A HANDBOOK

ON

TELECOMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING I
(EEC 128)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING
THE POLYTECHNIC IRESI
IRESI, OSUN STATE.

COURSE CONTENT:

 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION AND APPLICATIONS OF VARIOUS TRANSDUCERS
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF RADIO RECEIVERS

CHAPTER 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM
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1.1 Introduction
Communication is the transmission of
information /message from one point to another.
Communication enters our lives in many ways:
- Telephone – makes us talk to any person
anywhere.
- Radio and television – entertain and educate.
- Communication signals as navigational aids –
ships, aircrafts and satellites.
- Weather forecasting – conditions measured by a
multitude of sensors are communicated to
forecasters.
- Videophones, voicemail and satellite
conferencing – enable seeing live images
instantly and communicate directly with people
located far away.
- Digital data transmission and retrieval – has
made realization of e-mail, FAX and internet
possible.
We communicate through speech. In modern
communication systems, the information is first
converted into electrical signals and then sent
electronically.
Figure 1.1: Communication system
1.2.1 Designing a Communication System
In designing a communication system attention
must be placed on the following questions:
- In what form is the information that is to be
conveyed.
- How can the transmitter use this information?
- How does the transmitter feed the information to
the communication
channel?
- What effects does the communication channel
have on the information?
- In what form the receiver should present the
information to the outside world?
1.2 Communication System
Two persons talking to each other constitute the
simplest communication system. The person who
speaks is the source, the person listening is the
receiver and the intervening air is the
communication link between them. A
communication system consists of three basic
components:
- Transmitter (source)
- Communication channel (link – medium)
- Receiver
Nature/details of these components depend on:
1. Nature of the signal/ message to be
communicated.
2. Distance which separates the source and the
receiver.
Direct talking is possible over short distances –
sound waves attenuate fast. Long distance
communication requires the signal/message to be
converted into an electrical signal/a set of
signals /electromagnetic waves. Long distance
communication requires a link between the source
and the receiver.
- How does the received information differ from
the original information?
-What cause the difference? To what extent can the
two be allowed?
1.2.1.1 Transmitter
Referring to Figure 1.1, in its simplest form, the
transmitters associated with the following
problems:
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1. Size of the antenna or aerial: For transmitting a
signal we need an antenna. It should have a size
comparable to the wavelength of the
electromagnetic wave representing the signal (at
least l/4) so that the time variation of the signal is
properly sensed by the antenna. For an
electromagnetic wave of frequency 20 kHz, the
wavelength l is 15 km. Obviously, such a long
antenna is not possible. Therefore, direct
transmission of such a signal is not possible. If the
frequency of the signal is 1MHz, the
corresponding wavelength is 300m and
transmission of such a signal is possible.
Therefore, there is a need of translating the
information contained in the original low
frequency signal into high or radio-frequencies
before transmission.
2. Effective power radiated by an antenna: The
power radiated from a linear antenna µ  l / l  2
.
For a good transmission we need high power
hence there is need for high frequency
transmission.
3. Mixing up of signals from different
transmitters: Direct transmission of baseband
signal leads to interference from multiple
transmitters. Thus multiple user friendly
communication is not possible. A possible solution
is provided by employing communication at high
frequencies and then allotting a band of
frequencies to each user.
The above arguments suggest that there is a need
for translating the original signal (low frequency)
into a high frequency wave before transmission
such that the translated signal continues to possess
the information contained in the original signal.
The high frequency wave carrying the information
is called the carrier wave. The process of
transformation is called Modulation. Modulation
Transformation of the signal into a form suitable
for transmission through a given communication
channel.
1.2.1.2 Communication channel
In a communication system, the communication
channel or the transmission medium is the
physical path between the transmitter and receiver.
Transmission media can be classified into two
broad categories:
(a) Guided (Point – to – point communication)
(i) Twisted pair
(ii) Coaxial cable
(iii) Optical fibre
(b) Unguided (Free space)
Characteristics and quality of transmission are
determined both by the nature of the signal as well
as the medium. In guided media, the nature of the
medium is more important; in unguided media, the
spectrum or the frequency band of the signal
transmitted by the transmitter is more important.
1.2.1.3 Receiver
This reconstructs the original message or data after
its propagation through the communication
channel, the process consisting of decoupling of
the carrier wave and the modulating signal is
broadly termed as demodulation. The design of
the receiver depends on the modulation process
employed in the transmitter. The antenna receives
the modulated wave transmitted from the
transmitter, which is then amplified by a suitable
amplifier and fed to the demodulator or decoder.
The demodulator or decoder extracts the original
signal. The process of demodulation provides a
means of recovering the original signal from the
modulated wave. In effect, demodulation is reverse
of modulation; therefore, it depends on the
modulation process used.
Figure 1.2 shows a simple communication system.
1.2.1.4 Antenna/Aerial
An antenna is a vital component of any
communication system. It is employed both at the
transmitting end as well as at the receiving end. An
antenna is a length of conductor; its length is such
that it acts as a resonant circuit at the frequency of
operation. l = l/2.
It acts as a conversion device. The first conversion
takes place at the transmitter where electrical
energy is converted into electromagnetic waves.
The second conversion occurs at the receiving end
where the electromagnetic waves are transformed
into electrical signal that is applied to the input of
the receiver.
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The main two types of antenna are:
1. Dipole antenna – Length of dipole = l/2 ; Omni
directional.
2. Dish antenna – A spherical or parabolic dish is
employed as a reflector or collector. The resonant
element is placed at the focus. It is highly
directional.
Figure 1.2: A simple communication system
CHAPTER 2
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION AND
APPLICATIONS OF VARIOUS
TRANSDUCERS
2.1 Introduction
A transducer is a device, usually electrical,
electronic, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic,
photonic, or photovoltaic that converts one type of
energy or physical attribute to another for various
purposes including measurement or information
transfer.
The term transducer is commonly used in two
senses; the sensor, used to detect a parameter in
one form and report it in another (usually an
electrical or digital signal), and the audio
loudspeaker, which converts electrical voltage
variations representing music or speech, to
mechanical cone vibration and hence vibrates air
molecules creating sound.
1.2 Microphones
Microphones are electromechanical transducer that
converts changes in air pressures into
corresponding changes in electrical signals. That
is, a microphone converts sound energy into its
electrical analogue. First, the sound energy is
converted to mechanical energy and then to
electrical energy. This implies that all microphones
need a diaphragm which vibrates when sound
waves produce a difference of pressure between its
surface. The second stage is to find some means
whereby mechanical movement can cause
electrical signals to be generated. This is achieved
based on the principle that an emf is generated if a
coil of wire moves in a magnetic field. In
principle, a microphone should convert sound
energy to its electrical equivalent without changing
