
body.
The base width is determined by taking trial values of the upstream slope and checking the
stability of the dam.
83 83
B  AN * tan u  0
tan d tan(49.8)
UOG July, 2015

47
B=0+70.14
=70.14m, Take B=71m
From the equation solved above the downstream slope

d  40.20
 d '  90   d
 tand  0.845 And  d  90  40.2 
 d '  49.8 
 For this particular project the cross section is determined by using the recommendation given
by P.NOVAK, (1996).
The upstream face flare of a gravity profile is determined by changing the slope of the inclined
plane until it satisfies its stability. The face flare is advantageous in that it serves to lengthen the
base contact and hence stress can be distributed at the surface and it can resist against sliding.
From the above figure
tan d  49.8
'
 DE  5tan 49.8  5.9m

DE
tan d 
'
5m
The limiting height
f
H Where f = allowable stress of dam material
( Sc  C  1)
 = Unit weighs of water
Sc  Specific gravity of concrete
C  When uplift is ignored (USBR)
To be on the safe side i.e. C=0 and ignoring up lilt

f
H max 
( Sc  1)
F=3000KN/m2 - for concrete gravity dam by------------------------ P.NOVAK, (1996)
 w =9.81KN/m2
UOG July, 2015

48
Sc=2.4
f
H max =
 w ( Sc  1)
H max = 3000KN/m2
9.81KN/m2 (2.4+ 1)
H max = 89.9 m
Since H=83 < 89.9m Hence it is a low gravity dam.
5.7.3. Gravity profile selection

The elementary profile of a dam composed of triangle with apex at the maximum water surface
is only a theoretical one and has to be modified from practical considerations.
A. Dam has to be raised above the maximum reservoir level to-provide suitable free
board to guard against overtopping by wave action.
B. Top of dam has to be of a certain width, instead of zero width of the elementary
triangular profile, to provide a suitable roadway.
There are two approaches for profile selection of a dam to match the specific conditions
applicable; multi stage approach and single stage approach.
 Single stage approach is based up on definition of suitable and uniform downstream
slope.
5.7.4 Inspection gallery

It is an opening provided at heel of the dam to provide access to the entire of the dam. The
gallery, besides inspection purpose it may serve for other purpose along with seepage water.
Generally galleries are used to:
 Intercept and drain the water seeping through the dam.
 Provide access to dam the dam interior
 Provide access for grouting when it cannot be done from the face of dam
 Provide space for drilling and grouting foundation.
UOG July, 2015

49
For Border Hydropower project two galleries are provided at a 15 m excavation difference and
the galleries are placed at 4m distances from the vertical face of the dam.
Figure 9 Gravity dam profile
5.7.5 Combination of forces for designs

The design of a gravity dam should be checked for two cases
i. When reservoir is full
ii. When reservoir is empty
 All loads acts on the dam and moments created by the load in each case tabulated in
ANNEX-11.
Case I - Reservoir full case

For the most conservative design, and from purely theoretical point of view, one can say a
situation may arise when all the force may act together. But such situation will never arise and
hence, all the forces are not generally taken together USBR has classified the normal load
combinations and extreme load combination as follows … S.K. GARG, (2005)
UOG July, 2015

50
For this particular project since earthquake is neglected, some of the load combinations are
neglected in the stability check.
A) Normal load combinations

1) Water pressure up to the normal pool level, normal up lift, silt pressure (there is no tail )
2) Water pressure up to the maximum reservoir level (high flood condition) normal up lift,
silt pressure.
1) Water pressure up to the normal pool level (normal uplift), silt pressure.
Figure 10 Forces act on the dam water pressure up to NPL
 All loads acts on the dam and moments created by the load tabulated in ANNEX-11.
 M   M 1(Selfweight )   M 2(waterpress ure)   M 3(Upliftpressure)   M 4(silt )

 M  2163404 .98 KNm Also;
UOG July, 2015

51
V  V 1  V 2
V  60889 .83KN
 M 2163404.98
x   34.52
V 60889.83
Therefore B 71 B … Safe against tension
e   X   34.52  0.98   11.83
2 2 6
 Check for sliding

i. Sliding factor (Fss)
H
FSS  ,  H  29370.42 KN
V
29370.42
FSS   0.48  0.75.....safe
60889.83
ii. Shear friction factor Fsf 
CAh  V tan 
Fsf 
H
(1200 * 71)  60889.83 tan 59.5
Fsf 
29370.42
 6.42  4........safe
F sf
 Check for overturning FO 
FO 
 M   3365556  2.80  1.5..........Safe
 M  1202151.24
Stress analysis
i. Average vertical stress
At the toe
60889.83 6(0.98)
Pvtoe  [1  ]  928.63  3000KN / m2........OK
71 71
UOG July, 2015

52
At the heel
Pvheel  857.60(1  0.08)  786.56  3000KN / m2.......OK
ii. Principal stresses
At the toe
 1  Pvtoe * sec 2 
 1  928.63(1  0.852 )
 1  1597.24 KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 ........( ve...OK )
At the heel
 2  Pvheel * sec2   Pw tan2  , but
 2  786.56KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 ..........OK
iii. Shear stresses
At the toe
 o ( toe)  Pvtoe * tan  , tan   0.85  928 .63 * 0.85  789 .34 KN / m 2
At the heel
 o ( heel )  [ Pvheel  P tan  ], p tan   0
 o ( heel )  [1031.74  0]  786.56KN / m 2  30000KN / m 2 ..........OK
UOG July, 2015

53
2. Water pressure up to maximum reservoir level (High flood condition) normal up lift, silt
pressure
Figure 11 Forces act on the dam water pressure up to MPL
∑M=1973517.77kNm
∑V=60180.47kN
∑H=33370.09KN
 Check for tension

 M 1973517.77
X=   32.79
V 60180.47
B 71 B
e  X   32.79  2.71   11.83
2 2 6 ……safe against tension
UOG July, 2015

54

1. Sliding factor (Fss)
 H 33370.09
FSS    0.55  0.75 …………Safe
V 60180.47
2. Shear friction factor
CAh  V tan 
FSF  , c  1200 &   59.5( novak )
H Safe
FSF 
1200 * 71  60180.47 tan 59.5
 5.66  4
33370.47
 Check for overturning ( FO )
 M  ve 3365556
FO    2.41  1.5 (Safe)
 M  ve 1392038.23
Stress analysis
1. Average vertical stress
V  6e 
PVtoe / heel  1  B 
B
At the toe
 60180.47   6 * 2.71
PVtoe    1    1041.72 KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 ......OK
 71   71 
At the heel
60180.47  6 * 2.71
PVheel  1  71   652.66KN / m  3000KN / m ........OK
2 2
71
2. Principal stresses
At the toe
 1  P' vtoe * sec2   ph tan2  , p'  0 (No tail water)
1  1041.72 * 1  0.852 
1  1791.76KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 ......OK
UOG July, 2015

55
At the heel
 2  PVheel * sec 2   PW tan 2   p w tan 2   0 & sec 2   1
 2  652.66 *1
  652.66KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 .......OK
3. Shear stresses
At the toe
 O toe  PV toe tan 
 otoe  1041.72 * 0.85
 otoe  885.46KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2
At the heel
 oheel   pvheel  p * tan 
 oheel  652.66  0
 oheel  652.66KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 .......OK
UOG July, 2015

56
B) Extreme load combination

Water pressure up to maximum reservoir level (high flood condition), silt pressure, extreme up
lift without any reduction due to drainage.
Figure 12 Forces act on the dam in extreme load combination
 M =1079472.24KNm
 V =39020.4KN
 H =-32408.71KN
 Check for tension
 M 1079472.24
X    27.66m
V 39020.40
......safe against tension failure
B 71 B
e   X   27.66  7.84   11.83
2 2 6
UOG July, 2015

57

I. Sliding factor (Fss)
 H 32408.71
FSS    0.83not  0.75but.......acceptable
V 39020.40
 In extreme load combination sliding factor to be permitted to rise to 0.9, it’s acceptable.
II. Shear friction factor
FSF 
Ca  V tan   1200 * 71  39020.4 tan 59.5
h
H 32408.71
FSF  4.67  4..............OK
 Check for overturning FO 
 M  VE  3373245.89
FO    1.47not  1.5but......acceptable
 M  VE  2293777.65
Stress analysis
I. Average vertical stress.
At the toe
39020.40  6 * 7.84 
PVTOE  1  71 
71
PVtoe  912.30KN / m 2  30000KN / m 2 ..........OK
At the heel
39020.40  6 * 7.84 
PVheel  1  71 
71
PVheel  186.86KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 .............OK
II. Principal stresses
At the toe
 1  PVtoe * sec 2   Ph tan2 
 1  1745.52 * 1  0.852   (9.81 * 14) tan2 40.2
 1  1471.64 KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 .............OK
UOG July, 2015

58
At the heel
 2  PVheel * sec2   PW tan2  , pw tan   0
 2  186.86(1)
 2  186.86KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 ..........OK
III. Shear stresses
At the toe
 o toe  PVtoe * tan  , tan   0.85
 otoe  912.3 * 0.85  775.46KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 .......OK
At the heel
 oheel  PVheel  P * tan  
 oheel  186.86  0
 oheel  186.86KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 .........OK
Case -II Reservoir empty case

1. Empty reservoir without earthquake force to be computed for determining bending diagram,
etc for reinforcement design for grouting studies or other purposes.
Figure 13 Forces act on dam in empty case
UOG July, 2015

59
 Distance of resultant force from the toe
 M 3365556
X   46.44
V 70944
B
e  X , B  71
2
71
e   46.44 Since -10.94<11.83 no tension is developed.
2
B
e  10.94   11.83
6

I. Sliding Factor (Fss)
Fss = (∑H/∑V)=0/138132.96 =0<0.75
Since there is no sliding force it is safe against sliding
II. Shear Friction factor FSF
FSF = 138132.96 - 104.0.75*2*2350 = ∞ >>>3.0 ……………safe

0
III. Check for Overturning (Fo)
 M  VE 3365556
FO      1.5 Safe against overturning
 M  VE 0
Stress analysis
I. Average Vertical Stresses
At the toe
V  6e 
PVtoe  1  b 
B
70944  6 *10.94 
PVtoe  1 +ve it is safe
71  71 
PVtoe  79.94 KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2
UOG July, 2015

60
At the heel
V  6e 
PVheel  1  B 
B
70944  6 *10.94 
PVheel  1
71  71 
PVheel  1918.48KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 .....OK
II. Principal Stress

At the toe
 1  PVtoe sec 2 
 1  79.941  0.852 
 1  137.50KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 .....OK
At the heel
 2  PVheel sec2   PW tan2  
 2  1918.48(1)  0
 2  1918.48KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 ...........OK
III. Shear Stress
At the toe
 otoe  PVtoe * tan  , tan   0.85
 otoe  79.94 * 0.85
 otoe  67.95KN / m  3000KN / m 2 ..........OK
At the heel
 oheel  PVheel  P tan  
 oheel  1918.48  0
 oheel  1918.48KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 .........OK
UOG July, 2015

61
5.8 Dam construction

RCC Dam Construction permits an intensively mechanized construction process with concrete
delivered by conveyer belt construction joints may be sawn through each successive layer of
concrete after placing. In this approach the concrete is handled as an earth fill and compacted at
or need its optimum moisture content in thin layers.
The dam following this approach is therefore optimized for construction using a lower strength
and relative permeable RCC gravity profiles in conjunctions with horizontally slip formed high
quality upstream concrete membrane.
5.9 Dam safety instrumentation and surveillance

Catastrophic failures of a dam other than as direct result of an extreme flood event, is invariably
preceded by a period of progressively increasing structural distress with in the dam and /or
foundation. Dam surveillance program and instrumentation are intended to detect and where
possible to identify symptoms of distress at the earliest possible stage. Precise surveying targets
fixed on the top of the dam, on the abutment and on the downstream face. The targets are also
fixed in galleries and in the vertical shafts. The measurements taken are used for the computation
of lift and deformation of the dam.
UOG July, 2015

62
Chapter 6
6. Spillway
6.1 General
Spillways are structures constructed at a dam site for effective disposal of the surplus water from
the reservoir upstream to downstream. When the flood water enters the reservoir, the level of
water rises beyond the predetermined HRL, at the same time the excess water will be left out
over the spillway without causing any damages to the dam and its appurtenant structures.
6.2 Essential requirements of spillway

1. The spillway must have adequate discharge capacity without raising the reservoir level
above HFL.
2. The spillways must be hydraulically structurally safe.
3. The surface of the spillway must be erosion resistant.
4. The spillway should be designed so as not to erode the downstream soil.
5. The spillway must be equipped with effective energy dissipation structures
or devices.
6. The spillway discharge should not exceed the safe discharge capacity of the downstream
channel to avoid its flooding.
6.3 Location and type of spillway

Location
 Within the body of the dam (as component of the dam)
 Away from the dam, as an independent structure
Types of spillway
Depending up on the type of the structure constructed for disposing of the surplus water, the spill
way can be of the following major types:
1. Free over fall or straight drop spillway
2. Over flow or ogee spillway
3. Chute or open channel or trough spillway
UOG July, 2015

63
4. Side channel spillway

5. Siphon spillway
6. Shaft or morning glory spillway
7. Conduit or tunnel spillway
For Border hydropower project ogee spillway is provided as the dam is RCC gravity dam and
because it can be easily used on valleys, where the width of the river is sufficient to provide the
required crest length and the river bed below can be protected from scour at moderate cost.
6.4 Ogee or overflow spillway

Over flow (Ogee) Spillway are by far the most widely adopted, they are mainly used on masonry
or concrete gravity dam, and if used with earth fill need a separate concrete structure.
An over flow spillway is an improvement up on the free over fall spillway. The essential
difference between the free over fall spillway and the over flow spillway is that in the case the
former the water flowing over the crest of the spill way drops as free jet clearly away from the
downstream face of the spillway, while in the case of later the water is guided smoothly over the
crest of the spillway and is made to glide over the downstream face of the spillway.
6.5 Crest shape of overflow spillway

The shape of the crest or the upper curve of the ogee profile of this spillway is made to conform
closely to the profile of the lower surface of the nape (or lower nape) or sheet of water flowing
over a ventilated sharp crested weir when discharging at head equal to the design head of the
spillway.
At the design head H  H d  the water flowing over the crest of the spillway will remain in
contact with the surface of spillway as it glides over it and optimum discharge will occur.
At a head greater than the design head (H>Hd) the nape trajectory is higher than the crest profile,
and the over flowing water tends to break contact with spill way surface and zone of separation
will be formed in which negative or suction pressure will be produced.
UOG July, 2015

64
6.6 Designing of the crest of ogee spillway

The Ogee spillways were being designed in accordance with the theoretical profile obtained for
the lower nape of a free falling jet. The head over the crest, the inclination of the upstream face
of the spillway, and the height of the spillway above the stream bed are considered in the design
of nape shaped profile of the crest. Several standard ogee shapes have been developed by U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers at their waterways Experimental station (WES). Such shape is known
as WES standard spillways shapes.
The dawn stream profile can be represented by the equation:

n 1
X n  k * Hd *y
Where (X, Y) are the coordinates of profile
H d =the design head.
K and n are constants depending up on the shape of the upstream face.
The values of X and Y are taken as positive towards the downstream and in the down direction
respectively. Hence the equation of downstream profile is applicable only for positive values
from the region of other coordinate.
The profile of the Spillway is reverse S-shaped and the curved profile of the crest section is
continued till it meet tangentially the straight sloping surface of the downstream face of the over
flow dam.
After having plotted most of the profile the Ogee spillway has a smooth gradual reverse
curvature is provided at the bottom of downstream face which turns the flow in to the apron of
stilling basin or in to the spillway discharge channel. Radius of about one-fourth of the spillway
height is satisfactory for this reverse bottom curve.
H
i.e. R  Where H=height of spillway crest above the bed level.
4
UOG July, 2015

65
The location of point of tangency of the dawn stream straight-line sloppy face of the over flow
dam and the curved profile is determined from the stability requirement of the over flow section,
and the type of stilling basin at the toe of Spillway.
The slope of the straight line portion of the downstream face of the over flow dam varies and
between (0.6H: 1V to 0.85H: 1V), S.K. GARG (2005)
The bucket like profile at the downstream end of the dam is also use full for the dissipation
energy and prevention of scour.
6.7 Discharge of over flow spillway

The discharge over an overflow spill way is given by
3
Q  C * Le * H e 2 Where Q=discharge, m 3 /sec
C=Coefficient of discharge.
Le=Effective length of crest of spillway (m).
He=Total head over the crest including that due to the velocity of
approach.
He  Hd  Ha
For high Ogee spillway Ha is very small and H e  H d

Coefficient of discharge, C of over spillway may be between 2.1-2.5 when He<1.33Hd the value
of C is 2.2, S.R. Sahasrabudhe
In the other hand the value depends on the following factors:
a. Depth of approach
b. Heads differing from design head
c. Upstream face slope
d. Downstream apron interference and downstream submergence
e. Shape of ogee profile
UOG July, 2015

66
In the analysis of flood routing from the inflow and out flow rate effective length is selected as:
Le = spillway length = number of gates * width of gate = 12 *16 = 192m
Q peak (Peak out flow) = 5110m3/sec
H d = 5.27m (maximum water level above the crest level of the spillway)
P = 74.73m height of the spillway
 The velocity head (Ha) can be calculated as follows: -
Q
Velocity of approach, Va  ( )
( Le  N * t ) * ( P  H d )
For round nose pier and 90o cut water nosed piers, thickness and the number of piers
was assumed to be 1m and 4 respectively
That is t = 1m, N= 4
3
5110 m
Va  sec  0.33 m
(192  4 * 1) * (74.73  5.27) sec
Head due to velocity of approach Ha
va 0.33
Ha    0.017m
2 g 2 * 9.81
 Checking effect depth of approach

P
 1.33
Hd
74.73
 1.33  14.18  1.33..........OK
5.27
High over flow spillway hence neglect Ha no effect on the value of "C”
UOG July, 2015

67
 check effect of heads differing from the design head

Since the effect of velocity head was neglected as shown that for P> 1.33Hd, the head due
to velocity of approach is negligible and hence the total head of flow is equal to the design
head i.e. Hd= He the coefficient of discharge equal to 2.2.
 Check for effect of downstream apron inference and submergence effect.

