Qsn no.

15 is your written assignment due September and 16 is your presentation qsn due next
block.
Question 1
a) Explain the ethical and societal challenges one can face when using Information
Technology? [10]
 Intellectual property - Millions of dollars of software is illegally copied each year
all over the world. This phenomenon has a great impact on the software industry
in the region. Local and foreign software industries need consumers support all
over the world to maintain the progress of technology. Most importantly, for the
sake of growth in indigenous ICT innovation and invention, local software
industries in Asia-Pacific need local support in protecting their intellectual
property rights and investment
 Crime - Stolen and counterfeit ATM cards are used to steal millions of dollars
each year throughout the region. The anonymity of the machines makes some
crimes easier and creates many new types of crimes.
 Loss of privacy - Transactions are transmitted and recorded in databases at banks,
hospitals, shopping complexes, and various organizations, in the public or private
sector. The contents of electronic communications and databases can provide
important and private information to una uthorized individuals and organizations
if they are not securely guarded.
 Errors - Information input into the databases is prone to human and device error.
Computer programmes that process the information may contain thousands of
errors. These errors can create wrong and misleading information about
individuals and organizations. Information and programme errors might result in
financial loss, or even the loss of lives.
 Freedom of speech and press - How do the constitutional rights of individuals in
terms of the freedoms of speech and press apply to electronic media? How
seriously do the problems of pornography, harassment, libel, and censorship on
the net affect individuals and society? What government initiatives have been
used in handling this crisis?
 Digital Divide - How does ICT affect local community life? The increasing use
of computers has increased the separation of rich and poor, creating a digital
divide between the information “haves” and “have-nots.” What subsidies and
programmes have been provided by governments of the region to address the
issue?
 Unemployment - The automation of work has caused creative destruction by
eliminating some vocations and creating new ones. How does this affect the
employment or unemployment of the work force of a nation?
 Professional Ethics - How well trained and ethical are our ICT professionals in
dispensing their duties? Faulty and useless systems that cause disasters and
hardships to users might be built by incompetent ICT professionals. In dispensing
their duties ICT professionals must demonstrate their best practices and standards
as set by professional bodies for quality assurance.

b) List and explain factors you would consider before buying computer hardware [10]
  Warranty

Warranty makes up the most important consideration for people when buying a
system. Having one covered with the right kind of hardware warrantee is essential
and should be unconditional. I still remember when Sony had to recall several
Laptops due to a battery fault because of which their Laptops caught fire. I’m sure
none of us would like to have a Laptop that we can fry omelets on without the
guarantee of replacement.

 Price

This brings us to our next consideration of price. There might be some very fancy
features that you want in your new PC. However, if you don’t have the cash to
pay for lets say a graphic card with 1GB memory, than you might be better off
choosing suitable alternatives.

Question 2
a) Explain the following terms
i. ROM - ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only
be read and contents of which are not lost even when the computer is switched
off. It typically contains manufacturer’s instructions. Among other things, ROM
also stores an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to
start the operation of computer system once the power is turned on
ii. USB Port - A USB port is a standard cable connection interface on personal
computers and consumer electronics. USB ports allow stand-alone electronic
devices to be connected via cables to a computer (or to each other).

USB stands for Universal Serial Bus, an industry standard for short-distance
digital data communications. USB allows data to be transferred between devices.
USB ports can also supply electric power across the cable to devices without their
own power sourc e.

Both wired and wireless versions of the USB standard exist, although only the
wired version involves USB ports and cables.

iii. RAM - RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is
the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs and the
data in current use are kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the
computer’s processor. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible
only as long as the computer is on. The contents of RAM are no more available
once the computer is turned off.
iv. Floppy disk - A floppy disk, or diskette, is a disk storage medium composed of a
disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic
carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particles. Floppy disks are read and
written by a floppy disk drive (FDD).
 Floppy disks, initially as 8-inch media and later in 5¼-inch and 3½-inch sizes,
were a ubiquitous form of data storage and exchange from the mid-1970s well
into the 2000s.

By 2010, computer motherboards were rarely manufactured with floppy drive

support; 3½-inch floppy disks can be used with an external USB floppy disk
drive, but USB drives for 5¼-inch, 8-inch and non-standard diskettes are rare or
non-existent, and those formats must usually be handled by old equipment.