the information content in any important way. A
microphone is therefore required to, for normal
sound level:
(1) Produce an electrical signal that is well
above its own electrical noise level.
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 (2) The signal it produces must be
substantially undistorted.
Several varieties of microphones exist which may
be classified according to five basic principles of
operation. The se are variable resistance, variable
reluctance, moving coil induction, variable
capacitance and piezoelectric.
1.2.1 Microphone types
(A)Carbon microphone
This type is designed purposely for telephone use.
In it, carbon granules are packed into a box with
the diaphragm on one side. When the diaphragm
vibrates, the granules are subjected to varying
pressure, so that the area of contact between the
granules alters and the resistance of the device to
electrical current will change. The principle of
operation behind the carbon microphone is
variable resistance. Figure 2.1 shows the schematic
diagram of a carbon microphone.
Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram of a carbon
microphone.
When a current passes through the granules, a
varying resistance causes variations in the current
in sympathy with the sound pressure on the
diaphragm. It is a poor quality and this limits its
use to only telephone.
(B)Moving coil (Dynamic and Ribbon
microphones
Both types of microphone use the same basic idea.
Thai is, if a conductor (coil) moves in magnetic
field, an emf (voltage) will be generated at the coil
terminals. In the microphones, the magnetic field
is provided by a fixed permanent magnet on which
pole pieces are attached. The soft iron (pole
pieces) helps to concentrate the magnetic field so
that an intense field is produced across a narrow
gap.
The coil is held in position by the diaphragm.
When the diaphragm vibrates, the coil moves in
the magnetic field and a voltage is produced. The
frequency and amplitude of this voltage is a replica
of the sound pressure falling on the diaphragm.
The ribbon type consists of a thin strip of metallic
foil placed between two elongated pole pieces. The
sensitivity from both sides are equal, hence this
type is used in broadcasting studios. Figure 2.2
shows the diagram of a moving-coil microphone.
Figure 2.2: A schematic diagram of a moving-coil
microphone
(C)Crystal microphone
Certain materials produce a difference of voltage
between its faces when mechanically deformed.
The mechanical deformation could be in the form
of bending or twisting of the material. This
phenomenon is known as piezo-electric effect.
This is applicable to microphones since we can use
forces due to sound wave to drive a thin layer of
suitable material. When the diaphragm vibrates,
the crystal layer is twisted and a voltage in
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sympathy with the sound is produced. This type of
microphone is very sensitive to humidity and
temperature.
(D)Condenser microphone
In this microphone, the diaphragm is one plate of a
condenser (capacitor), the other plate being fixed.
This type requires a pre-amplifier as part of the
housing and a source of polarizing voltage for the
lead plus a source of power for the amplifier
section. All condenser microphones has in-built
amplifier to amplify the signals because signals
from condenser microphone are always very weak.
Figure 2.3 shows the schematic of a condenser
microphone.
Figure 2.3: A typical diagram of a condenser
microphone
1.2.2 Figure of merit of microphones
(1) Sensitivity: This is a measure of the strength of
the signal that is produced. It is usually expressed
as output voltage per unit of sound pressure at the
microphone diaphragm. The units are mV/µbar,
mV/Pa or dBV.
(2) Impedance: This is the combination of
resistance, capacitance and inductance values.
Only the resistance value determines the basic
impedance of the microphone. The unit is ohm. In
practice, for complete safety, the impedance of a
microphone should be less than a third of the
system it is plugged into. Many professional
microphones have an impedance of about 200
ohms.
(3) Robustness: The amount of relative rough
treatment a microphone can stand when used from
the studio.
(4) Sensitivity to handling: This is related to the
handling noise excited by any movement or
handling.
(5) Sensitivity to wind: Gusting wind produces
erratic pressure gradients.
(6) Shape, size, weight, cost, flexibility of
response, sensitivity to temperature and humidity
variation are also properties to be used.
(7) Frequency response: This can be indicated as
graph over full audio spectrum or expressed by
two frequency limits in hertz (Hz). Within this
limits, the microphone should respond uniformly
and with little variation of sensitivity to input
signals.
1.3 Loudspeakers
Loudspeakers are transducers that convert
electrical energy into acoustic or sound energy.
One of the factors affecting the choice of a
loudspeaker is its frequency response i.e. the range
of frequencies it can reproduce. To adequately
reproduce a wide range of frequencies, most
loudspeaker systems require more than one driver,
particularly for high sound pressure level or high
accuracy. Individual drivers are used to reproduce
different frequency ranges. The drivers are named
subwoofers (very low frequencies), woofers (low
frequencies), mid-range speakers (middle
frequencies), tweeters (high frequencies) and
sometimes super tweeters optimized for the
highest audible frequencies.
1.3.1 The moving coil loudspeaker
This type of loudspeaker is as shown in Figure 2.4.
It is most widely used because it has a simple
structure and easy assembling process. The
interaction of the magnetic flux (due to the
permanent magnet) and the current I (due to
electrical signal) results in a force which acts on
the vibrating assembly (the voice coil, diaphragm,
inner and outer suspensions). The force is
proportional to the length of the wire (voice coil)
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and the current (assuming flux density is constant).
The movement or response of the diaphragm of the
entire vibrating system to the force is basically
linear, facilitating the reproduction of source with
high fidelity.
The shape of the diaphragm gives rise to vibrations
in the loudspeaker types. Thus, there are the cone-
shaped and the dome-shaped variants which
provide greater mechanical strength than it would
in flat diaphragm.
Figure 2.4: Cross-section of a typical moving-coil
loudspeaker
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.1: Classifications of modulations
3.2 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used
in electronic communication, most commonly for
PRINCIPLES OF MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION
3.1 Introduction
Modulation is the addition of information (or the
signal) to an electronic or optical signal carrier.
This can also be defined as the process of varying
one or more properties of s periodic waveform
called the carrier signal with a modulating signal
that typically contains information to be
transmitted.
In telecommunications, modulation is the process
of conveying a message signal, for example, a
digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside
another signal that can be physically transmitted.
Modulation can also be defined as a process
whereby the characteristic of a wave is varied in
accordance with another. The characteristic varied
tells us the type of modulation.
V  t   A t  sin  c t   c  t   ………. (1)
Where V(t) is the modulated wave, A(t), ω c and θc
are the amplitude, angular frequency and phase of
the waveform.
Keeping ωc and θc constant we have amplitude
modulation. Keeping A(t) and θc constant we have
frequency modulation and keeping A(t) and ωc
constant we have pulse modulation.
transmitting information via a radio carrier wave.
AM works by varying the strength of the
transmitted signal in relation to the information
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being sent. For example, changes in the signal S  t   Am sin  m t ………………. (3)
strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be
reproduced by a speaker, or to specify the light Then the AM signal is
intensity of television pixels. AM is actually about
the variation of a carrier signal’s amplitude in X  t    Ac  Am sin  m t  sin  c t  c  0o 
accordance with the baseband signal.
X (t )  Ac sin  c t  Am sin  m t. sin  c t
Let the carrier signal be
X  t   Ac 1  m sin  m t  sin  c t …… (4)
C  t   Ac sinc t   c  ………. (2)
Am
and assuming a baseband signal of single tone that Where m  = modulation index  0  m  1
it is given by
Ac