The coefficient of discharge is reduced due to submergence when the value of
hd  d
Exceeds the downstream apron is found to have negligible effect on the
He
coefficient of discharge.
He  P 5.27  74.73
  15.18  1.7 So neglect the effect of downstream submergence
Hd 5.27
on the coefficient of discharge.
 Check for effect of length of crest of overflow spillway:

L  Le  2NK P  Ka H e
Where Le = effective length of crest, m
L = net length of crest which is equal to the sum of the clear spans of the gate bays
between piers.
He = total head on crest including velocity head
N = Number of piers
KP = pier contraction coefficient
K a =abutment contraction coefficient
For flow at design head H d , the average value of K P and Ka, for piers and Rounded
abutment which is cut at 90o to the direction of flow, K P = 0.01 and K a = 0.1
respectively.
L  Le  2NK P  Ka H e
= 192 +2 (4* 0.01 + 0.1) 5.27
UOG July, 2015

68
L = 193.48 m, N= 4 in number and t=1 Take L =193.48  194
But length due to thickness of piers = 4* 1m = 4m, then the total length of the spilling crest is
equal to 194 + 4 = 198m
6.8 Downstream profiles

The W.S.E downstream profile for a vertical upstream face is given by equation as
n 1
X n = K* H d *Y
But for the spillway with vertical or optimally vertical
Upstream face, the value of K = 2.00, n = 1.85 and H d = 5.27m
n-1
Hence, X n = k*H d X 1.85 = 2* (5.27) 0.85 * Y
Y = X1.85/8.21 =0.122 X1.85
Before, we determine the vendors coordinated of the d/s profile we shall first determine the
teenager point (x, y)
The d/s slope of the dam is given be 0.85H: 1V
dy 1
Hence =
dx 0.8
dy  X  1 1.85 * X 0.85 1
  
d x  8.32  0.85 8.21 0.8
8.21
X 0.85 
0.8 *1.85
X  7.5m
Y  0.122 X 1.85
Y  0.22(7.5)1.85  5.1m
The curved profile of the downstream portion is determined by the equation Y  0.122 X 1.85 is
confirmed till it meets tangentially, the straight sloping surface at the coordinate x, y  i.e.
(7.5, 5.1) - tangent point (x, y).
UOG July, 2015

69
 The coordinates from x=0 to x = 7.51 are listed out in table below:
Table 4 coordinates (x,y) from x=0 to x=7.51
X Y
0.00 0
0.50 0.03
1.00 0.12
1.50 0.26
2.00 0.44
2.50 0.66
3.00 0.93
3.50 1.24
4.00 1.59
4.50 1.97
5.00 2.40
5.50 2.86
6.00 3.36
6.50 3.89
7.00 4.46
7.50 5.07
7.51 5.09
 Upstream profile
The upstream profile for an ogee spillway, having downstream and upstream slope can be
determined on the basis of its WES profile in terms of the design head H d .
UOG July, 2015

70
 That is for vertical upstream face (assuming it is vertical)

 For H d = 5.27
r1  0.2 * H d  1.05m
r2  0.5 * H d  2.64m
a  0.175 * H d  0.92m
b  0.282 * H d  1.49m
Figure 14 Spillway crest profile
6.9 Energy dissipation

Water flowing over the spillway requires a lot of kinetic energy by the time it reaches the toe of
the spill way .If arrangements are not made to dissipate this huge kinetic energy of water large
scale scour can take place on the downstream side near the toe of the dam and away from it.
These arrangements are known as energy dissipation arrangements or energy dissipaters.
UOG July, 2015

71
In general the kinetic energy of this super critical flow can be dissipated in two ways:
1. By converting the super critical in to sub critical flow by hydraulic jump.
2. By directing the flow of water in to air and then making it fall away from the toe of
the structure .The energy is dissipated by the aeration of the jet and impact of water
on the river bed.
Though some scour will take place, it is too small or too far away from the dam to endanger it.
Bucket type energy dissipater work on this principles.
6.9.1 Design of energy dissipater

The relation between the pre jump (y1) and the post jump (y2) is as follows:
y1 
y2  1  8F1  1
2
2  
v1 2
74.73   y1........(1)
2g
But, Q  5110 m3 sec
Le  192m
Q 5110
q    26.62 m 3 sec/ m
Le 192
q  v1 * y1  v2 * y2
q 26.62
v1        ( 2)
y1 y1
26.62
74.73  2
 y1
y1
(36.12)

2
y1
74.73  y1
1
 36.12 2
y1   
 74.73  y1 
By trial and error y1=0.7

Therefore
UOG July, 2015

72
q 26.62
V1    38.03 m sec
y1 0.7
V1  38.03m / sec and
V1 38.03
Fr1    14.51
gy1 9.81 * 0.7
By applying Hydraulic jump

We can find the sequent depth y 2
on the horizontal apron.
y2 
y1
2

 1  1  8Fr,2
i.e. y2 
0.7
2

 1  1  8(14.51) 2
y 2  13.02m
Figure 15 Ogee spillway
UOG July, 2015

73
When tail water depth " y 2 " is too great for the formation of hydraulic jump (i.e when " y 2 " too
large is compared to " y1 " ) dissipation of the high energy of flow can be affected by the use of
submerged bracket deflector
y1  0.7m
y 2  13.02m
In general, v1  38.03 m sec
Fr1  14.51
3
q  26.62 m
sec/ m
 For desperation of energy, Bucket type energy dissipaters are usually of small size and
more economical than the conventional hydraulic jump stilling basins especially when
the fraud number Fr1 exceeds 10,
 In general, the Bucket type of energy dissipater can also be adopted for all tail water
conditions and are commonly used for dissipation of energy below the overflow spillway.
The bucket type energy dissipaters are usually of the following there types.
1. Solid roller bucket
2. Slotted roller bucket
3. Sky jump bucket
For border hydropower project, solid rolled bucket type is selected because the sequent depth, y2
is less than tail water depth…………..Dr. K.R. Arora.
The radius of bucket is taken as:
R  0.6 P * H d
Where P= the height of the fall from the crest of the spillway to the bucket invert=74.73m
H d  5.27m
R  0.6 74 .73 * 5.27  11 .91m
The bucket lip usually has an exit angle of 45  and the height of the lip is about 0.6 R=0.6*11.91
=7.15m
UOG July, 2015

74
The dimensions of the detail is shown below
Figure 16 Solid roller bucket detail
6.10 Design of bottom outlet /hydraulics of outlet/

Bottom outlet adjacent to the spillway structure at elevation of dead storage level should be
provided. Which has different functions, some of them are:
As an auxiliary spillway, so that it discharge additional surplus water if maximum flood
beyond the capacity of the spillway occurred during the lifetime of the project.
To release water for downstream demand if operation of power fails.
To flash out the sediment, if the level of sediment becomes higher beyond the dead
storage level during the lifetime of the project.
Q  C d A * 2 gH Where C d =0.82… S.K. GARG (2005)
H=NPL-DL=574.73-534.3 = 40.43m
Q
A
c d 2 gH
20500
A  882.64m^ 2
0.82 * 2 * 9.81 * 40.43
 .D 2
A  882.64
4
D  33.62m  34m
Therefore, gated bottom outlet with diameter of 34m is provided at the dead storage level.
UOG July, 2015

75
Chapter 7
7. General layout and conveyance structures
7.1 Intake
The intake structure is situated at the entrance of the canals, tunnels and pipes through which the
flow is diverted from the source such as river or reservoir. It is an essential component of
hydropower schemes and provided as an integral part or in isolation from diversion weir or dam.
The main function of an intake:
 Control of the flow of water into the conveyance system. This is achieved by a gate or a
valve.
 To provide smooth, easy and vortex or turbulence free entry water into the conveyance
system to minimize head loss. This can be achieved through providing bell‫ ־‬mouth
shaped entrance.
 Stopping coarse river-borne trash matters such as boulder, ice and logs of wood from
entering into the conveyance passage. Trash racks at the bell-mouth achieve this function.
 Not allowing heavy sediment loads of the river into the conveyance passage. Special
devices such as silt traps and Silt excluders are used to control and trap the slit.
7.1.1 Types of intake

The type of intake structure depends on the type of power plant as well as its layout. Based on
these intakes are classified as:
 Run-of- River intake
 Canal intake
 Dam intake
 Tower intake
 Shaft intake
 Intakes of special type(Drop intake/French)
UOG July, 2015

76
6.1.2 Selection of intake

The type of intake structure depends up on the type of power and its layout. For Border hydro
power project which has concrete diversion dam. The preferable intake for this dam is Dam
intake.
In order to attain the required discharge capacity the intake must be placed sufficiently below
reservoir operating level and high enough to prevent entry of sediment. It should also be
arranged as high as possible to effect economy in concrete construction and cost of maintenance
of the gate.
For intake on Dam, its arrangement comprises an intake with trash rack, emergence gate at the
entrance for inspection and repair of the conduit, flow regulating gate to regulate the flow
through the turbine and air vent downstream of the flow regulating gate for the following
purpose;
 To nullity vacuum effect which could be created when the penstock is drained after control
gate closure.
 Intake gates operate under condition of balanced pressure on both side of the gate, thus the
conduit is required to be filled with water through a bypass pipe.
7.1.3 Design of bell mouth shape entry

Entry from the intake to the penstock requires transition to reduce head loss due to separation of
flow. A bell mouth entrance is much better and superior to any other type and extra cost involved
in shaping the entrance is usually justified. For circular tunnel the bell mouth shape can be
achieved by an equation given by Dousman. His bell mouth has an elliptical shape. Therefore
equation of the bell mouth can be written as:
4x2+44.4y2=D2 where D is the diameter of Penstock, which is 6m.
UOG July, 2015

77
Table 5 Coordinates points for bell mouth entry

X coordinate Y coordinate
0 0.9005
0.2 0.8984
0.4 0.8924
0.6 0.8823
0.8 0.8678
1 0.8490
Trash rack design

The trash racks already used in intake structures is defined as screens or gratings of steel bars
(sometimes) RCC provided at the entry of the intakes to prevent debris, ice, etc. from entering in
to conduit. It is one of the most important constituent of water intake complex on hydropower
project. They are constructed by welding or bolt and nut connection. The bars are placed in
slanting position at an angle of 500 to 800 with horizontal.
Spacing of bars
Spacing the bars depend on nature and size of debris, types of turbine used in the power house,
its size and speed. For Francis turbine, spacing is equal to the distance between the runner vanes.
But usually spacing ranges from 5cm to 15 cm. Take 10cm for this project.
Cleaning of racks
Manual cleaning can be resorted to when racks are 4 to 5m high. For higher racks with higher
intensity of floating materials, mechanical cleaning is economical. Electrical heating is provided
to prevent formation of ice on the racks. On large project, where much debris is expected,
automatic power-driven racks are used.
Permissible velocity through trash racks

The inlet of trash rack should be sufficient to cover the inlet area which is greater than the area of
the penstock .As the inlet of intake and circular penstock are joined by smooth bell mouth shape.
UOG July, 2015

78
The velocity of flow in the entrance flume should be kept within such limits as will not cause
great loss of head and vibration of the rack and will not call for larger intake and trash rack cross
sections. According to Garg permissible velocity of penstock is from o.6 to 1.6. From Zowski’s
point of view if velocity is greater than 0.9m/s, the rack structures undergo a several vibration
and they may collapse. Due to above reasons and also to avoid vortices and minimize eddy loss,
we take 0.8m/s for Border Hydropower project.
Bar thickness
The thickness of bar should be between 0.6cm and 2.5cm. Take bar thickness of 2cm for this
particular project.
Table 6 unsupported length of bar in cm for velocities (m/se)

velocity in (m/s)
Thickness of bar in
(mm) 0.6 1 1.5 2 3
6 50 42 32 99 24
10 75 60 47 40 35
12 100 80 63 55 45
20 150 115 100 82 65
25 175 145 125 112 88
Length of rack bar

The maximum length of rack bar between lateral supports of stiffness is limited by the vibration
characteristics and velocity through the bar. Based on the curve given by Davis: For Va=0.8 m/s
Bar thicknesses is 20mm and length of the bar in cm will be by interpolation 132.5cm.
Trash rack inclination

The trash rack is usually placed vertically or nearly vertical (00 to 250) from vertical. The angle
of inclination depends on the magnitude of trash, which decides the racking arrangement.
UOG July, 2015

79
Keeping the trash rack inclined is always a better practice. For this particular project, the trash
rack inclination of 200 is taken.
Depth of intake
Designing for a low velocity in to the conduit and increasing submergence of the inlet can help
by preventing the formation of vortices. According to J.B Gordon for the condition of no vortex
at inlets, the necessary-submerged depth will be given by;
1
2
Ys > 0.725V * D
1
2
Ys > 0.725 * 0.8 * 6 Where, Ys is necessary submergence depth
V is velocity of the inlet of the penstock =0.8m/se
D is diameter of the penstock=6m
The minimum required depth of the intake for no formation of vortex is 3m by considering some
factor of safety.
Aeration in intakes
Air vent pipes are provided for the following purposes:
 To admit air when the gate is closed and the water in the conduit recedes down.
 To exhaust air when the penstock is being filled through bye pass lines to balance the
water on the two sides of the gate prior to its being lifted up.
 To control sub pressures downstream of gate at partial opening.
According to G.S. Sarkaria’s formula the diameter of the air vent pipe is given by:
d  0.00578D1.365 Where d=Diameter of air vent pipe in meters

d  0.00578 * 61.365  0.067m D= Diameter of the pressure shaft in meters
Therefore, 67mm vent pipe are provided.
UOG July, 2015

80
Determination of intake loss

An intake loss includes entrance loss, trash rack loss and gate loss.
Entrance loss: This loss occurs due to change in direction of flow at diversion site and loss due
to sudden contraction of the area. Since we have used dam intake, there is no loss due to change
in direction of flow, but only loss due to sudden contraction of the area.
Loss of head due to sudden contraction according to Madan Mohan Das and Mimi Das Saikia
2011:
Vb2
hc  k t Where kt=0.03, for bell mouth entry
2g
V-velocity at inlet=0.8m/s
g- Acceleration due to gravity
Therefore:
(0.03 * 0.82 )
hc   0.001m
2 * 9.81
Trash rack loss
This loss is due to trash racks and is dependent on cross sectional shape of the rack bars and the
angles at which racks are laid. There are numerous expressions available for predicting head loss
across the trash racks.
The widely used KIRSCHMER’S formula is:
t v2
hr  kr ( )4/3 ( a )sin  Where kr=trash rack loss coefficient
b 2g
h r  0.009m kr=2.42, for rectangular cross section
T- Bar thickness (2.0cm)
b- Spacing between bars (10cm)
Va-approaching velocity
Φ- Angle of inclination from the horizontal (700)
hr- Trash rack loss
UOG July, 2015

81
Gate loss: head loss due to gates (at part gate opening) is given by Madan Mohan Das and Mimi
Das Saikia, (2011) as:
2
1  Q 
hg    Where: Q –flow in the gates (103.68m3/s)
2 g  cd * A 
h g  0.067 m A-Area of gates opening (129.6m2)
Cd -Discharge coefficient varies between 0.62 & 0.83(take 0.7)
Bend loss
The bend loss depends up on the bend radius, conduit diameter and the angle of the bend. The
loss is usually expressed by DR.K.R. Arora 2012 as:
v2
hb  kb Where kb-factor varying from 0.2 to 0.1(take 0.2)
2g
h b  0.007m V-velocity at the inlet = 0.8 m/s
H minor  0.001  0.009  0.067  0.007  0.084m
7.2 Penstock
The penstock carries water from the pressure shaft to the turbines within the least loss of head
consistent with the overall economy of the project. There may be pressure conduit or shaft. In
underground pressure power development, these penstocks meet the spiral case, which supply
water to the machine.
Factors that must be considered for choice of material, for penstock are head, topography and
discharge. Various material used are steel, R.C, Asbestos, Cement, PVC, etc. but the following
have to also be considered when deciding to use for. These are required pressure, design life etc.
Steel penstock become the most common type of installation in hydropower development due to
simplicity in fabrication, strength, and has long life etc. Hence considering the above steel
penstock is selected for this particular project.
UOG July, 2015