While floppy disk drives still have some limited uses, especially with legacy
industrial computer equipment, they have been superseded by data storage
methods with much greater capacity, such as USB flash drives, portable external
hard disk drives, optical discs, memory cards and computer networks.

v. Flash disk - A universal serial bus (USB) flash drive is a small, portable device
that plugs into a computer's USB port. Like a hard disk, a USB flash drive stores
information, but with a flash drive you can easily transfer that information from
one computer to another. USB flash drives vary in size and shape and can hold
gigabytes of information. USB flash drives are also called pen drives, key chain
drives, key drives, and memory keys.

Why should I use USB Flash Disk (Drive)?

Small Its small size is convenient for carrying files anywhere.

It can be used on Windows, Macs, and Linus. No

Universal
formatting for PC or Mac necessary.

Plug-&-Play No software necessary for most systems.

Easy A mobile hard drive for your computer.

Long Life 10 years.

Safe Resistant to scratches, dusts, breaks, or mechanical failure.

b) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of social networking sites like Facebook,
twitter, MySpace [10]
Advantages
  Social networking helps people stay in touch that might not do it otherwise.
 Social networking can be used to help advertise goods and services.
 Social networking can provide an extremely accessible medium for self-
expression to those with access to computer technology.
 Social networking can help families torn apart by war, divorce, etc. stay in touch
easier and quicker than by some other means.
 Social networking can be a powerful engine for job searches.
 Social networking can leverage political power for groups that might not
otherwise have access.
 Social networking can be used to counteract terrorism and organized crime.
 Social networking can be used to find dating partners in a fractured society where
healthy meeting places are limited.
 Social networking can be used to memorialize and honor dead persons to keep
memories and history that would otherwise fade alive.
 Social networking can be used to get difficult personal issues out of the closet in
front of others so they can be examined and evaluated, and people in trouble can
garner support from their friends.

Disadvantages
 Social networking takes time away from other activities and can take over from
real time interaction.
 Social networking formats set up expectations of importance for certain types of
communication at the expense of other types. Pictures and phrases on a wall can
take the place of phone calls and face to face time with family and friends.
 Social networking magnifies the gap between people who have access to
computer technology and those that don't, exacerbating other social inequities.
 Social networking can compromise privacy in a big way.
 Social networking can force changes in public policy which can either be a good
thing or a bad thing depending on whose ox is gored. Employers can now make
access to private social networking history a condition of hiring. Lawmakers may
want to change that to prevent discrimination.
 Social networking can be used to destabilize governments and to advance
terrorism.
 Social networking can be used to promote organized crime.
 Social networking can become a venue for bullying.
 Social networking can be a vector for simplifying language, thereby limiting
concept development and expression.
 Social networking can leave an indelible personal history that keeps a person who
has grown past a bad time from moving on freely.

Question 3
a) What is a computer network [5]
A computer network is interconnection of various computer systems located at different
places. In computer network two or more computers are linked together with a medium
and data communication devices for the purpose of communicating data and sharing
 resources. The computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is
known as server. In the network the individual computers, which access shared network
resources, are known as nodes.

b) Explain any 3 types of computer networks you are familiar with, showing their
differences [15]

Local Area Network (LAN):

A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in

close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is
useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. A LAN in
turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN.

Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as Ethernet
cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN
hardware options also exist. LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small
area. Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of buildings. However, one
LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio
waves. Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers. Each node (individual
computer) in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes programs, but it is also able
to access data and devices anywhere on the LAN.

This means that many users can share expensive devices, such as laser printers, as well as
data. Users can also use the LAN to communicate with each other, by sending e-mail or
engaging in chat sessions.

A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single site, typically
an individual office building. A LAN is very useful for sharing resources, such as data
storage and printers. LANs can be built with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as
hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables.

The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate
thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for
increased speed and security, but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. High
speed and relatively low cost are the defining characteristics of LANs.

LANs are typically used for single sites where people need to share resources among
themselves but not with the rest of the outside world. Think of an office building where
everybody should be able to access files on a central server or be able to print a document
to one or more central printers. Those tasks should be easy for everybody working in the
same office, but you would not want somebody just walking outside to be able to send a
document to the printer from their cell phone! If a local area network, or LAN, is entirely
wireless, it is referred to as a wireless local area network, or WLAN.
Wide Area Networks (WANs)

The term Wide Area Network (WAN) usually refers to a network which covers a large
geographical area, and use communications circuits to connect the intermediate nodes. A
major factor impacting WAN design and performance is a requirement that they lease
communications circuits from telephone companies or other communications carriers.
Transmission rates are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps, 625 Mbps (or
sometimes considerably more).