Figure 3.2: Generation of an AM waveform

3.2.1 Spectral properties of AM Vm

X (t )  Ac sin  c t  cos( c   m )t
2
(A) Side frequencies and sidebands: The Fourier {for a
V
transform of X(t) can be obtained as follows;  m cos( c   m )t
Given that: 2
single tone modulating signal}
X  t   Ac 1  m sin  m t  sin  c t
Ac N
X (t )  Ac sin  c t  a m cos  c   m  t
 Ac sin  c t  mAc sin  m sin  c t 2 m 1
…
A N

Using the trigonometry identity:  c a m cos  c   m  t

2 m 1

2 sin A sin B  cos( A  B )  cos( A  B ) . …………… (6) {for a multiple frequency

Hence, modulating signal}

The modulated wave is said to consist of:

(i)The Carrier Ac sin  c t which is unaffected by

the modulation
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 (ii)The Upper sideband component (fc + fm) which
are in ‘up converted’ copy of the original
modulation spectrum

**Equations (5) and (6) can be re-written as

equations (7) and (8) below respectively.

X (t )  Ac sin 2f c t 
mAc
 cos 2  f c  f m  t  cos 2  f c  f m  t  Figure 3.4: Sidebands on an amplitude-modulated
2
carrier when modulated with an audio signal
……….(7) containing many frequencies.