82
Number of penstock
The number of penstocks used in any particular installation can be single or multiple. The design
should strike for maximum economic solution. If the number of penstock increases the total
weight of steel and the erecting cost also increases. In our project the distance from intake to
power house is short. We use eight penstocks, running to eight units.
Design of penstock
The larger the diameter for a given discharge, smaller will be the head loss and greater will be
the net head available to the turbine, resulting in greater power development. On the other hand,
greater size of penstock would mean less velocity and higher capital investment. We should
choose, therefore, after which would give least cost. According to Madan Mohan Das and Mimi
Das Saikia 2011, the economical velocity of steel penstock falls within 3 to 6m/s.
According to USBR, empirical formula for economic diameter of penstock is:
V  0.125 2gH 
1
2 Where; V=optimum velocity in m/s
H=Maximum working head in m
hnet = NPL - (elevation at end of penstock) - (head loss up to the end of penstock)
Where hnet = the rated head
NPL (normal pool level) =574.73a.m.s.l
Elevation at end of penstock=500m
h f  h fp  h f min or  Where, hf- is head loss up to the end of penstock
hfp - is head loss in the penstock

hf (minor) -minor losses
Conduit loss (hfp): The main loss in the conduit due to friction and this load is estimated by
Darcy Weisback formula:
flv2
hf p  VQ Where, f-friction factor for steel lining =0.01
2 gD A
2 2
fl  Q  fl  4Q 
hf p       l –length of penstock (120m)
2 gD  A  2 gD  D 2 
UOG July, 2015

83
D-diameter of the penstock
h fp  1665.38
D5
Hminor =0.084m (calculated above)
Therefore; hnet = NPL –Hpenstock – hf(up to penstock end)

hnet=574.73-510-(0.084+1665.38/D5)
hnet= 64.646-(1665.38/D5)
 
V  0.125 2 * 9.81 64.646 - 1665.38  D

5
1
2
(1)
Q 4Q
V  2 
4 * 129.6 2 
165.01 2 (2)
A  D  D D
Equating the above two equation (1) and (2) solving for D by trial and error
0.125(2*9.81(64.646-(1665.38/D5)))1/2 = 165.01/D2
 D = 6.02m take 6m commercially available
Check
V  4Q  4 * 129.6 = 4.6 m/s penstock velocity

D 2 62
According to Madan Mohan Das and Mimi Das Saikia, (2011) the economical velocity of steel
penstock falls within 3m/s to 6m/s. The above result, 4.6m/s is in the range.
Head loss in the penstock

flv2 0.01 * 120 * 4.6 2
H fp  hf t    0.216m
2 gD 2 * 9.81 * 6
Total loss H T  h fp   minor loss
HT  0.216  0.084
HT  0.3m
UOG July, 2015

84
H net  N .L.P  H p  H T
H net  74.73m  10m  0.3m
H net  64.43m
Thickness of penstock
Under normal flow, the penstock is subjected to only internal hydrostatic pressure. However,
when the turbine valves or gates at the end are closed suddenly, there is sudden pressure rise,
known as water hammer. The appropriate wall thickness for a penstock is generally a function of
penstock material selected that is steel tensile strength, the diameter of the penstock and the
operating pressure it will experience during its use i.e. the head of water above the penstock and
water hammer pressure during sudden opening and closure of turbine. Thus design head =static
head + water hammer providing a steel penstock, allowable stress (s=150,000KN/m2), joint
efficiency (η=0.95) for weld and assuming thin cylinder thickness.
p*D
t Where, p- total pressure
2 * s *
CV
hw  D- inside diameter of penstock
g
1
k 2
C    t - Thickness of penstock

1
 2.18 * 109 KN m 3  2
C   3
 Vo-velocity in the penstock
 1000 KN m 
C  1476.5 m s C-celerity wave velocity of water
1476.5 * 4.6
hw 
9.81 K- Bulk modulus of water (2.18*109KN/m3)
hw  692.34m
ῤ -density of water (1000KN/m3)
p  (Hnet + (NPL - elevation of intake at the center) + h w ) * 9.81
p  64.43  574.73 - 546.7  692.34* 9.81  7699 KN

m3
UOG July, 2015

85
p*D
Finally! t 
2 * s *
7699 * 6
t  166mm
2 * 150000 * 0.95
Adding 3mm for allowance corrosion the required thickness would be 165mm, which is
commercially available.
Check whether the assumed thickness is thin cylinder or not.

D
  20
t
6000
  36.36  20...........ok!
165
7.3 Diversion works

7.3.1 General
Before the actual construction of a dam can start in a river channel, the water of the river channel
must be temporarily diverted. The site should be dry during the construction period.
7.3.2 Diversion requirements

The selection of the most appropriate scheme for handling the flow of the stream during
construction is important to secure the economy in the cost of the diversion dam. The required
area for diversion dam should satisfy the following criteria:
 The work in progress should be protected from flood during construction period.
 A safe working should be maintained during construction.
 The economy in the cost of the diversion dam should be secured.
 The cost between the diversion facilities and the amount of risk should be compromised.
Therefore, the serious potential flood damage to work in progress is minimized at minimum of
expense during diversion work.
UOG July, 2015

86
7.3.3 Selection of diversion flood

In selecting the flood to be used in the diversion design, consideration should give to the
following points:
 The period of construction.
 The cost of possible damage to work completed or still under construction if it is flooded.
 The cost of delay to completion of the work, including the cost of forcing the contractor’s
equipment to remain idle whiles the flood damage being repaired.
 The safety of workmen and possibly the safety of downstream inhabitants in case of
failure diversion works resulted due to unexpected flooding.
Usually, it is not economically feasible to plan on diverting the largest flood that has occurred or
may be expected to occur at the site, and consequently some lesser requirements must be decided
upon.
7.3.4 Estimation of design flood

From the previous hydrological analysis in (chapter two) .The design flood of 20 years return
period is chosen for the design of cofferdam.
Then the maximum design flood (Qmax) for this year is
Qmax= 12663.018m/s @T=20years
n
 1
R  1  1  P   1  1  
n
Where, n is construction period
 T
6
 1 
R  1  1    26.5% R is risk
 20 
T is return period
Therefore, the diversion works is designed for the return period of 20 years and acceptable risk
of 26.5%
UOG July, 2015

87
7.3.5 Diversion tunnel

Cofferdam protects the dam’s construction site; the u/s dam guides the water away from the
valley into the diversion tunnel. The diversion tunnel takes off water from u/s of the cofferdam in
to the d/s of the dam and joins the river flow without any effect in the dam site.
The cross-sectional geometry and the layout are designed for their final purpose. Either, the
tunnel can be closed after construction, or it can be connected to a bottom outlet, or withdrawal
structure or a water intake.
 The diversion tunnel consist of three major portions

o The inlet
o The tunnel and
o The out let
 In case of diversion tunnels, design velocity of the order of 30 m/sec has been permitted.
R.S. VARSHNEY (2001).
 Using circular tunnel, which is geometrically stable, the area of the tunnel is calculated as
follows:
Qd=12663.018 m3/se
Vd=30 m2/se
Area of tunnel
A  Qd  12663.02
2V 2  30
A  211.05m 2
D 2 4A
A D  16.40m
4 
7.3.6 Coffer dam design

A cofferdam is temporary dam or barrier used to divert the stream flows and enclose the area dry
during constriction. For the construction of coffer dam, it is better to use the locally available
materials. The design of an adequate cofferdam involves the problem of construction economics.
UOG July, 2015

88
The height at which cofferdam should be constructed may involve an economic study of
cofferdam height versus diversion work capacity, including diversion of design flood. These
small dams are also used to raise the river water level, in order to feed an off- taking tunnel and
some other conveyance system. Therefore, one diversion tunnel having 16.40m diameter is
provided for diversion tunnel. For the design of the coffer dam, the height of the coffer dam is
taken as sum of the diameter of the tunnel and some allowance for free board. i.e.
H  16.40  2.5(Free board)
H  19m
Hence the height of the coffer dam is equal to 19.00 m Therefore, one diversion tunnel having
16.40m diameter is provided for diversion tunnel.
 Total height of the coffer dam will be=19.00m
 Freeboard: Freeboard or minimum free board is the vertical distance between the maximum
reservoir level and top of the dam. USBR recommendation for freeboard in rock fill dam that are
uncontrolled (free) spillway of any height is between 2 and 3 meter.
.
 Width: for small dams, the top width is generally governed by minimum roadway width
requirements.
 The top width (T) of the cofferdam for dams longer than 30m
T  0.55 Hto 0.2H Where H-is the height of the dam
. T  0.2 *19  3.8m  4m
 U/s and d/s slopes (Recommended side slope by Terzaghi) since the material at the dam site
is composed of 2m sand in depth and generous rock, u/s side slope 1V:3H and d/s side slope
1V:2.5H is taken for the design.
Phreatic line
Phreatic line the line within the dam section below which there are positive hydrostatic in the
dam. The hydrostatic pressure on the phreatic line is equal to the atmospheric pressure and hence
equal to zero.
UOG July, 2015

89
Essential to determine the position of the phreatic line is the following reasons.
1. It gives us a divide line between the dray and moist or submerged soil. The soil above the
seepage line shall be taken as submerge for computation of shear strength soil.
2. It represents the top steam line and hence helps us in drawing the flow net.
3. The seepage line determination helps us to ensure that it does not cut the downstream
face of the dam. This is extremely necessary for preventing or sloughing of the dam.
The coordinates of any point (x, y) on phreatic line equation
X2  Y 2  X  s For side slope 1V:2.5H
X  16.4 tan 1 2.5  41m....whereY  16.4m

412  16.4 2  41  s
s  3.2m
Y 2  X 2  s 2  2 Xs  X 2
Y  2 Xs  s 2
At x=0 Y  2 * 41 * 3.2  3.2 2  3.2m so S=y=3.2m
Table 7 coordinates of pheratic line for different values x and y (Seepage line)
x Y=(2XS + S2)
0 3.20
5 6.50
10 8.61
15 10.31
20 11.83
25 13.12
30 14.22
35 15.33
40 16.32
41 16.49
UOG July, 2015

90
Figure 17 Coffer dam layout
Where, h1 is the point at which the vertical line through u/s extremities intersect phreatic line
measured from the base of the dam.
h2 is the point at which the vertical line through d/s extremities intersect phreatic line
measured from the base of the dam.
From phreatic line graph

h1=12.80
h2=10.78
Stability analysis requirements of the coffer dam

The cofferdam must be in overall equilibrium. It should not move in any direction .The
downstream and upstream slope stability has to also be maintained in the safest side or limit. It
includes:
i. Overall stability of the cofferdam
ii. D/s slop stability
iii. u/s slope stability
UOG July, 2015

91
Approximated values for checking the stability of the rock fill dam-Garg (2001)
 Saturated unit weigh,  sat  12 KN m 3
 Angle of friction   25 0
 Unit cohesion C  24 KN m2
 Dry unit weight  dry  18 KN m 3
I. over all stability of the coffer dam section as a whole

Resistance force
Fs 
sliding force
Total area of dam section
T  B 
A  * Y Where, Y= depth 0f water level
 2 
T= bottom width of dam
B= tope width of dam
 108.95  4 
A  * 16.40  1073.53m
2
 2 
The area above the seepage line is measured approximately A1= 300m2(from graph)
The area bellow seepage line is
A2  At  A1
A2  1073.53m 2  300m 2
A2  773.46m 2
Weight of dry portion of dam is

 300m 2 * 1 * 18 KN
m3

 5400KN
UOG July, 2015

92
Weight of saturated portion of dam

 773.53m 2 * 1 * 12 KN
m3

 9282.22 KN
WT  5400KN  9282.22 KN
WT  14682.22 KN
Shear resistance of the dam at the base

Re d  C  WT tan  Where C -total cohesive strength of soil at the base of the dam
C  B * C *1
C  109 * 24 * 1  2616.32 KN
Re d  2616.32 KN  14682.23 tan 25

Re d  9462.33KN
Horizontal pressure of water

1 1
Pd   w h 2  9.81 * 16.4
2 2 Pd= ϒwh2=1/2*9.81(16.4)=1319.25KN
Pd  1319.25KN
Re d 9462.33
Fs    6.67  2......................................safe
Pd 1319.25
UOG July, 2015

93
II. U/stream slope stability

Horizontal force acting up on u/s (Fhu)
Fhu=horizontal force acting on ΔADE
 h2   1 
Fhd    sat
 tan 450     w h22 
 2  2 2 
 16.4 2  25  1 
Fhd  12 * tan 450    * 9.81 * 12.8 2 
 2  2  2 
Fhd  1178.68KN
Shear resistance of Reu of upstream slope portion of dam developed at the base of ΔDE
Re u  C  Wt tan 
 1 
Re u  (C * B * 1)    sat * * Bu * h  tan  ........where, Bu  57.23m
 2 
Re u  (24 *1* 57.23)  (0.5 *12 *19) tan 25
Re u  4398.07KN
Re u 4398.07
Fs    3.73  2.........................................................safe
Fhu 1178.68
III. Downstream Slope Stability

Total horizontal force Fhd acting on the portion of downstream ΔBFC h2=10.8m
 h 2   1 
Fhd    2 tan 2    w h22  Where ϒ2 =the weighted density of ΔBFC
 2 2 2 
  sat * h2   dry (h  h2 
 2   
 h 
 12 * 10.8  18(19  10.8 
2   
 19 
 2  14.59 KN m 3
UOG July, 2015

94
 19 2  25  1 
Fhd  14.59 * tan 2   * 9.81 * 10.8 2 
 2  2  2 
Fhd  1640.37 KN
The area of the dry soil with in the ΔBFC above seepage line assume 250m2(from graph)
1
Total area of ABFC  * 19 * 47.5  451.25m 2
2
Area of submerged soil A2
A2  451.25m2  250m2  201.25m2
Red=C+Wtanυ
Re d  (C * B * 1)  ( dry A1   sat A2 ) tan 
Re d  (24 * 47.53 *1)  (18 * 250  12 * 201.25  4364.52KN

Re d 4364.52 KN
Fs    2.66  2..................................................safe
Fhd 1640.37 KN
 Therefore, the cofferdam is stable by using approximate method.
UOG July, 2015

95
Chapter 8
8. Preliminary power assessment and power house layout
8.1 General
Hydropower is extracted from the natural potential of usable water resources. The
Transformation of the pressure and kinetic energy of water in to more easily usable form of
electrical energy is takes place in the power house. The plant of hydropower includes different
structures such as dams, intakes, conveyance structure, penstock, power house, surge tank, draft
tube and tail race.
Turbines are machines which convert hydraulic energy to mechanical energy (shaft power).The
shaft power developed is used in running electricity generators which are directly coupled to the
shaft of the turbine, thus producing electrical power.
8.2 Gross head (Hg)

The gross head is the maximum available vertical fallen in the water, from the upstream level to
the downstream level. The actual head seen by the turbine will be slightly less than the gross
head due to losses incurred when transferring the water in to and away from the machine.
Hg=NPL-TWL where NPL= normal pool level
Hg=574.73-514 TWL =tail water level
=60.73m
8.3 Estimation of net head (HN)

The net head is the available head to drive the turbine and calculated as the gross head minus the
sum of all the losses arising from trash rack, tunnel friction, bends, transition etc.
Therefore for Border hydropower project;
It is the head available for power generation and it is the difference between the gross head and
the total loss.
Hnet = Hg- hf
= 60.73-0.3
= 60.43m
UOG July, 2015

96
8.4 Power house planning

The basic requirement of the powerhouse is the functional utility and aesthetic requirements.
Planning the power house should be harmonious with the surrounding powerhouse of
hydropower maybe:
 Surface powerhouse
 Underground powerhouse
Even though our site is laid on mountainous area, we still have sufficient space to construct
power house on the surface.
8.4.1 Firm power and installed capacity

Firm power is the net amount of power which is continuously available from a plant without any
break on firm or on guaranteed basis is known as firm power. This power should be available
under the most adverse hydraulic conditions. The consumer can always be sure of getting this
power. The excess power available over the firm power during the off-peak hours or during
monsoon etc is kwon as secondary power.
 µ = theoretical efficiency(0.90 to 0.94) taking the average 0.92 for francis turbine ( p.
novak,1996)
P  o *  * Q * H Where H = the net head

teking o  (0.90to0.94) Ɣ= specific speed of water
Q = the volume flow rate passing through the turbine.
P= 0.92*9810*1040.5*60.43
p=567.48 MW
Load factor: - is the ratio of the average load over a certain period to the peak load during the
same period. A high load factor is indicative of the better utilization of the installed capacity and
consequently the unit generating cost is less and vice versa.
Load factor = average load/maximum load
UOG July, 2015