A wide area network (WAN) is a network that exists over a large-scale geographical area.
A WAN connects different smaller networks, including local area networks (LAN) and
metro area networks (MAN). This ensures that computers and users in one location can
communicate with computers and users in other locations. WAN implementation can be
done either with the help of the public transmission system or a private network

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is one of a number of types of networks (see also
LAN and WAN). A MAN is a relatively new class of network, it serves a role similar to
an ISP, but for corporate users with large LANs.

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across an entire

city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically
limited to a single building or site. Depending on the configuration, this type of network
can cover an area from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect
several LANs together to form a bigger network. When this type of network is
specifically designed for a college campus, it is sometimes referred to as a campus area
network, or CAN.

Personal Area Network

A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized around an

individual person within a single building. This could be inside a small office or
residence. A typical PAN would include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral
devices, video game consoles and other personal entertainment devices.

If multiple individuals use the same network within a residence, the network is
sometimes referred to as a home area network, or HAN. In a very typical setup, a
residence will have a single wired Internet connection connected to a modem. This
modem then provides both wired and wireless connections for multiple devices. The
network is typically managed from a single computer but can be accessed from any
device.
 This type of network provides great flexibility. For example, it allows you to:

 Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are sitting on the
couch with your laptop.
 Upload the photo from your cell phone to your desktop computer.
 Watch movies from an online streaming service to your TV.

Question 4
a) Define Information Systems (5)
A combination of hardware, software, infrastructure and trained personnel organized to
facilitate planning, control, coordination, and decision making in an organization.

b) Explain any 5 types of information systems in business. (15)

i. Office Automation Systems

An office automation system, or OAS is an automation system that uses hardware,

software and networks to enhance work flow and facilitate communications among
employees. Win an office automation system, also described as office automation;
employees perform tasks electronically using computers and other electronic devices,
instead of manually. With an office automation system, for example, a registration
department might post the class schedule on the Internet and e-mail students when
the schedule is updated. In a manual system, the registration department would
photocopy the schedule and mail it to each student’s house.

An office automation system supports a range of business office activities such as

creating and distributing graphics and/or documents, sending messages, scheduling,
and accounting. All levels of users from executive management to non-management
employees utilize and benefit from the features of an OAS.

The software an office automation system uses to support these activities include
word processing, spreadsheets, databases, presentation graphics, e-mail, Web
browsers, Web page authoring, personal information management, and
groupware. Office automation systems use communications technology such as
voice mail, facsimile (fax), videoconferencing, and electronic data interchange (EDI)
for the electronic exchange of text, graphics, audio, and video. An office automation
system also uses a variety of hardware, including computers equipped with modems,
video cameras, speakers, and microphones; scanners; and fax machines.

ii. Transaction Processing Systems

 A transaction processing system (TPS) is an information system that captures and
processes data generated during an organization’s day-to-day transactions. A
transaction is a business activity such as a deposit, payment, order or reservation.

Clerical staff typically perform the activities associated with transaction processing,
which include the following:

 Recording a business activity such as a student’s registration, a customer’s

order, an employee’s timecard or a client’s payment.

 Confirming an action or triggering a response, such as printing a student’s

schedule, sending a thank-you note to a customer, generating an employee’s
paycheck or issuing a receipt to a client.

 Maintaining data, which involves adding new data, changing existing data, or
removing unwanted data.

Transaction processing systems were among the first computerized systems

developed to process business data – a function originally called data
processing. Usually, the TPS computerized an existing manual system to allow
for faster processing, reduced clerical costs and improved customer service.

The first transaction processing systems usually used batch processing. With
batch processing, transaction data is collected over a period of time and all
transactions are processed later, as a group. As computers became more
powerful, system developers built online transaction processing
systems. With online transaction processing (OLTP) the computer processes
transactions as they are entered. When you register for classes, your school
probably uses OLTP. The registration administrative assistant enters your desired
schedule and the computer immediately prints your statement of classes. The
invoices, however, often are printed using batch processing, meaning all student
invoices are printed and mailed at a later date.