Ac N (B)Modulation index: The modulation index shows

X (t )  Ac sin 2f c t  a m cos 2  f c  f m  t the relationship between the original carrier wave
2 m 1
amplitude and the signal wave amplitude. As an
A N
 c a m cos 2  f c  f m  t indicator of the level of modulation of an amplitude-
2 m 1
modulated signal, the modulation index is very
……….. (8) important. This is the ratio of the modulating signal
amplitude Am to that of the carrier signal amplitude Ac
(iii)The Lower sideband components (fc - fm)
and it is represented as m.
which are a ‘mirror image’ of the upper sideband
spectrum. Am
m
The frequencies and sidebands on an amplitude Ac
modulated carrier when modulated with a single
tone are as shown in Figure 3.3while Figure 3.4 Too low a level of modulation i.e. the modulation does
shows the sidebands on an amplitude-modulated not utilize the carrier efficiently and too high
carrier when modulated with an audio signal modulation, the carrier can become over-modulated
containing many frequencies. causing side bands to extend beyond the allowed
bandwidth causing interference to other users.
Modulation index can also be defined as the measure
of extent of amplitude variation about an un-modulated
carrier. When expressed as a percentage it is also
known as depth of modulation.

Figures 3.4(a) to (c) show AM waves with the same

carrier and signal frequencies but with different
modulation coefficients.

Figure 3.3: The frequencies and sidebands on an

amplitude modulated carrier when modulated with a
single tone (LSB – Lower SideBand, USB – Upper
SideBand)

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 (a) e(t )  101  0.8 sin 3140t  2 sin 5t
Volts

e(t )  201  0.8 sin 3140t  sin 5t ………. (a)

X  t   Ac 1 m sin  c t  sin  m t …….. (b)

Comparing equation (a) to (b), it implies

Carrier amplitude, Ac = 20V

Am
(b) Also, m  , where m = modulation
Ac
index = 0.8.

Am = modulating signal amplitude = ? and

AC = carrier signal amplitude = 20V

Figure 3.4: Modulated wave using different
modulation index  Am  m  Ac  0.8  20  16V
(C)Modulation envelope: This is the waveform
(c) From equations (a) and (b) above,
observed when the carrier, upper sideband and
lower sideband are combined in single impedance  c t  3140t or  c t  3140 , but
and observed as time versus amplitude.
 c t  2f c  2f c  3140 , where
(D)Bandwidth: This is the amount of space in the 3140
frequency spectrum used by a signal. In an fc   499.75Hz

amplitude-modulated wave, the bandwidth is
double the modulating frequency. Also from equations (a) and (b)

 f c  f m    f c  f m   2 f m  Bandwidth( BW ) sin  m t  sin 5t or  m  5 , but

 m t  2f m , 2f m  5 where
Example
5
fm   0.80 Hz
In an AM wave, the emf generated is given by 

e(t )  101  0.8 sin 3140t  2 sin 5t Volts (d) The bandwidth, BW = 2fm = 2 x 0.8 =
1.6Hz
Find (a) the peak instantaneous value of the wave,
or the carrier amplitude AC (e) LSB = fc – fm = 499.75 – 0.8 = 498.95Hz

(b) the minimum instantaneous value of the wave USB = fc + fm = 499.75 + 0.8 = 500.55Hz
or modulating signal amplitude, Am
Example
(c) the side frequencies
An audio signal is given by 8 cos 2  500t 
(d) the bandwidth amplitude-modulates a carrier wave
60 cos 2 (15,000)t . Determine (a) modulation
(e) the LSB and USB index (b) percentage modulation (c) frequencies of
Solution signal and carrier (d) frequency spectrum of the
modulated wave (e) the bandwidth
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Solution modulated wave and (b) the bandwidth occupied
by the signal
C (t )  60 cos 2 (15,000)t {Carrier wave}….
(i) Solution

S (t )  8 cos 2  500t  {Modulating or audio Vm

X (t )  Ac sin  c t  cos( c   m )t
signal}……….. (ii) 2
Vm
Comparing equation (i) to equation (2) and  cos( c   m )t
2
equation (ii) to (3) in section 3.2,
fc = 4MHz
Carrier signal amplitude, AC = 60V
(a) The lower sideband frequency
Audio signal amplitude Am = 8V
= 4MHz – (300 – 3.4 kHz)
Am 8
(a) Modulating index, m    0.13
Ac 60 = 4 x 106 – 300 = 3999700Hz

(b) Percentage modulation = m x 100% = 4 x 106 – 3.4 x 103 = 3996600Hz

= 0.13 x 100% = 13% Lower sideband frequency = 3996600Hz –

3999700Hz
(c) From equation (i), by inspection and
comparison, The upper side band frequency

2f c t  2 (15,000)t = 4MHz + (300 – 3.4 kHz)

= 4 x 106 + 300 = 4000300Hz

 f c (carrierfrequency)  15,000 Hz
From equation (ii), by inspection and comparison,
2f m t  2 (500)t
= 4 x 106 + 3.4 x103 = 4003400Hz
Upper side band frequency = 4000300 –
4003400Hz

 f m ( signalfreq uency)  500 Hz (b)The bandwidth occupied = Upper highest freq.

– Lowest freq.
(d) The frequency spectrum of the modulated
wave contains three frequencies, namely = 4003400Hz – 3996600Hz = 6800Hz

(i) fc – fm = 15,000 – 500 = 14,500Hz (LSF) Note: It should be noted that the bandwidth
occupied by the modulated wave is twice the
(ii) fc + fm = 15,000 + 500 = 15,500Hz (USF) highest frequency.