97
Installed capacity: refers to the full capacity of the power plant. The installed capacity can be
determined by multiplying the unit weight of water, net head (H), over all efficient and
maximum discharge (Qmax).
P   o *  * Qmax * H
But Pfirm / Pinst = power factor, according to Sharma load factor can be taken within the range (0.4
– 0.6) for developing countries like Ethiopia, so take 0.48
Pinst= Pfirm/ power factor
= 567.48MW/0.48
Pinst = 1182.25MW
8.4.2 Determination of number of units

Normally, it is not effective to have minimum number of unit at a given installation. However,
multiple units may be necessarily to make the most efficient use of water where flow variation is
high and length of penstock is short. Since we have 8 penstocks with 120m long, we select 8
numbers of units.
8.4.3 Classifications of turbine

Generally we can classify turbines in to two major categories namely:
 Impulse turbine
 Reaction turbine
Impulse turbine
In such type of turbines the potential energy of the flowing water is converted in to kinetic
energy by a means of nozzle through which high impinge on bucket fixed to the number of
turbines and imparts impulse.
UOG July, 2015

98
Reaction turbine
In this types of turbines the water enters the turbine in circumferential direction into the scroll
case and enter into the through a series of guide vanes called wicket gates. The available energy
partly converted to kinetic energy and substantial magnitude remains in the form of pressure
energy. Examples of reaction turbine are Francis, Kaplan, propeller etc.
8.4.4 Selection of turbine

The selection of the best turbine for any particular hydro sites depends on the head available, the
power required to develop and the specific speed of the turbine. The various considerations in the
selection of type of units are:
1. Head: maximum net head acting on turbine is an important consideration in the selection
of type of turbine for a power plant.
 For heads less than 60m (propeller)
 For heads 26-450 Francis and
 For heads, more 250m pelton turbines are selected.
2. Specific speed: it is defined as the speed at which a geometrically similar runner would
rotate if it were so proportional that it would develop 1 KW when operating under a head
of 1m.
 Low specific speed turbine (11-43) pelton.
 Medium specific speed turbine (57 -450) Francis
 High specific speed turbine ( 230-860) Kaplan
3. Efficiency: the turbine efficiency varies with power output and head. Francis and
propeller turbines have high fall of efficiency in comparison to pelton and Kaplan.
4. Load: the turbine selection is also influenced by the variability of load. The type of
turbines dictates minimum load up to which turbines may be continuously operated
without any cavitation and vibration.
5. Cavitation’s: cavitation is an important consideration in the selection of turbine for the
given head and specific speed. It is an account of capitations limit that high-speed turbine
are not used for high heads, but low speed turbines can work under high heads. In general
cavitation coefficient for Francis turbines is much less than that for Kaplan turbines.
UOG July, 2015

99
6. Overall cost: it includes initial cost and running cost. As much as possible it should be
adopted minimum overall cost turbine unit.
 For this project, considering all the above parameters and using the performance curves,
Francis turbine is selected.
8.4.5 Performance of turbine

A. Specific speed
Specific speed is a parameter used in connection with turbine design which represents the turbine
characteristics. It is defined as a speed at which geometrically similar runner would rotate if it
were so proportioned that it would develop 1 Kw when operating under a head of 1m. Since it
includes the three parameters speed, power and heads it is an important parameter for turbines.
It is given using the equation.
N P
Ns  Where Ns= specific speed
H 1.25
P= power developed (Kw)
N= rotational speed (rpm)
H= effective head (m)
B. Synchronous speed
It is the speed of the turbine corresponding to generator speed or some multiple of the speed of
the generator. It depends on the way that the generator is coupled with the generator.
120 f
N Where, ƒ=frequency Hz (ƒ=50Hz)
p
Np = number of poles in even number
The speed of a turbine is an important parameter of design. The higher the speed, the smaller the
diameter of the turbine runner and the cheaper the generator coupled to the turbine. High speed;
however, makes a turbine more susceptible to cavitation.
UOG July, 2015

100
C. Peripheral Velocity
It is the ratio of the peripheral speed of the bucket or vanes at the minimal diameter, D to the
theoretical velocity of water under the effective head H acting on the turbine.
It is given by:
DN
 Where D= diameter of the turbine
60 2 gh
H= net head in (m)

N=turbine speed (rpm)
8.4.6 Determination of turbine parameters

A. Specific speed
There are different empirical formulas which are used to calculate specific speed:
I. R.W. Abett’s formula Hnet = 60.43m
1700 1700
Ns    218.69 , For Hnet =60.43m
H 60.43
II, P.C. Nag and K. Modhvan’s formula
1640
Ns   210.97
H
III, Moody formula
6780
Ns   83.6  180.21
H  9.75
IV, Norwegian turbine factory
5000
Ns   283.20
H 0.7
V. T.L white‘s formula
1540
Ns   198.10
H
 Taking the average of the above values
Ns = 218.23 ≈ 219
UOG July, 2015

101
B. Turbine speed
N s (H 5 ) 1.25
N 4 = 219 * (60.43 )
P1 147.78 *103
N = 95.98 rpm, take N=96rpm
C. Synchronous speed
The selection of number of poles is done on the effect of head variation. According to
DONALD if the head is expected to vary less than 10% from the design head, numbers of
poles are taken as lower multiple of 4.
If variation is >10% then the higher multiple of 4 poles is adopted giving lesser speed. The
number of poles should be even number so as to have proper magnetic field. However as per
latest trends the numbers of poles are used as multiple of 4 for a better dispersion of magnetic
flux through some standard generators having multiple of 2 poles only.
120 f
N Frequencies (f) (50-60) take 50Hz
NP
120 * 50
NP = N P  =62.5 Take Np= 64 which are divisible by 4 for H<200m=> Np= 64
N
120 * 50
N = 94rpm
64
SO, the new specific speed
N* P
Ns  1634.69/15 = 108.93 MW
H 5/ 4
94 * 147780
Ns   214rpm
60.435 / 4
Threrefore Ns = 214rpm and N=94rpm
The number of units can be obtained as:
UOG July, 2015

102
2 2
 N * H 54   214 * 60.435 4 
P s     147.13MW
 N   94 
   
1182.25
Therefore Number of unit   8.035  8unit
147.13
D. Determination of peripheral co-efficient 

1. Kruger’s formula (for Francis turbine)
 = 0.0197*Ns2/3+ 0.09 = 0.79
2. P.C Nag and K. Modhvan’s formula for Fancies turbine
  0.036 * Ns 7 / 12
  0.82
3. D.Zonobelti’s formula
Ns
  0.656   0.74
2500
Taking the average of the above three values   0.78
The table below shows various values of , N s , H and efficiency (  ) for the three main types of
turbines.
Table 8 Types of Runner and Its Specification
Types of runner  Ns H (m) Efficiency (  )
Pelton 0.43-0.48 8-17 85-90

17 > 250 90
17-30 90-82
Francis 0.6-0.9 40-130 90-94
130-350 25-450 94
350-452 94-93
Propeller 1.4-2 380-600 <60 94
600-902 94-85
UOG July, 2015

103
Based on the above parameters, operation head of 60.43m, generating coefficient 0.78,
generating power of 147.78Mw and the turbine speed of 94rpm makes Francis turbine suitable
for this project.
E. Run away speed

It is the highest speed at maximum head with wicket gates fully open. This limiting speed under
no load condition with maximum flow rate must be considered for the safe design of the various
rotating components of the turbine generator unit.
The following formula used to determine proportion run away speed as compared to normal
speed.
H max 12
U.S.B.R. Formula Nr  K n .N ( )
Hd
Where
K n  (0.1475N s  145)in % age
 (0.1475 * 275  145)
 176.57%
H max  H gross  60.73m
H d  H net  60.43m
N  94rpm
0.5
 60.73 
N r  (176.57 / 100) * 94 *  
 60.43 
N r  166.38rpm
Hence, the nearest commercially available value is taken.
i.e. N r  180rpm
F.Runner discharge diameter

For the approximate calculation of runner diameter, the following empirical formula (Massonyi,
1988) be used
UOG July, 2015

104
 1

D  7.1Q 2   4.3m
 N  100 13 H 14 
 s 
Where H=60.43 (net head)
Ns=214
Q=130.06m3/se
Therefore take commercially available D = 5m
G. Dimension of the scroll case (spiral casing)

A scroll case is the conduit directing the water from the intake or penstock to the runner in
reaction-type turbine installation. A spiral shaped scroll case of the correct geometry ensures
even distribution of water around the periphery of the runner with in the minimum possible eddy
formation. The shape and internal dimension are closely related to the design of the turbine.
Whether the spiral case should be concrete or steel would depend up on the head. Generally, for
low heads, concrete scroll case will be used and for high head steel scroll case is recommended.
Since the Border project has high head, steel scroll case is selected.
V= 844Ns-0.4423= 844(214) -0.4423=78.63m/se
Recommended dimension for Francis turbine with steel scroll casings (full spiral have
320<ɸ<3400and for medium and high head installation).
 A = (2.05D - 1.45D) = 3m
 B = 1.6D = 8m
 C = 1.45D = 7.25m
 D = 1.25D = 6.25m
 E = 1.85D = 9.25m
 F = D = 5m
 G = 1.5D = 7.5m
 H = 2.05D = 10.25m
 I = 4.2D = 21m
UOG July, 2015

105
Figure 18 Scroll case (spiral casing) detail
H. Draft tube
The draft tube is a conduit discharging water from the runner to the tailrace, and has two fold
purposes:
 To recover as much as possible of the velocity energy of water leaving the runner, thus
increasing the dynamic draft head.
 To utilize the vertical distance between the turbine exit and the tail water level, called
static draft head.
 The most common draft tube is the elbow type, which minimizes the depth of the sub
structure compared with the vertical type. It also enables the utilization of the static head
between the bottom of the runner and the tail race when runner is placed above the tail
water and, the dynamic head in the water at the turbine exit due to high velocity of flow.
UOG July, 2015

106
The elbow type draft tube is selected for this project because of the following advantages:
i) Minimize the required depth of excavation.
ii) Direct the flow in the direction of the water flow
iii) Allow the provision of gate at the out let of the tube, which facilitates the dewatering of
the turbine for repairs, if necessary.
I. Dimensions of elbow type draft tube

Recommended dimension of an elbow type draft tube (Masonyi, 1988):
 J = D = 5m
 K = 4.6D = 23m
 L = 1.2D = 6m
 M = r1 = 0.7D = 3.5
 N = r2 = D = 5m
 O = 2D = 10m
 P = 0.6D = 3m
 Q = 0.25D = 1.25m
 R = 3.1D = 15.5m
 S = 1.4D = 7m
 T = 3D = 15m
 U = 1.3D = 6.5m
 V = 1.3D = 6.5m
 W = 0.4D = 2m
 X = 1.6D = 8m
3
Wt  0.05 * P  0.05 * 147.78 * 10  950.52tone
H 60.43
UOG July, 2015

107
Spiral case Francis turbine

1 1
P 3  147.78 * 10 3
3
D s  0.111   0.111   1.3m
N  94 
Figure 19 Draft tube detail
8.4.7 Electrical and mechanical equipment

8.4.7.1 General
There is obviously a great deal of mechanical and electrical equipment in a hydropower stations.
The major of these can be listed as below.
 Electrical
UOG July, 2015

108
i) Generator
ii) Exciter and voltage regulators
iii) Transformer
iv) Control room equipment including switch
 Mechanical
i) Shaft, bearings, coup lings, etc for the generator
ii) The oil circuits and pumps
iii) Compressors and pumps
iv) Cranes and other lifting equipment
Besides the above auxiliary equipment, water supply and drainage are also needed for the power
house lighting.
8.4.7.2 Generator
The generator must have vertical configuration, protection against run away speed are to be
provided. This machine should be capable of supplying heavy line charging current the
hydroelectric power plant is located at a considerable distance from the load end.
The parameter of the generator are designed as below

Weight of Generator
Wg  g K / N  85 Where g=coefficient that varies between 20&32, taking 25
 184725  p( kN ) 147780
= Wg   25   85 K   184725
 94  0.8 0.8
= 1023.25 tone
Dimensions of the generator component

Using J.J Dalton formula diameter of generator is calculated as:
Dg  0.11N p0.466 * K 0.233 Where K=Power
Dg  0.11* 640.466 *1847250.233 Np=number of poles
UOG July, 2015

109
Dg=12.88m take Dg=13m
J.H Walker has given elaborate curve and relation to determine the generator diameter. If Dg is
the gap diameter in meter (there is gap between poles and stator and the diameter being at the
end of the gap.
Np  32.5 
D' g  *  K
62  P 
64  32.5 
D' g  *  7 Where; K = constant varies from 5 to 9
62  147780 
Taking K = 7,
D’g =7.31m
Diameter of frame in meter
 2.1 
Df  Dg *   1
 Np 
 2.1 
Df  13 *   1
 64 
= 13.42m
The generator pit in diameter
Dp  D f  2
D p  13.42  2
D p  15.42m
Total height of the generator

 Dg 
Hg  Ks *    2.3
 Np 
 13 
Hg  10 *    2.3 Where; Ks= constant 5.5 to 12.75
 64 
Hg=4.33m Taking Ks=10
Take Hg=4.5m
UOG July, 2015

110
Hence the generator has

Height = 4.5m
Weight = 1023.25tone
Diameter = 13m
Pit diameter = 15.42m
Gap-diameter = 7.31m
Frame diameter =13.42m
8.4.8 Power house structure

A hydro power station structure can be conveniently classified as:
1.Sub-structure
2.Intermediate structure
3.Super structure
1. The sub-structure of the power house is the part of the structure situated below the
turbine level. This includes draft tube, tail water channel and other natural drainage pipes
of waste water from the powerhouse.
2. The intermediate structure extends from the top of the draft tube to the top of the
generator foundation. The turbine including its casing, galleries for the auxiliary
machines and the governor servo – motor system are housed in this part.
3. The super- structure of the powerhouse is the portion extending from the generator floor,
up to the roof. It consists of the generator and governors, control room, the exciters and
the auxiliary equipment.
UOG July, 2015

111
Dimensioning of power house

The three essential constituents of powerhouse are unit bay or machine hall, erection bay and
control bay.
A. Unit spacing: unit spacing can be determined using the following empirical formulas
1) E.Mosony’s formula
 N 
 5.5  S  * D3
Unit spacing=  100  Ns and D3 which is calculated
 16.8m
where D3=D when Ns>200rpm…Mosonyi, 1987.
2) J.J. Donald’s formula

Unit spacing = 3.5 to 6D3 take 4 D3
= 4D 3
= 25m
3) N.Venkata Rows formula

Unit spacing =3.8to5D 3
=4.2D 3
=21m
Taking the maximum value, unit spacing=25m
The size of the erector bay is usually governed by the size of the generator. Normally, in the case
of surface power house, the width of the erector bay is equal to the machine hall width and the
length equals that of one operating bay or center to center distance of two adjacent units.
B) Machine hall:-the dimension of the machine hall depends on the number and size of machine
and the type of arrangement.
UOG July, 2015

112
For Border hydropower project vertical setting is preferable, because this type of setting is better
for multiple units.
 Length:-the length of the machine hall depends on the number of units and the size of
machine. Knowing the number of machine, the total length of the machine hall can be
worked out. The additional bay for the erection and loading can be one unit length.
Standard layout indicates a distance of 4.5 to 5.0D, where D is the turbine outlet
diameter.
The dimension between center to center of units is:
L  (4.8 * 5)  2.5m (for clearance)
L  26.5m
 The total length of the machine hall
 8unit * 26.5
 212m
 Width –the width of the machine hall determined by the size and clearance spacing
between the walls needs as a gangway.
i. For first approximation the width of the power house can be presumed to be at
least equal to the center to center distance of the machine.
ii. According to USBR the width of power house can be calculated as

W = D + E + 1.85D3
W = 9.25 + 6.25 + 1.85 * 5
= 24.75 25m
 Height: - the height of the machine hall is fixed by the head room requirement. The hall
must have a height which will enable the crane to lift the rotor of the generator or the
runner of the turbine clear of the floor without any abstraction.
To this clearance, space is to be added the depth of crane girder, and the head room for
the operating cabin.
UOG July, 2015

113
H= height of generator + clearance (3m) + allowance for the movement of crane (2m) +
allowance for crane girder (4.5m)
From the previous height of generator
Hg= 4.5m
H = 4.5 + 3 + 2 + 4.5 = 14.0m
Therefore, the site of cavern will be
L=212m, W=25m, H=14m
 ERECTION BAY
This space where the heavy vehicles can be loaded and unloaded, the size of the loading
bay should be sufficient to receive the large parts like the rotor and the runner. The
loading bay floor will be having a width at least equal to the distance between the
machine center lines.
 CONTROL BAY
Control bay is house of the main control and other equipment. It may be adjacent to the
unit bay as in most of the power houses. It sends instructions to the operations bay from
where the operation control is achieved.
 SERVICE CRANES
The cranes should be designed such a capacity as to be able to lift the heaviest parts of
the machine. Usually such heavy components are the generator, rotor and turbine runner.
 CABLES AND BUS BARS