Today, most transaction processing systems use online transaction processing. Some
routine processing tasks such as calculating paychecks or printing invoices, however,
are performed more effectively on a batch basis. For these activities, many
organizations still use batch processing techniques.

iii. Management Information Systems

While computers were ideal for routine transaction processing, managers soon
realized that the computers’ capability of performing rapid calculations and data
comparisons could produce meaningful information for management. Management
information systems thus evolved out of transaction processing
systems. A management information system, or MIS is an information system that
generates accurate, timely and organized information so managers and other users
 can make decisions, solve problems, supervise activities, and track
progress. Because it generates reports on a regular basis, a management information
system sometimes is called a management reporting system (MRS).

Management information systems often are integrated with transaction processing

systems. To process a sales order, for example, the transaction processing system
records the sale, updates the customer’s account balance, and makes a deduction
from inventory. Using this information, the related management information system
can produce reports that recap daily sales activities; list customers with past due
account balances; graph slow or fast selling products; and highlight inventory items
that need reordering. A management information system focuses on generating
information that management and other users need to perform their jobs.

An MIS generates three basic types of information: detailed, summary and

exception. Detailed information typically confirms transaction processing
activities. A Detailed Order Report is an example of a detail report. Summary
information consolidates data into a format that an individual can review quickly and
easily. To help synopsize information, a summary report typically contains totals,
tables, or graphs. An Inventory Summary Report is an example of a summary report.

iv. Decision Support Systems

Transaction processing and management information systems provide information on

a regular basis. Frequently, however, users need information not provided in these
reports to help them make decisions. A sales manager, for example, might need to
determine how high to set yearly sales quotas based on increased sales and lowered
product costs. Decision support systems help provide information to support such
decisions.

A decision support system (DSS) is an information system designed to help users

reach a decision when a decision-making situation arises. A variety of DSSs exist to
help with a range of decisions. A decision support system uses data from internal
and/or external sources.

Internal sources of data might include sales, manufacturing, inventory, or financial

data from an organization’s database. Data from external sources could include
interest rates, population trends, and costs of new housing construction or raw
material pricing. Users of a DSS, often managers, can manipulate the data used in
the DSS to help with decisions.

Some decision support systems include query language, statistical analysis

capabilities, spreadsheets, and graphics that help you extract data and evaluate the
results. Some decision support systems also include capabilities that allow you to
create a model of the factors affecting a decision. A simple model for determining
the best product price, for example, would include factors for the expected sales
 volume at each price level. With the model, you can ask what-if questions by
changing one or more of the factors and viewing the projected results. Many people
use application software packages to perform DSS functions. Using spreadsheet
software, for example, you can complete simple modeling tasks or what-if scenarios.

To store all the necessary decision-making data, DSSs or EISs often use
extremely large databases, called data warehouses. A data warehouse stores and
manages the data required to analyze historical and current business
circumstances.

v. Expert Systems

An expert system is an information system that captures and stores the knowledge
of human experts and then imitates human reasoning and decision-making processes
for those who have less expertise. Expert systems are composed of two main
components: a knowledge base and inference rules. A knowledge base is the
combined subject knowledge and experiences of the human experts. The inference
rules are a set of logical judgments applied to the knowledge base each time a user
describes a situation to the expert system.

Although expert systems can help decision-making at any level in an organization,

non-management employees are the primary users who utilize them to help with job-
related decisions. Expert systems also successfully have resolved such diverse
problems as diagnosing illnesses, searching for oil and making soup.

Expert systems are one part of an exciting branch of computer science called
artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence (AI) is the application of human
intelligence to computers. AI technology can sense your actions and, based on
logical assumptions and prior experience, will take the appropriate action to
complete the task. AI has a variety of capabilities, including speech recognition,
logical reasoning, and creative responses.

Experts predict that AI eventually will be incorporated into most computer systems
and many individual software applications. Many word processing programs already
include speech recognition.

vi. Knowledge Management Systems

Knowledge Management Systems ("KMS") exist to help businesses create and share
information. These are typically used in a business where employees create new
knowledge and expertise - which can then be shared by other people in the organisation
to create further commercial opportunities. Good examples include firms of lawyers,
accountants and management consultants.
 KMS are built around systems which allow efficient categorisation and distribution of
knowledge. For example, the knowledge itself might be contained in word processing
documents, spreadsheets, PowerPoint presentations. internet pages or whatever. To share
the knowledge, a KMS would use group collaboration systems such as an intranet.