(iii) fc = 15,000Hz Example

(e) Bandwidth, BW = 2fm = 2 x 500Hz = Determine the depth modulation or modulation

1000Hz index of an AM wave, if the maximum voltage is
10V and minimum is 5V.
Example
Solution
A 4MHz carrier wave has its amplitude modulated
by the band of audio frequency 300Hz – 3.4 kHz. Ac  Am 10  5
Determine (a) the frequency contained in the m   0.333  33.3%
Ac  Am 10  5
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3.3 Frequency Modulation (FM)
This is a special form of angle modulation. In this
case, the frequency of the carrier is varied in
sympathy with the modulating signal. The amount
of variation in frequency is determined by the
amplitude of the modulating signal whereas rate of
change is determined by the frequency of the
modulating signal. Hence, the amount of
frequency deviation depends on the amplitude
OR
Figure 3.5: Generation of an FM waveform
3.3.1 Parameters of frequency-modulated wave
(A)FM modulation index: This is equal to the
ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency.
(loudness) of the audio signal i.e. louder the sound,
greater the frequency deviation and vice versa.
Figure 3.5 illustrates a frequency-modulated wave.
The frequency modulated wave has a constant
power and its frequency is changing as a function
of time.
(B)Frequency deviation: Frequency deviation, Δf
is the change or shift above or below the resting
frequency fc. Where fc is the allotted frequency of
the transmitter or the carrier frequency on which a
station is allowed to broadcast. When the
audio/modulating signal is applied, the carrier
frequency deviates up and down from its resting
value fc. Unlike AM, modulation index β can be
greater than 1.
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(C)Deviation ratio: This is the worst-case
modulation index in which maximum permitted
frequency deviation and maximum permitted
audio frequency are used.
(D)Carrier swing: This is the total variation in
frequency from the lowest to the highest.
Carrier swing = 2 x frequency deviation of carrier
signal
(E)Percentage modulation: This is given by the
ratio of actual frequency deviation to the
maximum allowed frequency deviation.
f
m  actual  100%
f m (max)
Example
An FM signal has a resting frequency of 105MHz
and highest frequency of 105.03MHz when
modulated by a signal of frequency 5 kHz.
Determine (i) frequency deviation (ii) carrier
swing (iii) modulation index (iv) percentage
modulation.
Solution
(i) Frequency deviation Δf = fmax –fc
= 105.03 – 105 = 0.03 MHz = 30 kHz
(ii) Carrier swing = 2 x Δf = 2 x 30 = 60kHz
(ii) Modulating index,
f actual 30
m  100%  100  60%
f m (max) 5 f
3.3.2. FM sidebands
In FM, when a carrier is modulated, a number
of sidebands are formed. Theoretically, their
number is infinite, though their strength
becomes negligible after a few sidebands. The
sidebands lie on both sides of the centre
frequency spaced fm apart as shown in Figure
3.6.
Figure 3.6: Sidebands of a FM-modulated
wave
If fc is the centre frequency and fm the
frequency of the modulating signal, then FM
carrier contains the following frequencies.
f c , f c  f m , f c  2 f m , f c  3 f m and so
on.
Hence, the bandwidth occupied by the
spectrum is BW = 2n fm. where n is the highest
order of the significant sideband.
Approximately, BW  21    f m {for β< 6}
f
But   , hence BW  2 f  f m 
fm
The numbers of sidebands depends directly on
the amplitude of the modulating signal and
also depend inversely on the frequency of the
modulating signal. Based on the formula
 , the number of pairs of sidebands
fm
increases if frequency deviation increases. It
also increases as the modulating signal
frequency decreases.
Example
A 5 kHz audio signal is used to frequency-
modulate a 100MHz carrier causing a
Page | 13
frequency deviation of 20kHz. Determine
(a) modulation index (b) bandwidth of the FM
signal given that the highest order of the
significant sideband is 7.
Solution
f 20kHz
(a)    4
fm 5kHz
(b) BW = 2n fm = 2 x 7 x 5 = 70 kHz
Example
In an FM circuit, the modulation index is 10
and the highest modulation frequency is
20kHz. What is the approximate bandwidth of
the resultant FM signal?
Solution
Approximate bandwidth is given by
f
BW  2 f  f m  , but   ,
fm
 f   f m  10  20  200kHz
 BW  2(200  20)  440kHz
Example
A 100MHz carrier wave is frequency-
modulated by a 10V, 10 kHz sinusoidal
voltage using a linear modulator. The
instantaneous carrier frequency varies between
99.95MHz and 100.05MHz. Calculate (i) the
sensitivity of the modulator (ii) the modulation
index and (iii) the peak phase deviation of the
carrier.
Solution
fc = 100MHz, fmax = 100.05MHz
Peak frequency deviation, Δf = fmax –fc
= (100.05 – 100) MHz = 0.05MHz
(i) Modulator sensitivity
f 0.05  10 6 Hz
   5kHz / V
Am 10V
f 50  10 3
(ii) Modulation index,    5
f m 10  10 3
(iii) The peak phase deviation of the carrier =
modulation index in radians i.e. 5 rad.
3.3.3 Mathematical expression for FM wave
The unmodulated carrier wave expression is
given by ec  A sin  o t . The modulating
signal frequency expression is given by
em  B sin  m t , where  o  2f o and
 m  2f m .
The modulated carrier frequency f swings
around the resting frequency fo, thus
f  f o  f  sin 2f m t
Equation for the frequency-modulated wave
becomes
e  A sin 2ft  A sin 2  f o  f  sin 2f m t  t 
 f 
 A sin  2f o t   cos 2f m t 
 fm 
 A sin  2f o t   cos 2f m t 
Where:
A - The power of the carrier wave.
fo - The frequency of the carrier wave.
fm - The frequency of the modulating wave.
 - The modulation index.
Exercise
An FM signal has a resting frequency of 100MHz
and the highest frequency of 100.05MHz when
modulated by an audio signal of 5 kHz. Determine
(i) frequency deviation (ii) carrier swing (iii)
modulation index (iv) percentage modulation.
[(i) 50 kHz (ii) 100 kHz (iii) 10 (iv) 66.7%]
3.3.4. Advantages of FM over AM
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 1. Improved signal to noise ratio (about
25dB) w.r.t. to man-made interference.
2. Smaller geographical interference between
neighboring stations i.e. due to ‘guard-
band’ there is hardly any adjacent-channel
interference
3. Less radiated power. Since only
transmitter frequency is modulated in FM,
only fraction of a watt of audio power is
required to produce 100% modulation as
compared to high power required in AM.
4. All transmitted power in FM is useful
whereas in AM most of it is in carrier
which serves no useful purpose
5. Well defined service areas for given
transmitter power.
3.3.5 Disadvantages of FM
1. Has much more bandwidth (as much as 20
times as much).
2. Requires more complicated receiver and
transmitter.
Figure 3.7: The AM demodulation process
3.4.1 Types of AM demodulator
The major types of AM demodulator are:
(1) Diode AM Detector: This is just a circuit
consisting diode along with a capacitor to
remove the high frequency components. Its
3.4 Principle of AM Demodulation
The process of separating or extracting the
modulating signal from a signal is called
demodulation or detection. An AM signal consists
of a carrier which acts as the reference. Any
modulation that is applied then appears as
sidebands which stretch out either side of the
signal. When demodulating a signal, two basics
may be considered:
(i) Create baseband signal: The main
element of AM demodulation is to create the
baseband signal. This can be achieved in the
easiest way in the use of a simple diode and rectify
the signal. This leaves elements of the original RF
(Radio Frequency) signal. When other forms of
demodulation are used, they too leave some
elements of an RF signal.
(ii) Filter: The filtering removes any
unwanted high frequency elements from the
demodulation process. The audio can then be
presented to further stages for audio amplification
etc.
The AM demodulation process is outlined in
Figure 3.7.
performance is more than adequate for most
applications including broadcasting receivers
where cost is a significant driver. A typical
circuit diagram of a diode AM detector is as
shown in Figure 3.8.
Page | 15
 Figure 3.8: A typical diode AM detector circuit diagram