These are placed in cable ducts made in the floor of the generator or placed in bus
galleries (cable galleries) below the floor. High voltage and low voltage cable should be
carried separately.
UOG July, 2015

114
8.4.9 Cavitation and turbine setting

Cavitation cause vibration and reduction in efficiency and it is certainly undesirable. Cavitation
may be avoided by suitable design installation and operation in such a way that the pressure
within the units is the vapor pressure of water.
Ha  Hv  Ys
c 
H
For Francis turbine
2
 Ns 
c  0.0432  ………………..NOVAK
 100 
2
 214 
 0.0432 
 100 
=0.2
According to Thomas’s formula
Ys  Ha  Hv  c * H Hb= Ha-Hv =10.1………….NOVAK
 10.1  0.2 * 60.43
=-1.9m
Therefore, the turbine is set 1.9m below the tail race level for proper installation.
UOG July, 2015

115
Chapter 9
9. Environmental impact assessment
9.1 General
Hydropower projects that are intended to produce electric energy, may cause irreversible
environmental changes over a wide geographic area and thus have a potential for significant
impacts. The area of influence of the project extends from the upper limits of the catchments to
far downstream. Therefore hydropower project such as Border hydropower are designed to
enhance economic development and bring a better standard of life to people due consideration
should be given to their adverse environmental and social effects. This can be done through
environmental impact assessment, which is a management tool for officials, and manager who
take decision about important development project.
The EIA not only predicts potential problems but also identifies measures to minimize the
problems and out lines ways to improve the project suitability for its proposed environment.
The aim of environmental impact assessments is:
1. To understand the likely environmental consequences of new developments.
2. To understand the amplification of proposed interventions.
3. To identify measures by which the impacts can be mitigated.
4. To present the results in such a way that they can provide answers needed by
stakeholders.
Generally, EIA can be described in short as an instrument used to identify, predict and assess the
environmental consequences of a proposed major development project. Moreover, EIA is used to
plan appropriate measures to reduce adverse effects.
UOG July, 2015

116
9.2 Impacts on physical environment

The implementation of Hydropower project affects some of environmental conditions such as:
I) Land escapes impact
Due to the increment of civilization, most rural countries loss a considerable amount of land,
which have a long-term historical importance to the public. Most the component of small
hydroelectric plant such as penstock, canal, powerhouse, spillway, intake, tailrace, transmission,
and distribution lines have a capacity to alter the visual impact of the site by introducing,
construction forms, colures, lines, and textures etc.
II) Increase risk of erosion

Every hydraulic structure projects will eradicate the natural vegetation and top soil particularly
on the steeper slopes increasing the potential for erosion. The Implementation of the proposed
small hydropower project plant will require construction of access roads to the weir site and
powerhouse. Roads are important contributor to soil erosion, primarily because they concentrate
and distribute runoff as channel flow rather than a uniform over land or subsurface flow.
9.3 Impacts on hydrology

Hydropower projects have little impact on the total available water but some detrimental effect
on the distribution of water in terms of space and time. This has a significant effect on aquatic
resource, recession agriculture wild life movements and other human activities downstream of
the scheme. All these and other effects are brought about through the reduction and flood
modification i.e. alteration to the liver regime.
9.4 Impact on water quality

Hydropower projects usually yield high sediments during construction and low sediment rating
during operation phases. It also modifies the natural river hydrographs through of weir and
creation of reservoirs and since the release of water is usually dictated by power demand cycles.
All these changes well definitely deterioration and physical changes can also result in chemical
impact to the river system, like inclination of trees and other vegetation may lead to increase in
nitrate and phosphate imputes that would initiate eutrophication (depletion of oxygen).
UOG July, 2015

117
9.5 Impact of air quality

Air pollution is common during construction phase. Dust pollution caused by frequent movement
of the construction vehicles and machineries coupled with wind effects suspended particles are
the cause for many diseases. In addition to dust, exhaust fumes or emissions released by diesel
operating equipment cause air pollution. But it is very little because the duration of the
construction is very short.
9.6 Noise pollution and vibration effect

The noise and vibration that are produced during construction cause many problems on human
health like hearing loss. But it is not that much significant to our project.
9.7 Impacts on biological environment

 On terrestrial ecology
Border hydropower project cause loss of natural vegetation available in that site due to
construction of the weir, access roads, powerhouse, head race canal and forebay etc. In
addition, Operation of quarries for selected materials, construction equipment and disposal of
wastes generated from canal excavation and weir foundation.
 Impact on aquatic ecology

The activities at the coffer dam and powerhouse site will disturb and probably displace the
Population, large aquatic animals particularly crocodiles and fish in these localities.
 Impact on socio-economic environment

During the construction of hydraulic structures, lots of activities such as undesirable noises,
air pollution due to the vehicle and machineries and some others should be properly
considered and adequately responded by the design and construction engineers. In addition, it
affects the flora and fauna, causes soil and water pollution and health problem.
UOG July, 2015

118
 Increased risk disease

During construction period there will be job opportunities attracting labor force from outside
the area. This new influx will change the existing population. There will be exposure of
workers and their families to locally endemic diseases and sexually transmitted diseases.
9.8 Potential positive impacts

 Generation of electric power
 Flood control
 Infrastructure development and mitigation benefits
 Employment opportunities
 Avoidance of CO2 Emission
9.9 Negative impact

The Border project area is mainly characterized by open savannah and woodland with low
population density. The negative impacts caused due to project construction are:
o Population displacement
o Loss of natural woodland
o Loss of wild life habitat
Table 9 Summary of environmental impact of Border hydropower project

Principal benefits Negative impacts Mitigation measures
Power generation , major Involuntary resettlement Resettlement and
national energy benefit and development program
increase in foreign exchange
earning
Employment opportunity Loss of wildlife habitat and New reservoir wetland
wildlife and management of
environmental offsets
New infrastructures ( Roads, Loss and destruction of Development of reservoir
Bridge) natural resources fisheries and reforestation
UOG July, 2015

119
Extension of rural electrification

Uplift of energy at roseires, River morphology changes River training works
sennar and Merowe (For Sudan)
Navigation Higher Blue Nile level in dry Facilitate river crossing
season for pedestrian and
livestock or compensation
Reduction in health problems, Reduction in flooding Conversion of recession
urban flooding, property agriculture to irrigation
flooding and infrastructure and two crops per year
maintenance
Reduction in evaporation losses Opportunity to operate High Reduction in evaporation
and conversion to usable water Aswan dam at lower level losses and conversion to
supply yield (For Egypt) usable water supply yield
may more than offset
reduction in power
generation
Carbon emission saving of some
210million tones compared with
equivalent thermal generation
UOG July, 2015

120
Chapter 10
10. Cost evaluation and economic analysis
10.1 General
Economic analysis of hydropower project is a technique of analyzing cost expended and benefit
from the project. The benefit includes tangible and intangible benefits those, which cannot be
determined in economic term. Based on accounting analysis, when total benefit acquiring from
project exceeds the total cost expended, the project is believed to be economically viable. (i.e.,
the project has ability to obtain funds for implementation and repay these funds at realistic
interest rate). Therefore economic analysis is used to determine whether the project is worth to
be implemented or not.
10.2 Cost evaluation

Before economies of an engineering project can be evaluated, it is necessary to reasonably
estimate the various cost and revenue components that describe the project
So, the costs of all civil works have been determined from the quantities of each and every
component of structures. However the cost of powerhouse equipment other auxiliaries are taken
from ongoing hydropower construction project. .
Bill of quantity of border hydropower project
Table 10 preliminary Estimate Grand Summery in US$

No. Description Amount USD
1 project cost(including Environmental cost) $937063519.7
2 Contingency (15%) $140559528
3 Engineering administration & Construction
management cost (10%) 93706351.97
4 Owner’s administration cost (4%) 37482540.79
5 Grand cost $1208811940
UOG July, 2015

121
Table 11 Summary of bill of quantity for structures and electromechanical equipment

Item
Description Amount in us$
no
1 Power intake structure 83196300
2 Power house and control building 272508600
3 River diversion 10573470

4 Gravity dam 522550749.7
5 Water ways 36696500
6 Access road and site compounds 11537900
Total carried grand summary $937063519.7
Table 12 Summary of power intake structure

Item
no Description Amount in us$
1.1 Excavation and earth works 3087000
1.2 Concrete 73719800
1.3 Miscellaneous 2945500
1.4 Intake equipment 3444000
Total carried summary $83196300
UOG July, 2015

122
Table 13 Power intake structure

Item Description Unit Quantity Rate$ Amount$
no
1.1 EXCAVATION AND EARTH
WORKS
1.1.1 Site clearance ha 3 55000 165000
1.1.2 Clearing and grubbing ha 7 73000 511000
EXCAVATION AND EARTH
1.1.3 WORKS m3 9000 10 90000
1.1.4 Compacted fill m3 290125 8 2321000
Carried forward 3087000
1.2 CONCRET
1.2.1 Concrete m3 15000 130 1950000
1.2.2 Reinforcement bars t 25439 2200 55965800
1.2.3 Formwork and finish m2 175600 90 15804000
1.3 MISCELLANEOUS
1.3.1 Metal work t 25439 2200 2043500
1.3.2 Building and architectural features ls 902000
1.4 INTAKE EQUPEMENTS ls 3444000
UOG July, 2015

123
Table 14 Summary of power house and control building

Item Description Amount in us$
no
2.1 Excavation and earth work 120000
2.2 Concret 603500
2.3 Drilling and grouting 557600
2.4 Electrical and mechanical 264000000
2.5 Instrumintation 41000
2.6 Miscellaneous 1,754800
Table 15 Power house and control building

Item
no Description Unit Quantity Rate Amount
2.1 EXCAVATION AND EARTH
WORKS
2.2.1 Excavation m3 1500 80 120000
2.2 CONCRETE
2.2.1 Concrete work m3 1000 130 130000
2.2.2 Reinforcement bars t 20 10,500 210000
2.2.3 Form work m2 1300 125 162500
2.2.4 Surface finishes ls 25000 41000
2.2.5 Rock support no 200 300 60000
2.3 DRILLING AND GROUTING
2.3.1 Setting up for drilling ls 246000
2.3.2 Drilling and grouting m3 4900 250 1225000
UOG July, 2015

124
2.3.3 Materials for grouting ls 82000

Carried for ward 557600
2.4 ELECTRICAL AND
MECHANICAL EQUIPIMENTS
2.4.1 Turbines and its accessories pcs 8 15,000,000 120000000
2.4.2 Generator and its accessories pcs 8 18,000,000 144000000
2.5 INSTRUMENTATION ls 41000
2.6 MISCELLANEOUS
2.6.1 Metal works ls 250,000
2.6.3 Plumbing and drainage ls 524800
Carried for ward 1,754800
Table 16 Summary of River Diversion Work

Item no Description Amount in us$
3.2 Concrete 630400
3.3 Underground works 646400
3.5 Coffer dam fill 2572000
UOG July, 2015

125
Table 17 River diversion work

Item
no Description Unit Quantity Rate Amount
3.1 EXCAVATION AND EARTH WORKS
3.1.1 Site clearance ha 2.5 55000 137500
3.1.3 Surface excavation m3 69287 10 692870
3.1.4 Upstream coffer dam compaction m3 2400 8 19200
3
3.1.5 Coffer dam removal m 621300 7 4349100
3.1.6 Rock support no 300 300 90000
Carried forward $5945670
3.2 CONCRET
3.2.1 Concrete m3 280 130 36400
3.2.2 Reinforcement bars T 3 10500 31500
3.2.3 Formwork and finish m2 4500 125 562500
3.3 UNDER GROUND WORKS
3.3.1 Underground excavation m3 8000 80 640000
3.3.2 Tunnel supports no 20 300 6000
3.3.3 Steel arches and frames ls 400 400
3.4 DRRILLING AND GROUTING
3.4.1 Drilling ls 246000
3.4.2 Setting up for drilling ls 41000
3.4.3 Foundation grouting ls 82000
3.5 COFFER DAM FILL
3.5.1 Rock fill m3 100200 10 1002000
3.5.2 Fine materials m3 314000 5 1570000
UOG July, 2015

126
Table 18 Summary of gravity dam

Item no Description Amount
4.2 Concrete 450804549.7
4.3 Electrical and mechanical equipment 60320200
4.4 Instrumentation 520000
4.5 Miscellaneous 1750000
Total $522550749.7
Table 19 Gravity dam and spillway

Item no Description Unit Quantity Rate Amount
4.1 EXCAVATION AND EARTH WORKS
4.1.1 Site clearance inclusive reservoir area ha 150 55000 8250000
4.1.3 Excavation m3 8500 80 680000
4.1.4 Roller compact m3 2000 40 80000
4.2 CONCRETE
4.2.1 Roller compacted Concrete m3 3000000 150 450000000
4.2.2 C35: Reinforced concrete(parpet, crest) m3 548.23 140 76752.2
4.2.3 C45: Reinforced concrete(spillway m3 348.25 150 52237.5

4.2.4 Reinforcement (spillway) t 79.8 2200 175560
4.2.5 Formwork and finishes m2 4000 125 500000
Carried forward 450804549.7
4.3 ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL
EQUIPMENT 320200
4.3.1 Spillway gate no 12 5000000 60000000
UOG July, 2015

127

4.4 instrumentation 520000
4.5 miscellaneous
4.5.1 Metal work ls 500000
4.5.3 Plumbing and drainage ls 350000
Total carried summary $522550749.7
Table 20 Summary of waterway

5.1 Excavation and earthworks 1600000
5.2 Concrete 1812500
5.3 Underground works 324000
5.5 Electrical and mechanical equipment 32285000
Table 21 Waterways
5.1EXCAVATION AND EARTHWORKES
5.1.1 Excavation
5.1.2 Tunnel m3 18000 80 1440000
5.1.3 Penstock m3 2000 80 160000

5.2 CONCRETE
5.2.1 Reinforcement t 15 10500 157500
UOG July, 2015

128

5.2.3 Concrete m3 6000 130 780000
5.3 UNDERGROUND WORKS
5.3.1 rock support No 80 300 24000
5.3.2 Steel arch support Ls 50000
5.3.3 Water proofing membrane Ls 250000
5.4DRILLING AND GROUTING
5.4.1 Setting up of drilling Ls 250000
5.4.2 Grout material Ls 50000
5.4.3 Foundation grouting Ls 25000
5.4.4 Penstock and stand pipe Ls 300000
5.4.5 Other grouting Ls 50000
5.5 ELECTRICAL & MECANICAL EQUIPMENT
penstock t 3070 10500 32235000
Other equipment 50000
Table 22 Summary of access road and site compounds

7.1 Excavation and earthwork 125000
7.2 Fill 1350000
7.3 Concrete 992900
7.4 miscellaneous work 1070000
UOG July, 2015

129
Table 23 Access road and site compounds

5.1EXCAVATION AND EARTHWORKES
5.1.1 EXCAVATION
5.1.2 tunnel m3 18000 80 1440000
5.1.3 penstock m3 2000 80 160000

5.2 CONCRETE
5.2.1 Reinforcement t 15 10500 157500
5.2.3 Concrete m3 6000 130 780000
5.3 UNDERGROUND WORKS
5.3.1 rock support No 80 300 24000
5.3.2 Steel arch support Ls 50000
5.3.3 Water proofing membrane Ls 250000
5.4DRILLING AND GROUTING
5.4.1 Setting up of drilling Ls 250000
5.4.2 Grout material Ls 50000
5.4.3 Foundation grouting Ls 25000
5.4.4 Penstock and stand pipe Ls 300000
5.4.5 Other grouting Ls 50000
5.5 ELECTRICAL & MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
penstock t 3070 10500 32235000
Other equipment 50000
UOG July, 2015

130
Table 24 Environmental and administration rough estimated cost

7.1 ENVIRONMENTAL COST
7.1.1 Tree plantation cost 500000
7.1.2 compensation for income forgone including resettlement 1500000
10.3 Power developed versus operating and maintenance costs

 Operating costs: are incurred by purchasing assets to be used in production and services
 Maintenance cost: includes cost of labor for wages of operating and maintenance of
power plant components.
Therefore O&M cost (in dollar) can be obtained as follow:
O & M  17200( Pmw)0.543 ……… (Lee H Sheldon)

Where P is power developed in (MW)
O & M  17200(1182.24MW ) 0.543
O & M  $1031996.50
year
10.4 Valuation of benefit

The aim of benefit cost analysis is to maximize the equivalent value of benefit or minimize all
the costs (expressed in present value or annual value.)
According to Ethiopian Electric power corporation (EEPCO) Energy consumption is grouped

into two:
Domestic consumption … (rate~0.2809 Birr/Kwh)
Industrial consumption … (rate~0.4301 Birr/Kwh)
The average energy price according to recent (EEPCO) on hydropower is 0.34 Birr/kW.
Therefore, for evaluation of the project the following data are required.
UOG July, 2015