Question 5
a) What is a user interface? (2)

An interface is a set of commands or menus through which a user communicates with a

program. A command-driven interface is one in which you enter commands. A menu-
driven interface is one in which you select command choices from various menus
displayed on the screen. The user interface is one of the most important parts of any
program because it determines how easily you can make the program do what you want.
A powerful program with a poorly designed user interface has little value.

Visual part of computer application or operating system through which a user interacts
with a computer or a software. It determines how commands are given to the computer or
the program and how information is displayed on the screen.

b) Explain 4 types of user interfaces (8)

i. Command Line Interface (CLI)

• A CLI displays a prompt, the user types a command on the keyboard and executes
the command. The computer executes the command, providing textual output.

Advantages

 Very flexible with the use of “switches” (options)

 Good for “expert” users - can quickly access commands

 Uses the fewest system resources

Disadvantages

 Requires the user to learn “complex” commands or language

 “Hidden” features i.e. if you don’t know the commands you wont know the
features are there!

 Not very good for novice users

Command Line Interface Applications

• System administration
 • Engineering applications

• Scientific applications

• Ideal for visually impaired users!!!

ii. Menu Driven Interface

The user has a list of items to choose from, and can make selections by highlighting
one
 Advantages

• No need to learn complex commands/language

• Easier for a novice to learn/use

• Ideal when there are a limited number of options (efficient)

 Disadvantages

• Can be frustrating for experienced users i.e. the command they want to
use is buried 5 levels deep!!!!

• User interface may be limited by screen space and number of options

available

 Menu Driven Applications

• ATM

• Mobile Phone

• MP3 Player

• Video recorder

• Household Devices

• Digital/Cable TV

iii. Graphical User Interface (GUI)

• Uses windows, icons, menus and pointers (WIMP) which can be manipulated by a
mouse (and often to an extent by a keyboard as well).

• Most suitable interface for inexperienced or novice users but…

 • GUIs use more system resources than other types of interface

• Many generic packages for a GUI will share common features

 Layout of the screen

 Names given to
commands

 Icons

 Order of menus

 Mouse operation

 Dialog boxes

iv. Natural Language Interface

• Can range from simple command systems to voice activated text processing.
Commands are spoken in “normal” language.

Advantages

 No training required – you just tell the computer what you want to do!

 Can be quicker than keyboard entry

 Hands-free – could be invaluable in some environments

 Can be used by the disabled

Disadvantages

 Emerging technology – still contains “bugs”

 Difficulty dealing with homonyms

 Difficult to recognise all the different ways of saying things (and regional
dialects)

 Artificial languages are often more precise

c) Explain the purposes of an operating system. (10)

 Performs basic computer tasks
 The operating system performs basic computer tasks, such as managing the various
peripheral devices such as the mouse, keyboard and printers. For example, most
operating systems now are plug and play which means a device such as a printer will
automatically be detected and configured without any user intervention.

 Provides a user interface

A user interacts with software through the user interface. The two main types of user
interfaces are: command line and a graphical user interface (GUI). With a command
line interface, the user interacts with the operating system by typing commands to
perform specific tasks. An example of a command line interface is DOS (disk
operating system). With a graphical user interface, the user interacts with the
operating system by using a mouse to access windows, icons, and menus. An example
of a graphical user interface is Windows Vista or Windows 7.
The operating system is responsible for providing a consistent application program
interface (API) which is important as it allows a software developer to write an
application on one computer and know that it will run on another computer of the
same type even if the amount of memory or amount of storage is different on the two
machines.

 Handles system resources

The operating system also handles system resources such as the computer's memory
and sharing of the central processing unit (CPU) time by various applications or
peripheral devices. Programs and input methods are constantly competing for the
attention of the CPU and demand memory, storage and input/output bandwidth. The
operating system ensures that each application gets the necessary resources it needs in
order to maximise the functionality of the overall system.

 Provides file management

The operating system also handles the organisation and tracking of files and directories
(folders) saved or retrieved from a computer disk. The file management system allows
the user to perform such tasks as creating files and directories, renaming files, coping and
moving files, and deleting files. The operating system keeps track of where files are
located on the hard drive through the type of file system. The type two main types of file
system are File Allocation table (FAT) or New Technology File system (NTFS).