(2) Synchronous AM detector: This form of AM offers a higher level of performance but at the higher level
performance the cost is considerably more in the use of components. Figure 3.9 illustrates the circuit
diagram of a synchronous AM detector.

Figure 3.9: A simple synchronous AM detector circuit diagram

3.5 Principle of FM Demodulation
FM demodulation involves changing the frequency
variations in a signal into amplitude variations in a
signal at baseband e.g. audio.
There is a wide variety of different techniques and
circuits that can be used including the Foster-
Seeley and Ratio detector using discreet
components and where integrated circuits are used
the Phase Locked Loop and Quadrature detectors
are more widely used.
A simple method of converting frequency
variations into voltage variations is to make use of
the principle that reactance (of coil or capacitor)
varies with frequency. When an FM signal is
applied to an inductor, the current flowing through
it varies in amplitude according to the changes in
Page | 16
frequency of the applied signal. Now, changes in
frequency of the FM signal depend on the
amplitude of the modulating AF signal. Hence, the
current in the inductor varies as per the amplitude
of the original modulating signal. In this way,
frequency changes in FM signal are converted into
amplitude changes in current. These changes in
current when passed through a resistor produce
corresponding change in voltage.
FM demodulation may be carried out with the help
of (i) ratio detector and (ii) Quadrature detector.

3.5.1 Ratio detector

Figure 3.10: Circuit diagram of a ratio detector

The output is a measure of the p.d. between point C5 as the RF and C6 as the AF decoupling
A and point B. at the centre frequency both D1 and capacitors. R1 is made variable to ensure balance
D2 conduct equally, producing equal potentials at A in the circuit.
and B and give a zero output. When the input
frequency deviates from the centre frequency, the
currents through the diodes are now unequal and
an output voltage is produced. The voltage is
therefore a measure of the deviation. There are
numerous designs for a ration detector, but the one
shown in Figure 3.10 is a common one with C4 and