131
Total project cost= $1208.812 M =2538.505 M Birr

Life of project n = 100 years
Construction period = 6 years
Discount rate i=6%
Price energy =0.35Birr/kwh
Installed capacity P = 1182.25 MW
Utilization time (18hr/day) = 6570*0.9 =5913
Mean annual energy = 182.25MW * 5913  6990.644 * 106 KW

yr
Annual benefit  0.35 birr * 6990.644 * 106 KW

KW yr
=2446.73*106 Birr.
In dollar =$116.511M/year
I, Benefit cost Ratio

From the above results
 Annual Benefit=$116.51M/year
 Annual O&M cost =$1031996.50 /year
 Project cost == $1208.812M=2538.505 M Birr
Interest during construction (for 6 years)
 1208.812*(3*0.06) =$217.586 M
Total investment Cost=$1426.398 M
 A/P factor (n=100,I=6%) factor =0.062
Annual construction cost=0.062*$1426.398 M =$88.437 M/year
 Total annual cost  88.437  0.9559
=$89.3929 M/year
$116.51 M/yr
Ratio   1.3
$89.3929 M/yr
 Since the B/C ratio of the project is greater than 1.0 the project is economically feasible.
UOG July, 2015

132
II. The internal rate of return

Basically, a project’s return is referred to as internal rate of return (IRR) or the yield promised by
an investment project over its useful life or the internal rate of return (IRR)is the discount rate at
which the net present value is equal to zero.
n Bj  C j
NPV    0 Where B j  Benefit at j time
j 0 1  IRR j
C j  Cost at j time
IRR is calculated through an iterative process, which is done by computer processing and it is
found that at i=6.045% NPV=0 hence IRR=6.045 %.
Table 25 Detail calculation for internal rate of return

Total Energy Total Investment Cost
6990.644*106 KW/year P=$1426.398 M
Cost Benefit Benefit IRR A(Annual) A Net Benefit B
Birr/KW (MBirr/year) (MUSD/year) M P (MUSD/year) C
0.45 3145.790 $149.799 0.06045 $86.2258 0.06045 $63.573 1.73

0.40 2796.258 $133.155 0.06045 $86.2258 0.06045 $46.929 1.54
0.35 2446.725 $116.511 0.06045 $86.2258 0.06045 $30.285 1.35
0.30 2097.193 $99.866 0.06045 $86.2258 0.06045 $13.640 1.16
0.27 1887.474 $89.880 0.06045 $86.2258 0.06045 $3.654 1.04
0.24 1677.755 $79.893 0.06045 $86.2258 0.06045 -$6.333 0.93
0.21 1468.035 $69.906 0.06045 $86.2258 0.06045 -$16.320 0.81
UOG July, 2015

133
Conclusion
As far as we progress in the detail of this entire project taxation, we are now about to declare the
initial foot step of implementing a hydropower project with installed capacity of 1645 MW. It
has significant contribution for the developing Ethiopia towards industry lead economy and plays
its own role in pleasing the total power demand. The project site is found 580km downstream of
the renaissance bridge, locally called ‘kessie’ and the construction of the dam will be held on the
ever historic Nile river course just 20km upstream of Ethio-sudan border.
Since there is visible variation in discharge and getting compatible topography with reasonable
geology, we have selected a Roller compacted concrete (Rcc) gravity dam. The dam has a height
of 83m and 42066.8Mm3 capacity of storing water.
Border hydropower project would possibly guarantee to reduce the cost of pumping for irrigation
and cost of removal of sediment from irrigation canal systems. But still it would force few
thousand people to migrate from their village and also till the reservoir gets full there would be
considerable shortage of water at the downstream. Paradoxically we see those constraints as a
stumbling block for achieving our mega project success.
UOG July, 2015

134
Recommendation
 Topographic map should be readily and timely available so as to get the very data to head
the project.
 For better accuracy and confident work, periodic site visit should be arranged.
 To disregard errors in the time transposing data, a gauging station should be established
near the dam site to record evaporation, temperature, rainfall and other parameters.
 It is difficult to comprehend the volume of excavation works as we are in lack of
surveying data.
UOG July, 2015

135
References
1. P. Novak,A.I.B Moffat, C.Nalluri and R.Narayanan (2006) Hydraulic structure, third edition
2. S.K. Garg (2006), Irrigaton engineering and Hydraulic structures
3. Chow, V.T (1988), Mc Graw-Hill book company,Singapore Applied hydrology
4. M.M Pandeker and K.N Sharma, 1979, water power engineering, vikas publish house PVT
5. J.Giasson,R. Therivel, A. Chadwick (1994), introduction to environmental impact assessment,
UCL press, London
6. R.H.Mccuen, hydraulogic analysis and design, second edition
7. D.R. Maidment, hand book of hydrology
8. R-Suresh, watershed hydrology (principles of hydrology)
9. R.M Hirsch, D.R Heisel, T.A Cohn, and J.Gilroy, statistical treatment of hydrologic data
10. C.S.P Osha, Berndtstone, Bhunya, engineering hydrology
11. J.R Stredinger, R.M Vogel, E.Foufoula Georgiou frequency analysis of extreme event
12. David. R. Maidment, hand book of hydrology
13. Subramanya, K(1987,1988),engineering hydrology, Mc Graw-Hill publisher
14. DR.K.R Arora, water resources and irrigation engineering
UOG July, 2015

136
ANNEXES
ANNEX-1 FDC Computation Data
Flow Rank p=(m/(n+1))*100 Flow Rank p=(m/(n+1))*100
11103.56 1 0.166389351 5313.36 35 5.823627288
10079.14 2 0.332778702 5219.04 36 5.990016639
9549.90 3 0.499168053 5203.32 37 6.156405990
9107.12 4 0.665557404 5192.84 38 6.322795341
9015.42 5 0.831946755 5166.64 39 6.489184692
8627.66 6 0.998336106 5116.86 40 6.655574043
8609.32 7 1.164725458 5114.24 41 6.821963394
8399.72 8 1.331114809 5088.04 42 6.988352745
8242.52 9 1.497504160 5085.42 43 7.154742097
7998.86 10 1.663893511 5072.32 44 7.321131448
7920.26 11 1.830282862 5001.58 45 7.487520799
7598.00 12 1.996672213 4962.28 46 7.653910150
7338.62 13 2.163061564 4865.34 47 7.820299501
7189.28 14 2.329450915 4826.04 48 7.986688852
7184.04 15 2.495840266 4794.60 49 8.153078203
7008.50 16 2.662229617 4556.18 50 8.319467554
6838.20 17 2.828618968 4548.32 51 8.485856905
6793.66 18 2.995008319 4464.48 52 8.652246256
6746.50 19 3.161397671 4430.42 53 8.818635607
6688.86 20 3.327787022 4401.60 54 8.985024958
6667.90 21 3.494176373 4323.00 55 9.151414309
6492.36 22 3.660565724 4197.24 56 9.317803661
6434.72 23 3.826955075 4192.00 57 9.484193012
6374.46 24 3.993344426 4108.16 58 9.650582363
6319.44 25 4.159733777 4092.44 59 9.816971714
6293.24 26 4.326123128 4068.86 60 9.983361065
6170.10 27 4.492512479 3977.16 61 10.14975042
6031.24 28 4.658901830 3961.44 62 10.31613977
5879.28 29 4.825291181 3869.74 63 10.48252912
5766.62 30 4.991680532 3867.12 64 10.64891847
5688.02 31 5.158069884 3856.64 65 10.81530782
5478.42 32 5.324459235 3854.02 66 10.98169717
5389.34 33 5.490848586 3817.34 67 11.14808652
5352.66 34 5.657237937 3812.10 68 11.31447587
UOG July, 2015

137

3764.94 70 11.64725458 2613.71 107 17.80366057
3738.74 71 11.81364393 2608.73 108 17.97004992
3709.92 72 11.98003328 2567.34 109 18.13643927
3704.68 73 12.14642263 2540.61 110 18.30282862
3628.70 74 12.31281198 2492.93 111 18.46921797
3618.22 75 12.47920133 2489.26 112 18.63560732
3568.44 76 12.64559068 2466.73 114 18.96838602
3539.62 77 12.81198003 2435.29 115 19.13477537
3537.00 78 12.97836938 2418.52 116 19.30116473
3492.46 79 13.14475874 2416.43 117 19.46755408
3440.06 80 13.31114809 2400.97 118 19.63394343
3426.96 81 13.47753744 2314.25 119 19.80033278
3374.56 82 13.64392679 2306.91 120 19.96672213
3316.92 83 13.81031614 2282.54 121 20.13311148
3199.02 84 13.97670549 2276.78 122 20.29950083
3159.72 85 14.14309484 2249.53 123 20.46589018
3144.00 86 14.30948419 2229.62 124 20.63227953
3136.14 87 14.47587354 2218.35 125 20.79866889
3104.70 88 14.64226290 2188.49 126 20.96505824
3065.40 89 14.80865225 2141.06 127 21.13144759
3033.96 90 14.97504160 2094.17 128 21.29783694
3015.62 91 15.14143095 2092.86 129 21.46422629
2999.90 92 15.30782030 2076.61 130 21.63061564
2981.56 93 15.47420965 2045.96 131 21.79700499
2968.46 94 15.64059900 2025.78 132 21.96339434
2944.88 95 15.80698835 1989.10 133 22.12978369
2942.26 96 15.97337770 1988.84 134 22.29617304
2902.96 97 16.13976705 1972.07 135 22.46256240
2884.62 98 16.30615641 1968.93 136 22.62895175
2821.74 99 16.47254576 1959.50 137 22.79534110
2787.68 100 16.63893511 1911.55 138 22.96173045
2779.82 101 16.80532446 1905.79 139 23.12811980
2769.34 102 16.97171381 1901.60 140 23.29450915
2745.76 103 17.13810316 1888.23 141 23.46089850
2722.18 104 17.30449251 1872.51 142 23.62728785
2701.22 105 17.47088186 1870.42 143 23.79367720
2672.40 106 17.63727121 1852.86 144 23.96006656
UOG July, 2015

138

1796.80 145 24.12645591 1138.39 181 30.11647255
1794.96 146 24.29284526 1137.60 182 30.28286190
1703.79 147 24.45923461 1133.15 183 30.44925125
1679.94 148 24.62562396 1111.14 184 30.61564060
1677.59 149 24.79201331 1107.47 185 30.78202995
1646.41 150 24.95840266 1103.54 186 30.94841930
1607.63 151 25.12479201 1088.35 187 31.11480865
1606.06 152 25.29118136 1086.25 188 31.28119800
1576.98 153 25.45757072 1086.25 188 31.28119800
1548.94 154 25.62396007 1083.89 190 31.61397671
1546.06 155 25.79034942 1082.85 191 31.78036606
1529.03 156 25.95673877 1072.63 192 31.94675541
1525.63 157 26.12312812 1070.79 193 32.11314476
1500.47 158 26.28951747 1066.08 194 32.27953411
1499.95 159 26.45590682 1055.86 195 32.44592346
1497.33 160 26.62229617 1048.26 196 32.61231281
1478.20 161 26.78868552 1038.83 197 32.77870216
1459.86 162 26.95507488 1035.67 198 32.94509151
1445.45 163 27.12146423 1032.80 199 33.11148087
1380.48 164 27.28785358 1027.56 200 33.27787022
1377.07 165 27.45424293 1025.47 201 33.44425957
1354.80 166 27.62063228 1018.92 202 33.61064892
1354.02 167 27.78702163 1008.96 203 33.77703827
1345.11 168 27.95341098 997.96 204 33.94342762
1310.26 169 28.11980033 971.50 205 34.10981697
1296.11 170 28.28618968 969.92 206 34.27620632
1289.83 171 28.45257903 968.09 207 34.44259567
1285.11 172 28.61896839 951.58 208 34.60898502
1277.51 173 28.78535774 893.68 209 34.77537438
1258.39 174 28.95174709 886.87 210 34.94176373
1255.24 175 29.11813644 872.98 211 35.10815308
1230.35 176 29.28452579 839.97 212 35.27454243
1208.87 177 29.45091514 827.13 213 35.44093178
1206.25 178 29.61730449 826.09 214 35.60732113
1185.03 179 29.78369384 822.94 215 35.77371048
1178.21 180 29.95008319 806.44 216 35.94009983
UOG July, 2015

139

473.96 289 48.08652246 386.19 323 53.74376040
473.70 290 48.25291181 375.71 326 54.24292845
473.43 291 48.41930116 372.04 327 54.40931780
470.81 292 48.58569052 371.25 328 54.57570715
470.03 293 48.75207987 359.73 329 54.74209651
467.41 294 48.91846922 356.84 330 54.90848586
466.36 295 49.08485857 356.58 331 55.07487521
464.53 296 49.25124792 353.96 332 55.24126456
463.48 297 49.41763727 353.70 333 55.40765391
458.50 298 49.58402662 351.08 334 55.57404326
453.26 299 49.75041597 346.10 335 55.74043261
450.38 300 49.91680532 340.60 336 55.90682196
443.04 301 50.08319468 340.34 337 56.07321131
440.16 302 50.24958403 338.50 338 56.23960067
432.82 303 50.41597338 334.84 339 56.40599002
430.73 304 50.58236273 334.57 340 56.57237937
429.94 305 50.74875208 333.26 341 56.73876872
425.49 306 50.91514143 330.91 342 56.90515807
424.70 307 51.08153078 328.81 343 57.07154742
414.75 308 51.24792013 328.02 344 57.23793677
414.75 308 51.24792013 327.76 345 57.40432612
412.13 310 51.58069884 325.40 346 57.57071547
411.08 311 51.74708819 324.36 347 57.73710483
410.03 312 51.91347754 321.47 348 57.90349418
408.98 313 52.07986689 319.90 349 58.06988353
407.67 314 52.24625624 319.64 350 58.23627288
405.84 315 52.41264559 316.76 351 58.40266223
402.43 316 52.57903494 316.50 352 58.56905158
400.60 317 52.74542429 313.09 353 58.73544093
398.50 318 52.91181364 312.57 354 58.90183028
397.72 319 53.07820300 310.99 355 59.06821963
394.31 320 53.24459235 308.37 356 59.23460899
391.43 321 53.41098170 307.85 357 59.40099834
389.07 322 53.57737105 306.80 358 59.56738769
386.19 323 53.74376040 305.23 359 59.73377704
386.19 323 53.74376040 304.97 360 59.90016639
UOG July, 2015

140

303.92 361 60.06655574 248.90 397 66.05657238
303.13 362 60.23294509 246.80 398 66.22296173
301.56 363 60.39933444 244.97 399 66.38935108
300.78 364 60.56572379 242.09 400 66.55574043
299.21 365 60.73211314 240.78 401 66.72212978
294.75 366 60.89850250 240.25 402 66.88851913
294.49 367 61.06489185 238.16 403 67.05490849
292.13 368 61.23128120 237.90 404 67.22129784
288.99 369 61.39767055 237.63 405 67.38768719
287.68 370 61.56405990 235.80 406 67.55407654
285.32 371 61.73044925 235.28 407 67.72046589
284.27 372 61.89683860 232.92 408 67.88685524
282.17 373 62.06322795 232.39 409 68.05324459
281.65 374 62.22961730 232.13 410 68.21963394
281.13 375 62.39600666 231.61 411 68.38602329
280.08 376 62.56239601 228.99 412 68.55241265
279.29 377 62.72878536 227.42 413 68.71880200
276.93 378 62.89517471 226.63 414 68.88519135
274.58 379 63.06156406 225.06 415 69.05158070
273.27 380 63.22795341 222.18 416 69.21797005
273.27 381 63.22795341 219.03 417 69.38435940
272.22 382 63.56073211 219.03 418 69.38435940
271.17 383 63.72712146 217.98 419 69.71713810
270.65 384 63.89351082 217.20 420 69.88352745
266.98 385 64.05990017 215.36 421 70.04991681
263.05 386 64.22628952 215.36 422 70.04991681
263.05 386 64.22628952 213.79 423 70.38269551
262.00 388 64.55906822 213.53 424 70.54908486
261.74 389 64.72545757 213.27 425 70.71547421
261.22 390 64.89184692 210.65 426 70.88186356
256.76 391 65.05823627 210.12 427 71.04825291
254.93 392 65.22462562 209.86 428 71.21464226
254.66 393 65.39101498 209.60 429 71.38103161
254.40 394 65.55740433 208.03 430 71.54742097
251.78 395 65.72379368 207.77 431 71.71381032
249.69 396 65.89018303 206.46 432 71.88019967
UOG July, 2015