 Memory Management:

 organises memory through file management system (see additional information

below for more)
o allocates files
o allows user to change file names & paths
 backing storage controlled
 handles transfer of data or instructions between primary and secondary memory
  every process has specific space in primary memory
o ensures other process spaces is not overridden - each process operates in
own virtual memory space
 would cause "memory access violation"
 If the program & data management breaks down, programs might write to another
program’s files or the system might crash.
 manages use of virtual memory & swap files
 Scheduling:
o long term (admission)
 decides which jobs are sent to queue
o mid term (swapping out)
 removes data from RAM to HDD/SSD
o short term (dispatcher)
o decides what is executed next

 Accounting and Security:

 maintains security
 management of user accounts and user activity
o manages access rights
 provides services (e.g. firewalls)
 user authentication
o passwords
o voice recognition
o biometrics
 logs everything done on computer
 important in multi-user environments
o Audit-trail: logging of user activity to track hacking attempts, hogging of
resources, etc.

Question 6
a) What is a software? (3)

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well defined function. A

program is a sequence of instruction written to solve a particular problem.

b) Distinguish between system software and application software giving examples.(8)

System Software:
 System software consists of a group of programs that control the operations of a
computer equipment including functions like managing memory, managing peripherals,
loading, storing, and is an interface between the application programs and the computer.
MS DOS (Microsoft’s Disk Operating System), UNIX are examples of system software.

Application software:

Software that can perform a specific task for the user, such as word processing,
accounting, budgeting or payroll, fall under the category of application software. Word
processors, spreadsheets, database management systems are all examples of general
purpose application software.

c) What is data processing (3); explain any three types of data processing (6)

Batch processing
A central computer system normally processes all transactions against a central data base
and produces reports at intervals. In batch processing transactions are accumulated over a
period of time and processed periodically. A batch system handles the inputing,
processing, job queuing and transmission of the data from the remote sites with little or
no user intervention.
The computer does not carry out any processing or produce any output until all the inputs
have been collected in. This method is suited to situations where it is not critical that the
actual processing takes place immediately.
 Data is processed in batches so batch processing is suited to non-urgent tasks.
 A batch process can be started automatically or manually and once started, batch
processing needs no human intervention.
 Batch processing can process huge amounts of data and can run overnight or
longer if needed.
 Once set up, batch processing is very cheap to run.
 Hardware costs are lower because the time taken to process the data is usually not
critical so the computer and network speeds are not too important. Failures in
hardware would mean the data has to be processed again.
 Creating and setting up the software can be time-consuming, and therefore
expensive, as any programming mistakes will mean the data has to be processed
again.

Batch processing involves.

a. Data gathering from source documents at the remote site through the remote job
entry (RJE)
b. Recording the transaction data onto some medium, e.g. magnetic tape or disk.
c. Sorting the transactions into transaction files
d. Processing of the data
e. Updating the master file.
Examples of use:
 An electricity company produces its monthly bills for customers. All the meter
reading would be collected in or estimated over the month then the data batch
processed and the bills calculated and printed out.
 A mail order company receives orders by post throughout the week and then all
the details are entered into the computer on the Friday and are processed over the
weekend ready for delivery the following week.
 processing survey results that have been collected in over several weeks.
 processing wages/payrolls monthly, including bank transfers and the printing out
of payslips.
 processing mail merged letters to go out once a month to subscribers.

Advantages
 It is economical when large amounts of data are being processed
 Suitable where reports and information is needed periodically.
 Reduced risk of error due to the time involved in validation and verification.

Disadvantages
 The master file is not always kept up to date. This makes batch processing
unsuitable for some applications.
 Immediate updated responses cannot be made.
 Unsuitable where decisions and follow up transactions depend on the results of
earlier transactions, e.g. in bank withdrawals and deposits.
 Once the system fails all output is delayed.
 Only identical data is processed in one batch
 Time delay in gathering data, storing and bulk processing
 Errors corrected after the processing of data

On-line Processing
It is the input of transactions while the input device is connected directly to the main CPU
of the system.
The processing takes place as the data is input but the system does not need to be instant,
a delay of a few seconds is not critical. Most examples involve updating some form of
database and often involve multiple users over some form of LAN or a WAN such as the
Internet. It is more expensive to set up than a batch processing system as the hardware
has to cope with peaks of demand and there must be a reliable backup system.
 Examples of use:
o an airline ticket booking system used by a travel agent or accessed directly
by customers over the Internet. Each booking updates a central database
almost immediately to avoid double booking seats.
o a reservation system for booking theatre tickets. This could be accessed by
booking staff at the theatre or directly by customers over the Internet.