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF
RADIO RECEIVERS

4.1 Introduction
CHAPTER 4
After an audio or modulating signal has been

Page | 17
modulated using any appropriate method and
transmitted into the atmosphere in the process of
broadcasting, the modulated audio signal is
received at the receiving end antenna where it is
demodulated and the intelligent/audio signal
extracted by a demodulating circuit which is what
mainly make up the receiver system. Nearly all
modern receivers use the superheterodyne fr X 2 f r L
Q=  L 
principle. The simplest receiver would consist of a BW R R
demodulator connected directly to an antenna.
Adding a tuned circuit would improve the
performance.
Two important specifications are fundamental to
all receivers:
4.2 AM Radio Receiver
Sensitivity: This is ability to receive weak signals
Figure 4.1 illustrates the block diagram of a tuned
with an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio
radio receiver. The signal is selected by tuning the
Selectivity: Selectivity refers to the ability of a
radio frequency amplifier to give a maximum gain
receiver to differentiate between the desired signal
at the desired frequency. The amplified carrier is
and other undesired frequencies. Initial selectivity
then passed to a detector/filter circuit which
is obtained using LC tuned circuits like the parallel
extracts the audio signal and removes the RF
resonant circuit depicted below. The filter
component of the carrier. The audio signal is then
characteristic of an RLC circuit does not provide
further amplified to a level sufficient to drive a
ideal selectivity. An ideal filter would provide
loudspeaker.
constant gain across the passband.