141

206.19 433 72.04658902 169.78 468 77.87021631
203.31 434 72.21297837 169.51 470 78.20299501
202.01 435 72.37936772 168.73 471 78.36938436
200.95 436 72.54575707 168.20 472 78.53577371
200.43 437 72.71214642 167.94 473 78.70216306
199.64 438 72.87853577 166.63 474 78.86855241
199.12 439 73.04492512 166.37 475 79.03494176
198.86 440 73.21131448 166.37 475 79.03494176
198.60 441 73.37770383 164.80 477 79.36772047
198.33 442 73.54409318 164.01 478 79.53410982
197.02 443 73.71048253 164.01 478 79.53410982
193.88 444 73.87687188 162.96 480 79.86688852
192.05 445 74.04326123 162.96 480 79.86688852
192.05 446 74.04326123 162.70 482 80.19966722
191.52 447 74.37603993 161.92 483 80.36605657
189.95 448 74.54242928 159.82 484 80.53244592
188.90 449 74.70881864 159.56 485 80.69883527
184.45 450 74.87520799 157.72 486 80.86522463
184.19 451 75.04159734 156.68 487 81.03161398
183.40 452 75.20798669 156.15 488 81.19800333
182.09 453 75.37437604 155.89 489 81.36439268
181.57 454 75.54076539 155.63 490 81.53078203
179.73 455 75.70715474 153.27 491 81.69717138
178.95 456 75.87354409 153.27 491 81.69717138
178.95 456 75.87354409 151.96 493 82.02995008
173.97 458 76.20632280 150.39 494 82.19633943
173.44 459 76.37271215 149.60 495 82.36272879
172.40 460 76.53910150 148.29 496 82.52911814
172.13 461 76.70549085 147.77 497 82.69550749
171.87 462 76.87188020 147.24 498 82.86189684
171.35 463 77.03826955 146.98 499 83.02828619
170.82 464 77.20465890 145.41 500 83.19467554
170.82 464 77.20465890 145.15 501 83.36106489
170.56 466 77.53743760 145.15 501 83.36106489
170.30 467 77.70382696 145.15 501 83.36106489
169.78 468 77.87021631 144.62 504 83.86023295
UOG July, 2015

142

142.53 505 84.02662230 114.76 541 90.01663894
139.91 506 84.19301165 114.49 542 90.18302829
139.38 507 84.35940100 111.35 543 90.34941764
138.07 508 84.52579035 111.35 543 90.34941764
137.55 509 84.69217970 110.30 545 90.68219634
137.29 510 84.85856905 107.94 546 90.84858569
137.29 510 84.85856905 106.90 547 91.01497504
136.24 512 85.19134775 103.75 548 91.18136439
135.45 513 85.35773710 103.49 549 91.34775374
134.93 514 85.52412646 102.18 550 91.51414309
132.83 515 85.69051581 100.61 551 91.68053245
130.21 516 85.85690516 100.35 552 91.84692180
129.95 517 86.02329451 99.82 553 92.01331115
129.17 518 86.18968386 99.82 553 92.01331115
126.81 519 86.35607321 99.30 555 92.34608985
125.76 520 86.52246256 97.46 556 92.51247920
125.24 521 86.68885191 96.68 557 92.67886855
124.45 522 86.85524126 95.37 558 92.84525790
122.62 523 87.02163062 94.32 559 93.01164725
122.35 524 87.18801997 94.06 560 93.17803661
122.09 525 87.35440932 93.01 561 93.34442596
121.04 526 87.52079867 92.49 562 93.51081531
120.26 527 87.68718802 91.18 563 93.67720466
120.26 528 87.68718802 90.65 564 93.84359401
119.73 529 88.01996672 90.39 565 94.00998336
119.47 530 88.18635607 89.87 566 94.17637271
119.47 530 88.18635607 89.34 567 94.34276206
118.42 532 88.51913478 88.56 568 94.50915141
117.90 533 88.68552413 88.03 569 94.67554077
116.85 534 88.85191348 86.72 570 94.84193012
116.59 535 89.01830283 86.20 571 95.00831947
116.07 536 89.18469218 85.15 572 95.17470882
116.07 536 89.18469218 83.84 573 95.34109817
115.80 538 89.51747088 80.43 574 95.50748752
115.02 539 89.68386023 78.86 575 95.67387687
115.02 539 89.68386023 77.55 576 95.84026622
UOG July, 2015

143

74.93 577 96.00665557 62.62 589 98.00332779
73.62 578 96.17304493 61.57 590 98.16971714
72.84 579 96.33943428 59.47 591 98.33610649
72.57 580 96.50582363 55.28 592 98.50249584
71.53 581 96.67221298 51.61 593 98.66888519
69.70 582 96.83860233 51.35 594 98.83527454
69.17 583 97.00499168 45.85 595 99.00166389
69.17 583 97.00499168 42.18 596 99.16805324
69.17 583 97.00499168 37.99 597 99.33444260
64.45 586 97.50415973 36.68 598 99.50083195
63.67 587 97.67054908 35.89 599 99.66722130
62.88 588 97.83693844 31.70 600 99.83361065
UOG July, 2015

144
ANNEX-2 Data for plotting position and unbiased PWMs parameter

max
year factored Rank,i Fi=(i-0.35)/N Fi2 Fi3 XiFi XiFi2 XiFi3
1954 11720.05 46.00 0.91 0.83 0.76 10700.40 9769.47 8919.52
1955 9111.05 35.00 0.69 0.48 0.33 6313.96 4375.57 3032.27
1956 6651.92 17.00 0.33 0.11 0.04 2215.09 737.62 245.63
1957 6958.46 20.00 0.39 0.15 0.06 2734.67 1074.73 422.37
1958 9877.40 39.00 0.77 0.60 0.46 7635.23 5902.03 4562.27
1959 9540.21 38.00 0.75 0.57 0.43 7183.78 5409.38 4073.27
1960 8286.80 28.00 0.55 0.31 0.17 4582.60 2534.18 1401.40
1961 7840.61 25.00 0.49 0.24 0.12 3865.42 1905.65 939.49
1962 7496.61 23.00 0.45 0.21 0.09 3395.96 1538.37 696.88
1963 8215.27 27.00 0.53 0.28 0.15 4378.74 2333.87 1243.95
1964 10919.64 43.00 0.85 0.73 0.62 9314.45 7945.23 6777.28
1965 4601.51 4.00 0.07 0.01 0.00 335.91 24.52 1.79
1966 5010.23 6.00 0.11 0.01 0.00 566.16 63.98 7.23
1967 7643.06 24.00 0.47 0.22 0.11 3615.17 1709.98 808.82
1968 5912.82 11.00 0.21 0.05 0.01 1259.43 268.26 57.14
1969 10715.28 42.00 0.83 0.69 0.58 8925.82 7435.21 6193.53
1970 9339.25 36.00 0.71 0.51 0.36 6658.89 4747.79 3385.17
1971 9346.06 37.00 0.73 0.54 0.39 6850.66 5021.54 3680.79
1972 3337.54 2.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 110.14 3.63 0.12
1973 8668.27 31.00 0.61 0.38 0.23 5313.65 3257.27 1996.70
1974 8365.14 29.00 0.57 0.33 0.19 4793.22 2746.52 1573.75
1975 10296.34 40.00 0.79 0.63 0.50 8165.00 6474.84 5134.55
1976 8889.66 34.00 0.67 0.45 0.30 5982.74 4026.38 2709.76
1977 8021.13 26.00 0.51 0.26 0.14 4114.84 2110.91 1082.90
1978 6716.63 18.00 0.35 0.12 0.04 2370.97 836.95 295.44
1979 5722.08 9.00 0.17 0.03 0.01 989.92 171.26 29.63
UOG July, 2015

145
1980 6907.37 19.00 0.37 0.14 0.05 2576.45 961.02 358.46

1981 6648.51 16.00 0.31 0.10 0.03 2080.98 651.35 203.87
1982 5340.61 8.00 0.15 0.02 0.00 817.11 125.02 19.13
1983 6594.02 14.00 0.27 0.07 0.02 1800.17 491.45 134.16
1984 2585.84 1.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 33.62 0.44 0.01
1985 6614.45 15.00 0.29 0.09 0.03 1938.03 567.84 166.38
1986 6450.96 13.00 0.25 0.06 0.02 1632.09 412.92 104.47
1987 3828.34 3.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 202.90 10.75 0.57
1988 12414.87 48.00 0.95 0.91 0.87 11831.37 11275.30 10745.36
1989 5289.52 7.00 0.13 0.02 0.00 703.51 93.57 12.44
1990 4955.73 5.00 0.09 0.01 0.00 460.88 42.86 3.99
1991 8831.76 33.00 0.65 0.43 0.28 5767.14 3765.94 2459.16
1992 7394.43 22.00 0.43 0.19 0.08 3201.79 1386.37 600.30
1993 5803.82 10.00 0.19 0.04 0.01 1120.14 216.19 41.72
1994 13102.88 49.00 0.97 0.95 0.92 12749.10 12404.88 12069.95
1995 8440.07 30.00 0.59 0.35 0.21 5004.96 2967.94 1759.99
1996 11839.26 47.00 0.93 0.87 0.81 11046.03 10305.94 9615.44
1997 6324.94 12.00 0.23 0.05 0.01 1473.71 343.37 80.01
1998 14434.63 50.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 14333.59 14233.25 14133.62
1999 11192.12 44.00 0.87 0.76 0.67 9770.72 8529.84 7446.55
2000 10398.52 41.00 0.81 0.66 0.54 8454.00 6873.10 5587.83
2001 11215.96 45.00 0.89 0.80 0.71 10015.85 8944.15 7987.13
2002 7006.14 21.00 0.41 0.17 0.07 2893.54 1195.03 493.55
2003 8695.52 32.00 0.63 0.40 0.25 5504.26 3484.20 2205.50
UOG July, 2015

146
ANNEX-3 Hydrology data Abay at Kessie

Yearly
year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec mean
1954 111.5 69.3 59.6 34.3 13.7 48.4 1512 3441 2091 871.2 424.1 237 742.76
1955 157.3 110.3 78.8 90 80.1 76.7 1145 2675 1518 759.1 396.5 221.9 609.06
1956 116.5 78.7 52.5 86.8 32.5 34.6 950.1 1953 916.4 869 380.9 230.7 475.14
1957 147.4 94.2 238.4 202.5 65 81.6 571.5 2043 792.6 314.1 190.8 130 405.93
1958 84.8 65.4 39.6 34.1 14.5 55.4 1197 2900 1200 714.7 391.4 239 577.99
1959 158.3 109.8 76.5 47.5 28.6 23.5 997.6 2801 1739 725.8 414.6 264.6 615.57
1960 175 125.2 99.9 65.2 51.7 36 1206 2433 1288 500.1 278.6 171.9 535.88
1961 127.2 90.8 72.1 117.5 65.7 44.5 1472 2302 1437 798.8 449.7 271.1 604.03
1962 164.4 104.8 83.6 51.5 42.5 49.7 516.8 2201 1385 727.4 333.2 201 488.41
1963 132.1 99.7 77.1 58.5 116 70.3 747.9 2412 1138 408.7 296.6 242.5 483.28
1964 150.5 104.3 58 65.2 34.8 91.7 1941 3206 1650 880.5 460.4 302 745.37
1965 191.4 125.1 81.5 80.4 36.4 26.4 315.3 1351 591.2 394.2 269.2 191.6 304.48
1966 119.5 101.9 62.2 45.6 24.3 36.9 363.2 1471 835.3 320.6 223.1 147.4 312.58
1967 97.2 61.8 62.6 81.4 106.6 38.1 1031 2244 1101 640.3 370.8 233.7 505.71
1968 134 97.1 63.6 64.4 43.8 136.2 1362 1736 780.9 480.3 258.7 176.9 444.49
1969 127.8 115.1 193.5 69.5 73.1 83.6 1064 3146 1602 400.1 258.8 165.2 608.23
1970 117.1 88.6 82.2 56.6 24 28.1 817.2 2742 1308 613 276.2 177.3 527.53
1971 105.7 66.2 45.7 37.9 39 103.3 858.6 2744 942.3 403 274.7 173 482.78
1972 107.5 68.3 46.6 59.8 35.3 57.4 551.7 979.9 415.4 181.1 122.1 75.7 225.07
1973 53.4 33.8 19.6 12.1 30.7 47.8 720.7 2545 883.3 413.7 236.9 141.7 428.23
1974 95.3 55.2 44.6 32.9 65.6 80.2 1477 2456 995.7 526.9 293.7 185.5 525.72
1975 119.3 95 60.2 39.5 26.4 120.8 1061 3023 2575 773.2 421.2 271.7 715.53
1976 180.9 114.2 90.7 75.2 74 61 685.8 2610 1185 452.3 370.2 202.9 508.52
1977 127.7 93.5 76 38.1 26.6 45.9 1048 2355 1476 628.4 517.1 243 556.28
1978 153.6 104.3 66.4 45.2 35.9 49.3 1039 1972 1020 564.2 270.9 178.4 458.27
1979 125.5 82.2 48 29.6 46.8 62.6 650.3 1680 713.9 338.5 211.6 135.1 343.68
UOG July, 2015

147
1980 85.9 58.5 43.9 45.6 21.1 44.3 572.7 2028 1691 582.3 315.7 189 473.17
1981 115.7 100 80 70 62.1 30.1 1427 1952 1108 409.4 258.1 168 481.70
1982 120.9 77.6 64.8 56.2 52.4 41.2 261.5 1568 729.6 525.6 220.3 135 321.09
1983 82.9 57.1 50.7 63.5 97.3 86.5 275 1936 851 422.7 219.1 124.2 355.50
1984 75.9 44.2 24.6 16.1 40.8 136.1 601.9 759.2 461.4 152.9 89.8 64.1 205.58
1985 42.5 27.3 19.7 59.4 60.9 55.4 583.6 1942 1381 479.1 266.4 169.1 423.87
1986 108.9 79.4 68.3 90.9 129.2 53.2 1221 1894 1151 492.3 263.7 156.9 475.73
1987 96.1 64.2 100.4 88.7 108.5 148.5 221.4 1124 490.5 307.8 223.6 118.7 257.70
1988 70.4 56.4 32 26.4 14 33.1 1451 3645 1909 929.5 469.6 281.1 743.13
1989 152.1 91.9 83.2 103.5 45 52.4 590.1 1553 941.5 434.5 243.4 184.5 372.93
1990 92.4 64.7 45.9 43.7 22.7 17.5 513.4 1455 951.5 395.3 187.6 106.9 324.72
1991 63.5 49.6 38.3 56.1 55.4 59.5 1333 2593 1350 572.5 304 180.7 554.63
1992 103.9 73.3 52 34.5 38.4 27.8 414.6 2171 1170 707.2 406.9 225.5 452.09
1993 123.8 73.3 43.9 179.4 156.1 156.5 1313 1600 1704 751.5 388.9 210.2 558.38
1994 116.4 64.8 46.7 23.9 62.9 122 1842 3847 1982 685.1 392.2 147.4 777.70
1995 55.5 37.2 44.3 87.4 68.6 76.2 1077 2478 1123 294.1 185.1 107.7 469.51
1996 65.8 42.1 79.3 107.3 185.6 413.3 1992 3476 1416 641.2 369.5 250.3 753.20
1997 179.7 117.7 185.3 162.1 192.3 341.1 1414 1857 557.2 613.6 494.7 230.6 528.78
1998 180.8 65.1 46.2 33.6 100.4 114.8 1830 4238 1562 922.3 385.1 212.5 807.57
1999 155.6 126.3 72.5 62.2 27.7 75.8 1986 3286 1266 923.1 432.5 244.3 721.50
2000 158.3 112.4 35.5 112.5 54.4 52.7 1158 3053 1133 799.3 487.6 232.6 615.78
2001 88.9 88.4 208.5 214.2 178 282 2402 3293 1057 434.2 265.9 202.6 726.23
2002 237.7 210.5 189.5 196.4 151.8 216.4 846.7 2057 752.7 232.3 164.1 149.4 450.38
2003 129.9 122.7 142 137.3 98 143.4 1457 2553 969.7 275.8 162.4 154.9 528.84
UOG July, 2015