Advantages
  Items can be input much easier and quicker.
 Many errors are dealt with by the operator at entry
 Time is saved because a batch does not have to be produced first.
 User can recognise anomalies in the data being entered

Disadvantages
 The system may be more expensive than batch processing.
 Sometimes accuracy of data depends on the operator who might fail to detect or
prevent some errors.
 Sometimes source document are not used, e.g. in the case of telephone orders.

Real time/Online Interactive Processing

It is the continual receiving and rapid processing of data so as to be able to feed back the
result of that input to the source of that data. There is no delay between the input of a
transaction and the updating of the master files for the transaction. The only delay is for
the necessary validation and verification of the data. This allows for immediate
processing of data and results generated to provide immediate output to users. Data does
not have to wait, as is the case under batch processing. Data is fed directly into the
computer system from on-line terminals without storing and sorting (these are done on-
line). The computer responds immediately to incoming data and produces the appropriate
output. This form of processing can be expensive as it requires fast computer processors
and good network connections. In critical situations such as aircraft multiple hardware
backups may be needed, further increasing costs.
Examples of use:
 an automatic pilot system where the inputs from sensors on the plane need to
produce immediate outputs to control the aircraft.
 a computer controlled production line where sensors are constantly giving feedback
on the speed and position of components.

Advantages
 Processing is instantaneous
 Files and databases are always up to date
 Transaction response time is quick if not immediate;
 Data is processed as demanded;
 Error correction can be immediate.


Disadvantages
 The systems are expensive and complex to develop and put up.
 Data with errors may be processed with damaging effect.
 Hardware costs are high: there is need for on-line terminals, more CPU power,
large on-line storage and back up facilities.
 Standardisation may not exist or may be more difficult;
  Processing needs make control difficult;
 System hardware and software is expensive;
 Backup is critical in case of system crashing;
 Security is critical in case of crashing or data security;
 The possibility of data corruption requires backup

Question 7
a) What is a network topology (2)
A topology is a usually schematic description of the arrangement of a network, including
its nodes and connecting lines. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the
physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology.
A network topology describes the arrangement of systems on a computer network. It
defines how the computers, or nodes, within the network are arranged and connected to
each other. Some common network topologies include star, ring, line, bus, and tree
configurations.

b) Explain the five types of network topologies (12)

Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common
backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared
communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A
device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast
message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually
accepts and processes the message.

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Ring Topology
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes.
All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down
the entire network.
In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a way that they make
a closed loop. Each workstation is connected to two other components on either side, and
it communicates with these two adjacent neighbors. Data travels around the network, in
one direction.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data
when it receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision. Also in
ring topology all the traffic flows in only one direction at very high speed.
 Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of
Bus topology.
 There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
 Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
 Each computer has equal access to resources.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and
destination. This makes it slower than Star topology.
 If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
 Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.
 MAU’s and network cards are expensive as compared to Ethernet cards and hubs.

Star

A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals)
connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator.

Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing
to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of
the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common
with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic
cable.
Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

MESH TOPOLOGY
A type of network setup where each of the computers and network devices are
interconnected with one another, allowing for most transmission to be distributed even if
one of the connections go down. This type of topology is not commonly used for most
computer network as it is difficult and expensive to have redundant connection to every
computer. However, this type of topology is commonly used for wireless network. Below
is a visual example a simple computer setup on a network using a mesh topology.

TREE TOPOLOGY

Among all the network topologies we can derive that tree topology is a combination of
the bus and the star topology. The tree like structure allows you to have many servers on
the network and you can branch out the network in many ways. This is particularly
helpful for colleges, universities, and school. So that each of the branches can identify the
relevant system in their own network and yet connect to the big network in some way.
The tree structure suits best when the network is widely spread and vastly divided into
 many branches. Like any other topologies, the tree topology has its advantages and
disadvantages. A tree network may not suit small networks and it may be a waste of cable
to use it for small network. Tree topology has some limitations and the configuration
should suit those limitations.

c) Clearly outline the differences between the CSMA\CD, Token Passing and Polling in
these network topologies. (6)
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)

In CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) Access Method, every host
has equal access to the wire and can place data on the wire when the wire is free from traffic.
When a host want to place data on the wire, it will “sense” the wire to find whether there is a
signal already on the wire. If there is traffic already in the medium, the host will wait and if there
is no traffic, it will place the data in the medium. But, if two systems place data on the medium at
the same instance, they will collide with each other, destroying the data. If the data is destroyed
during transmission, the data will need to be retransmitted. After collision, each host will wait for
a small interval of time and again the data will be retransmitted, to avoid collision again.