Figure 4.1: Block diagram of a tuned radio frequency receiver

4.2.1 Disadvantages of tuned radio receiver 3. Selectivity is difficult as it is impossible to

1. The tuned radio frequency receiver can only
receive one station
2. Sensitivity is lower compared with
superheterodyne receiver as very weak signal
may not be amplified enough.
tune one carrier without any nearby carrier not
appearing.
4. There is noise and lower output than in
superheterodyne receiver.
4.2.2 Superheterodyne Radio Receiver
Most of the shortcomings of the tuned radio
frequency receiver can be suppressed by he
superheterodyne radio receiver. The block
Page | 18
diagram of a superheterodyne radio receiver is
as shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Block diagram of a superheterodyne radio receiver
In a superheterodyne radio receiver, the wanted
signal frequency is converted into a constant
frequency known as the intermediate frequency at
which most of the gain and selectivity of the
receiver is provided at fixed frequency.
The wanted signal of frequency fs is passed
together with many other unwanted frequencies by
the RF stage to the mixer ( or frequency changer);
this is passed with the output voltage of the local
oscillator at frequency fo. The RF stage is not
provided to select the wanted signal alone but
chiefly to prevent certain particular troublesome
frequencies from reaching the mixer stage. In the
mixer stage, the input frequencies are combined
with the output of the local oscillator at a
frequency fo to generate components of the sum
and difference of the wanted signal frequency and
the local oscillator frequency i.e. at fs ± fo . One of
the mixing process ids the difference either fs –
fo or fo – fs according to which frequency is
higher. The difference frequency is known as the
intermediate frequency (IF) which is selected by
the IF amplifier and amplified, the IF amplifier
employs double tuned coupled circuits or IF
transformers to obtain the necessary
gain/frequency characteristic. The output of the IF
amplifier is detected and the AF voltage is
amplified by the AF amplifier. The IF amplifier
operates at a fixed frequency and can be pre-tuned
and easily screened to reduce feedback to such an
extent that instability is avoided. This makes it
relatively easy to provide the necessary gain and
selectivity.
4.2.2.1 Functions of each stage
(a)Aerial - Intercepts the electromagnetic wave
that radiated into the atmosphere.
(b)RF stage – Suppresses the image signal and at
or near the intermediate frequency, couples the
aerial to the receiver and reduces local oscillator
radiation. The RF stage may provide amplification
of the signal and an improvement in the signal to
noise ratio.
(c)Frequency changer – Converts the wanted
signal frequency to the intermediate frequency.
(d)IF amplifier – Provides most of the gain and
selectivity of the receiver.
(e)Detector – Extracts the AF intelligence from the
modulated output of the amplifier and produces
the AGC voltage.
Page | 19
(f)AF amplifier – Amplifies the detected signal, it
also provide sufficient power to operate the
loudspeaker.
(g)The loudspeaker is an output transducer that
converts the audio signal current to sound.
4.2.2.2 Choice of local oscillator
The local oscillator frequency can be higher than
the signal or vice versa e.g. take a receiver with IF
of 465kHz that is tunable over the band from
500kHz to 1500kHz. If the frequency of the
oscillator is higher than the wanted signal
frequency, the oscillator must be tunable from (500
+ 465)kHz = 965kHz to (1500 + 465)kHz =
1965kHz. A frequency ratio of 1965/965 or
2.036:1 such a frequency ratio would require the
use of a variable capacitor having a ratio of
maximum capacitance to minimum capacitance of
(20.36)2 : (1)2 which give us 4.139:1 which is
easily obtained. If the signal frequency is higher
than the local oscillator frequency, oscillator
frequency must then be variable from (500 –
465)kHz = 35kHz to (1500 – 465)kHz = 1035kHz
frequency ratio 1035/35 or 29.57:1 and requires a
capacitor ratio (29.57)2 : (1)2 or 874:1 which is
easily not available, hence fo is usually greater the
fs.
4.2.2.3 Choice of intermediate frequency in
superheterodyne receiver
The main factors to be considered when using the
IF for a superheterodyne radio receiver are:
(a)The required IF bandwidth (b)Interference
signal (c) The required IF gain and stability (d)
The required adjacent channel selectivity.
For Amplitude-modulated superheterodyne
receiver, IF is usually 470kHz and for FM
receiver, IF is 10.7MHz.
Adjacent channel interference
Adjacent channel to the original channel can be
received and appears as a sort of interference to
the actual signal. The spacing between the carrier
frequencies allocated to different transmitters is
limited by the available frequency spectrum e.g.
9kHz for sound broadcast transmitters in the
medium waveband.
The selectivity of a radio receiver is its ability to
reject signals at the carrier frequencies adjacent to
the wanted signal carrier frequency. The selectivity
is mainly determined by the gain/ frequency
characteristics of the IF amplifier.
The sensitivity of a radio receiver is its ability to
receive any small signal and produce an output of
satisfactorily of S/N ratio.
Image channel interference
No matter what frequency a superheterodyne
receiver is tuned to, there is always another
frequency that will also produce the intermediate
frequency. This other frequency is known as the
image frequency, fim. The image signal has a
frequency fim such that the difference between it
and the local oscillator frequency is equal to the
intermediate frequency fi i.e.
f i  f im  f o ………………… (i)
but f o  f s  f i …………….. (ii)
From equation (i) above
f im  f i  f o ……………….. (iii)
 f im  f i  ( f s  f i )  f s  2 f i
To stop image frequency, the RF stage must
include a resonant circuit with sufficient selectivity
to reject the image signal when tuned to the
wanted signal frequency. Any voltage of the image
signal frequency reaching the mixer will produce a
signal appearing to crosstalk at the output of the
receiver.
Intermediate frequency (IF) breakthrough
If a signal at the intermediate frequency is picked
up by an aerial and is allowed to reach the mixer, it
will reach the IF amplifier and interfere with the
wanted signal such a signal must be suppressed in
the RF stage by an IF trap which consists of either
Page | 20
parallel or series resonance and tuned to
intermediate frequency connected in series with
aerial lead or connected between the aerial lead
Figure 4.3: IF trap circuits
Example
A superheterodyne radio receiver has an
intermediate frequency of 465kHz and is tuned to
1065kHz. Calculate (a) the frequency of the local
oscillator (b) the frequency of the image signal
Solution
(a) f o  f s  f i ,
= 1065 + 465 = 1530 kHz
(b)  f im  f s  2 f i
= 1065 + 930 = 1995kHz
4.2.3 Double conversion superheterodyne radio
receiver
The front-end selectivity of any receiver must
reject the first image frequency located at 2IF
above the desired signal frequency and for this to
occur, the IF should be high. However, as the IF
gets higher, its bandwidth gets larger. Beyond the
HF band (about 30MHz), it becomes impossible to
obtain the required bandpass with good image
rejection using ordinary circuits. One solution to
and earth. Figure 4.3(a) and (b) illustrate these IF
traps.
this problem is to employ the double
superheterodyne principle as illustrated in Figure
4.4. Thus, single conversion superheterodyne
receivers using only one IF are seldom used
beyond 20 or 30MHz. the wanted signal is picked
up by the aerial and is amplified by the RF stage
before arriving at the first mixer. The first
intermediate frequency may be made as high as it
is necessary to obtain the required image rejection;
for example, a receiver operating in the HF band
might have a first IF of 4MHz. the first local
oscillator must be of variable frequency in order
that the wanted signal frequency can always be
translated into the first IF. The frequency of the
second local oscillator is fixed because the input to
the second changer is always at the same
frequency. The second IF is chosen primarily to
give adequate adjacent channel selectivity and is
often about 100kHz.
Example
A double superheterodyne receiver has
intermediate frequencies of 4MHz and 100kHz
and is tuned to receive a signal at 20MHz.
Page | 21
Calculate the frequencies of the first and second
local oscillators.
Solution
Figure 4.4: Block diagram of a double conversion superheterodyne radio receiver
4.2.3.1 Automatic gain control (AGC)
AGC is employed for two reasons: to vary the gain
of the receiver to obtain a constant output power
with large variation in the input signal level and to
protect the IF amplifiers from overloading which
causes various forms of distortions.
This is achieved by feeding the dc output of the
detector back to the RF or the first of second IF
amplifier or both to control their gain. The AM
detector described in section 3.4.1 produces a dc
f o1  f s  f i1  20  4  20MHz
f o 2  f i1  f i 2  4MHz  100kHz  4.1MHz
voltage at its output in the same manner as a dc
power supply.
The level of this dc voltage is determined by the
amplitude of the IF. A high amplitude IF produces
a high dc voltage at the output of the detector and
vice versa. The dc voltage thus produced is
employed as the feedback dc control. The block
diagram of the application of AGC to a receiver is
as shown in Figure 4.5.
Page | 22
 Figure 4.5: Application of AGC to a receiver

4.3 FM Receiver The signal to noise ratio of an FM receiver is

The arrangement of an FM receiver is similar to
that of a superheterodyne radio receiver that is
amplitude-modulated. The block diagram of a FM
receiver is as shown in Figure 4.6.
The limiter ensures that the signal remains at
constant amplitude, for certain type of FM detector
(discriminator) will respond to amplitude changes
as well as frequency changes and this is
undesirable.
greater then that of AM receiver because the FM
does not respond to amplitude variation. It is
therefore used in sound portion of TV receiver.
Basic difference between FM and AM radio
receivers are:
(i)Much higher operating frequency in FM
(ii)Need for limiting and de-emphasis in FM
(iii)Totally different method of demodulation

(iv) Different methods of obtaining AGC.

Figure 4.6: Block diagram of a FM receiver

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