148
ANNEX-4 Abay at Border (transposed hydrology data)

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1954 292.13 181.57 156.15 89.87 35.89 126.81 3961.44 9015.42 5478.42 2282.54 1111.14 620.94
1955 412.13 288.99 206.46 235.80 209.86 200.95 2999.90 7008.50 3977.16 1988.84 1038.83 581.38
1956 305.23 206.19 137.55 227.42 85.15 90.65 2489.26 5116.86 2400.97 2276.78 997.96 604.43
1957 386.19 246.80 624.61 530.55 170.30 213.79 1497.33 5352.66 2076.61 822.94 499.90 340.60
1958 222.18 171.35 103.75 89.34 37.99 145.15 3136.14 7598.00 3144.00 1872.51 1025.47 626.18
1959 414.75 287.68 200.43 124.45 74.93 61.57 2613.71 7338.62 4556.18 1901.60 1086.25 693.25
1960 458.50 328.02 261.74 170.82 135.45 94.32 3159.72 6374.46 3374.56 1310.26 729.93 450.38
1961 333.26 237.90 188.90 307.85 172.13 116.59 3856.64 6031.24 3764.94 2092.86 1178.21 710.28
1962 430.73 274.58 219.03 134.93 111.35 130.21 1354.02 5766.62 3628.70 1905.79 872.98 526.62
1963 346.10 261.21 202.00 153.27 303.92 184.19 1959.50 6319.44 2981.56 1070.79 777.09 635.35
1964 394.31 273.27 151.96 170.82 91.18 240.25 5085.42 8399.72 4323.00 2306.91 1206.25 791.24
1965 501.47 327.76 213.53 210.65 95.37 69.17 826.09 3539.62 1548.94 1032.80 705.30 501.99
1966 313.09 266.98 162.96 119.47 63.67 96.68 951.58 3854.02 2188.49 839.97 584.52 386.19
1967 254.66 161.92 164.01 213.27 279.29 99.82 2701.22 5879.28 2884.62 1677.59 971.50 612.29
1968 351.08 254.40 166.63 168.73 114.76 356.84 3568.44 4548.32 2045.96 1258.39 677.79 463.48
1969 334.84 301.56 506.97 182.09 191.52 219.03 2787.68 8242.52 4197.24 1048.26 678.06 432.82
1970 306.80 232.13 215.36 148.29 62.88 73.62 2141.06 7184.04 3426.96 1606.06 723.64 464.53
1971 276.93 173.44 119.73 99.30 102.18 270.65 2249.53 7189.28 2468.83 1055.86 719.71 453.26
1972 281.65 178.95 122.09 156.68 92.49 150.39 1445.45 2567.34 1088.35 474.48 319.90 198.33
1973 139.91 88.56 51.35 31.70 80.43 125.24 1888.23 6667.90 2314.25 1083.89 620.68 371.25
1974 249.69 144.62 116.85 86.20 171.87 210.12 3869.74 6434.72 2608.73 1380.48 769.49 486.01
1975 312.57 248.90 157.72 103.49 69.17 316.50 2779.82 7920.26 6746.50 2025.78 1103.54 711.85
1976 473.96 299.20 237.63 197.02 193.88 159.82 1796.80 6838.20 3104.70 1185.03 969.92 531.60
1977 334.57 244.97 199.12 99.82 69.69 120.26 2745.76 6170.10 3867.12 1646.41 1354.80 636.66
1978 402.43 273.27 173.97 118.42 94.06 129.17 2722.18 5166.64 2672.40 1478.20 709.76 467.41
1979 328.81 215.36 125.76 77.55 122.62 164.01 1703.79 4401.60 1870.42 886.87 554.39 353.96
1980 225.06 153.27 115.02 119.47 55.28 116.07 1500.47 5313.36 4430.42 1525.63 827.13 495.18
1981 303.13 262.00 209.60 183.40 162.70 78.86 3738.74 5114.24 2902.96 1072.63 676.22 440.16
1982 316.76 203.31 169.78 147.24 137.29 107.94 685.13 4108.16 1911.55 1377.07 577.19 353.70
1983 217.20 149.60 132.83 166.37 254.93 226.63 720.50 5072.32 2229.62 1107.47 574.04 325.40
1984 198.86 115.80 64.45 42.18 106.90 356.58 1576.98 1989.10 1208.87 400.60 235.28 167.94
1985 111.35 71.53 51.61 155.63 159.56 145.15 1529.03 5088.04 3618.22 1255.24 697.97 443.04
1986 285.32 208.03 178.95 238.16 338.50 139.38 3199.02 4962.28 3015.62 1289.83 690.89 411.08
UOG July, 2015

149
1987 251.78 168.20 263.05 232.39 284.27 389.07 580.07 2944.88 1285.11 806.44 585.83 310.99
1988 184.45 147.77 83.84 69.17 36.68 86.72 3801.62 9549.90 5001.58 2435.29 1230.35 736.48
1989 398.50 240.78 217.98 271.17 117.90 137.29 1546.06 4068.86 2466.73 1138.39 637.71 483.39
1990 242.09 169.51 120.26 114.49 59.47 45.85 1345.11 3812.10 2492.93 1035.69 491.51 280.08
1991 166.37 129.95 100.35 146.98 145.15 155.89 3492.46 6793.66 3537.00 1499.95 796.48 473.43
1992 272.22 192.05 136.24 90.39 100.61 72.84 1086.25 5688.02 3065.40 1852.86 1066.08 590.81
1993 324.36 192.05 115.02 470.03 408.98 410.03 3440.06 4192.00 4464.48 1968.93 1018.92 550.72
1994 304.97 169.78 122.35 62.62 164.80 319.64 4826.04 10079.14 5192.84 1794.96 1027.56 386.19
1995 145.41 97.46 116.07 228.99 179.73 199.64 2821.74 6492.36 2942.26 770.54 484.96 282.17
1996 172.40 110.30 207.77 281.13 486.27 1082.85 5219.04 9107.12 3709.92 1679.94 968.09 655.79
1997 470.81 308.37 485.49 424.70 503.83 893.68 3704.68 4865.34 1459.86 1607.63 1296.11 604.17
1998 473.70 170.56 121.04 88.03 263.05 300.78 4794.60 11103.56 4092.44 2416.43 1008.96 556.75
1999 407.67 330.91 189.95 162.96 72.57 198.60 5203.32 8609.32 3316.92 2418.52 1133.15 640.07
2000 414.75 294.49 93.01 294.75 142.53 138.07 3033.96 7998.86 2968.46 2094.17 1277.51 609.41
2001 232.92 231.61 546.27 561.20 466.36 738.84 6293.24 8627.66 2769.34 1137.60 696.66 530.81
2002 622.77 551.51 496.49 514.57 397.72 566.97 2218.35 5389.34 1972.07 608.63 429.94 391.43
2003 340.34 321.47 372.04 359.73 256.76 375.71 3817.34 6688.86 2540.61 722.60 425.49 405.84
UOG July, 2015

150
ANNEX- 5 Data for plotting moment ratio diagram

LCk (τ4)
LCs P- Wakeby
(τ3) GPAR GLOG GEV III LOGN(2) LB OVL
-0.20 0.00 0.20 0.12 0.14 0.15 -0.06 -0.20
-0.10 -0.01 0.18 0.10 0.13 0.13 -0.08 -0.24
0.00 0.00 0.17 0.11 0.12 0.12 -0.07 -0.25
0.10 0.03 0.18 0.13 0.13 0.13 -0.05 -0.24
0.20 0.08 0.20 0.16 0.14 0.15 0.00 -0.20
0.30 0.14 0.24 0.21 0.16 0.19 0.06 -0.14
0.40 0.22 0.30 0.28 0.19 0.25 0.14 -0.05
0.50 0.32 0.38 0.37 0.25 0.32 0.24 0.06
0.60 0.43 0.47 0.46 0.33 0.41 0.36 0.20
0.70 0.55 0.58 0.58 0.44 0.52 0.49 0.36
0.80 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.59 0.65 0.65 0.55
At Border Site
LCs
(τ3) LCk (τ4)
0.07 0.14
UOG July, 2015

151
ANNEX-6 Mass curve computation data

Cum.
Time Flow Volume Cum. Vol Demand Demand
1 217.20 562.98 562.98 735.02 735.02
2 149.60 387.77 950.75 735.02 1470.04
3 132.83 344.31 1295.05 735.02 2205.06
4 166.37 431.23 1726.28 735.02 2940.08
5 254.93 660.77 2387.05 735.02 3675.1
6 226.63 587.42 2974.48 735.02 4410.12
7 720.50 1867.54 4842.01 735.02 5145.14
8 5072.32 13147.45 17989.46 735.02 5880.16
9 2229.62 5779.18 23768.64 735.02 6615.18
10 1107.47 2870.57 26639.21 735.02 7350.2
11 574.04 1487.92 28127.13 735.02 8085.22
12 325.40 843.45 28970.58 735.02 8820.24
13 198.86 515.44 29486.02 735.02 9555.26
14 115.80 300.16 29786.18 735.02 10290.28
15 64.45 167.06 29953.24 735.02 11025.3
16 42.18 109.34 30062.58 735.02 11760.32
17 106.90 277.07 30339.65 735.02 12495.34
18 356.58 924.26 31263.91 735.02 13230.36
19 1576.98 4087.53 35351.44 735.02 13965.38
20 1989.10 5155.76 40507.20 735.02 14700.4
21 1208.87 3133.39 43640.58 735.02 15435.42
22 400.60 1038.35 44678.93 735.02 16170.44
23 235.28 609.84 45288.77 735.02 16905.46
24 167.94 435.31 45724.07 735.02 17640.48
UOG July, 2015

152
Annex-7 Reservoir routing
Time Inflow (I1+I2)/2*(t) O2= CLH^1.5 S= AH H1

0 0.0 20.9223 0.00 0.0 0.00
9 1291.5 93.9843 2.19 19.8 0.03
18 4510.0 227.1564 29.61 112.2 0.17
27 9512.0 409.8114 153.84 336.6 0.51
36 15785.0 572.5404 662.56 891.0 1.35
45 19557.0 645.6024 1669.68 1650.0 2.5
54 20295.0 628.9974 2589.95 2211.0 3.35
63 18532.0 549.2934 3430.01 2666.4 4.04
72 15375.0 441.6930 4059.12 2983.2 4.52
81 11890.0 343.7235 4455.96 3174.6 4.81
90 9327.5 270.6615 4879.27 3372.6 5.11
99 7380.0 212.5440 4994.30 3425.4 5.19
108 5740.0 165.4457 5110.22 3478.2 5.27
117 4472.7 128.9147 5116.04 3480.8 5.27
126 3485.0 98.5673 4979.88 3418.8 5.18
135 2599.4 74.6561 4680.14 3280.2 4.97
144 2009.0 58.2171 4525.62 3207.6 4.86
153 1584.7 46.5936 4359.05 3128.4 4.74
162 1291.5 37.3613 4167.36 3036.0 4.60
171 1014.8 28.3946 3965.19 2937.0 4.45
180 738.0 21.8420 3766.40 2838.0 4.30
189 610.3 17.7035 3583.97 2745.6 4.16
198 482.5 13.6720 3379.20 2640.0 4.00
207 361.9 10.6910 3203.35 2547.6 3.86
216 298.1 8.6218 3006.26 2442.0 3.7
225 234.2 6.6496 2849.22 2356.2 3.57
234 176.3 5.1143 2706.78 2277.0 3.45
243 139.4 3.9188 2566.79 2197.8 3.33
252 102.5 2.9889 2429.30 2118.6 3.21
257 82.0 330.1074 2305.51 2046.0 3.1.
UOG July, 2015

153
Annex-8 Inflow Computation

t/tpeak Q/Qps t=tpk*col 1 Q=Qp*col 2
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.10 0.02 5.15 307.50
0.20 0.08 10.29 1537.50
0.30 0.16 15.44 3280.00
0.40 0.28 20.59 5740.00
0.50 0.43 25.73 8815.00
0.60 0.60 30.88 12300.00
0.70 0.77 36.03 15785.00
0.80 0.89 41.17 18245.00
0.90 0.97 46.32 19885.00
1.00 1.00 51.47 20500.00
1.10 0.98 56.61 20090.00
1.20 0.92 61.76 18860.00
1.30 0.84 66.91 17220.00
1.40 0.75 72.05 15375.00
1.50 0.66 77.20 13530.00
1.60 0.56 82.35 11480.00
1.70 0.49 87.50 10045.00
1.80 0.42 92.64 8610.00
1.90 0.37 97.79 7585.00
2.00 0.32 102.94 6560.00
2.20 0.24 113.23 4920.00
2.40 0.18 123.52 3690.00
2.60 0.13 133.82 2665.00
2.80 0.10 144.11 2009.00
3.00 0.08 154.40 1537.50
3.50 0.04 180.14 738.00
4.00 0.02 205.87 369.00
4.50 0.01 231.60 184.50
5.00 0.00 257.34 82.00
UOG July, 2015

154
ANNEX-9 PWM parameter estimation of LOGNORMAL II

(1+t3)/2 0.5341
P 0.4659
W 1.2360
ф-1(0.5341) 0.0854
Z 0.1394
σy 0.1393
σy/2 0.0697
erf(σy/2) 0.0785
μy 9.8358
Ξ -10842.5940
ANNEX-10 Quantile estimates at T years

XT= ξ + exp(μy+u*σy) XT T P W u
7847.97 2.00 0.50 1.18 0.00
11502.28 10.00 0.10 2.15 1.28
12663.02 20.00 0.05 2.45 1.65
14041.29 50.00 0.02 2.80 2.05
15004.54 100.00 0.01 3.03 2.33
15918.65 200.00 0.01 3.26 2.58
17069.74 500.00 0.00 3.53 2.88
17906.55 1000.00 0.00 3.72 3.09
20500.00 10000.00 0.00 4.29 3.72
UOG July, 2015

155
ANNEX-11 Load and moment calculation

No Name of the forces Magnitude of forces
Vertical Horizontal Moments about the toe
post Neg. Post. Neg. Lever Post. Neg.
(+ve) (-ve) (+ve) (-ve) Arm (+ve) (-ve)
W1 9960 68.5 682260
1 Weight of the dam W2 60984 44 2683296
70944 3365556
Σ 70944 3365556
Water pressure at
2 normal pool level PH 27392.33 24.91 682319.48
U1 967.66 69 66768.54
U2 8104.14 44.67 362011.93
3 Uplift with drainage U3 982.37 69.67 68441.72
4 Silt pressure Ps 1978.09 11.43 22609.57
10054.17 29370.42 3365556 1202151.24
Σ 60889.83 29370.42 2163404.76
Water pressure at
5 maximum flood level PH 31392 26.67 837224.64
U1 1035.94 69 71479.86
U2 8675.96 44.67 387555.13
Uplift max. flood level
6 with drainage U3 1051.63 69.67 73267.06
Silt pressure Ps 1978.09 11.43 22609.57
70944 10763.5 33370.09 3365556 1392038.2
Σ 60180.47 33370.09 1973517.77
Water pressure at
maximum flood level PH 31392 26.67 837224.64
Extreme load
combination at PU1 9751.14 35.5 346165.47
maximum pool level
7 uplift pressure PU2 22984.83 47.33 1087872.00
8 Silt pressure Ps 1978.09 11.43 22609.57
Ph 961.4 4.67 4489.6446
9 Tail water pressure Pv 812.37 7.89 6409.5993
71756 32736 33370.1 3376455 2296983
Σ 39020.4 -32408.71 1079472.24
UOG July, 2015

156
Annex-12 Ethiopia river basin map
UOG July, 2015

157

Border Hydropower Project 3rd Edition PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Border Hydropower Project 3rd Edition PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Border Hydropower Development Project

UOG July, 2015

Name Signature Date

1. …………………………………….. …………………… …………………..

2. …………………………………….. …………………… …………………..

Name Signature Date

1. …………………………………….. …………………… …………………..

2. …………………………………….. …………………… …………………..

UOG July, 2015

Thanks also to:

UOG July, 2015

UOG July, 2015

List of Table ..................................................................................................................................... xi

1.2 Description of the project area ................................................................................................ 3

1.2.1 Location and topography .................................................................................................. 3

1.2.2 Geology of the area........................................................................................................... 4

1.3 Climate and rainfall ................................................................................................................. 5

1.3.2 Rain fall ............................................................................................................................ 5

1.3.3 Temperature ...................................................................................................................... 5

2. Data analysis ................................................................................................................................. 6

2.1 General .................................................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Availability of hydrological data............................................................................................. 6

2.3 Transposing of hydrological data to dam site ......................................................................... 7

2.3.1 Check for the transposed data ........................................................................................... 8

2.4 Flow duration curve ................................................................................................................ 9

2.5 Selection criteria for return period (t) ................................................................................... 11

2.6 Flood estimation .................................................................................................................... 12

UOG July, 2015

2.6.2 The design flood and its importance............................................................................... 12

2.6.3 Estimation of designed flood .......................................................................................... 13

2.6.4 Flood frequency analysis ................................................................................................ 14

3.1 Reservoir planning .................................................................................................................... 21

3.1 General ...................................................................................................................................... 21

3.2 Reservoir site selection.......................................................................................................... 21

3.3 Reservoir capacity determination .......................................................................................... 22

3.4 Reservoir storage capacity determination ............................................................................. 24

3.4.1 Mass curve method ......................................................................................................... 25

3.4.2 Sequent peak algorithm .................................................................................................. 25

3.4.3 Bar graph method ........................................................................................................... 25

3.5 Reservoir yield ...................................................................................................................... 26

3.6 Storage zone of the reservoir ................................................................................................. 27

3.7 Reservoir sedimentation ........................................................................................................ 27

3.8 Useful life of the reservoir .................................................................................................... 28

4. Flood routing ........................................................................................................................... 30

4.2 Inflow hydrograph ............................................................................................................. 30

4.3 Out Flow Hydrograph ........................................................................................................ 33

UOG July, 2015

5.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 35

5.2 Classification of dams ........................................................................................................... 35

5.3 Selection of site for dams ...................................................................................................... 36

5.4 Selection of type of dam........................................................................................................ 36

5.6 Stress analysis ....................................................................................................................... 40

5.7 Design of gravity dam ........................................................................................................... 42

5.7.1 Forces acting on gravity dam .......................................................................................... 42

5.7.2 Determination of section of the dam .............................................................................. 45

5.7.3. Gravity profile selection ................................................................................................ 49

5.7.4 Inspection gallery ........................................................................................................... 49

5.7.5 Combination of forces for designs.................................................................................. 50

5.8 Dam construction .................................................................................................................. 62

5.9 Dam safety instrumentation and surveillance ....................................................................... 62

6.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 63

6.2 Essential requirements of spillway........................................................................................ 63

6.3 Location and type of spillway ............................................................................................... 63