Token Passing

In CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA the chances of collisions are there. As the number of hosts in the
network increases, the chances of collisions also will become more. In token passing, when a
host want to transmit data, it should hold the token, which is an empty packet. The token is
circling the network in a very high speed. If any workstation wants to send data, it should wait
for the token. When the token has reached the workstation, the workstation can take the token
from the network, fill it with data, mark the token as being used and place the token back to the
network.

Token passing resembles a children's story-telling game in which the players pass a ball around a
circle. When a player receives the ball, he or she is expected to tell part of a story. Players can
talk only when the ball is in their possession.

Token passing uses a special authorizing packet of information to inform devices that they can
transmit data. These packets are called tokens and are passed around the network in an orderly
fashion from one device to the next. Devices can transmit only if they have control of the token.
This method distributes the access control among all the devices.

Two approaches to token passing are available. Token Ring uses a ring topology. Each station
passes the token to the next station in the ring. ARCnet also uses token passing; however, with
ARCnet, each station passes the token to the station with the next higher node address, regardless
of its physical location on the network (token passing bus).

The diagram below shows examples of token passing in Token Ring and ARCnet networks.
Advantages of Token Passing

Token passing provides the following advantages:

 Token passing offers the highest data throughput possible under high traffic conditions.
Only one transmission can occur at a time, and collisions cannot occur (non-contention).
Therefore, token passing experiences less performance degradation at higher traffic levels
than contention.
 Token passing is deterministic. Each station is guaranteed an opportunity to transmit each
time the token travels around the ring.

 Some token passing systems enable you to set priorities for devices that need controlled
access to the token.

 As the traffic increases, data throughput also increases to a certain level, and then
stabilizes.

Disadvantages of Token Passing

The disadvantages of token passing are as follows:

 Token passing involves complicated protocols for managing the network and recovering
from errors. The traffic associated with these protocols has higher band width overhead
then is required for CSMA.
 All devices require complicated software that needs to be modified whenever a station is
added or removed.

 Some systems require an additional central controller that adds to the overhead and
reduces throughput. Cabling and network hardware can be more expensive for token
passing networks than for CSMA networks.

Polling
Polling resembles a well-ordered meeting in which the chairman must recognize an attendee
before that person is allowed to speak. The chairman's responsibility is to maintain order in the
meeting and ensure that each person who wants to speak has an opportunity to do so. Polling is
most closely associated with mainframe (point-to-point) computer networks. By using polling,
one device such as a mainframe front-end processor, is designated as the primary device.
Primaries also are known as the channel access administrators, controllers, or masters. All access
to the network is controlled by the primary.

The primary queries (polls) each of the secondary devices, also known as slaves. As each
secondary is polled, the primary inquires if the secondary has information to be transmitted. Only
when it is polled does the secondary have access to the communication channel. Each system has
rules pertaining to how long each secondary can transmit data. The process of polling is much
like a committee chairman who asks each member in turn to vote on an issue. Polling can be
utilized in virtually any network topology.

Advantages of Polling

The advantages of polling are as follows:

 Many characteristics of polling can be determined centrally, including the polling order
and node priorities.
 Polling ensures that channel access is predictable and fixed. Because the time delays
between the primary and secondary devices can be calculated, this access method is
called deterministic. Deterministic access methods are suitable for controlling some
automated equipment because each piece of equipment is guaranteed access to the
network at predetermined intervals.

 Polled channels cannot be over saturated with traffic. As demand increases, traffic
increases up to a maximum level. The polling mechanism ensures that maximum traffic
level cannot be exceeded. Nor can excess traffic reduce the performance of the network.

Disadvantages of Polling

Polling has the following disadvantages:

  Some applications cannot function with the time delays required for polling other
devices.
 The process of polling involves large numbers of messages that take up available band
width. Traffic is required to poll each node, even nodes that are idle.

 Some polled networks use half-duplex transmission lines. This means that the primary
and secondary devices must "turn around" the line, requiring some band width.

 Polling requires a sophisticated central control mechanism that requires extensive

configuration.

8. a) Explain the factors that determine the speed of a computer (10)

Processor speed

Clock speed, a.k.a. Processor speed is often played up to be the major factor in a
computer's overall performance. In rare cases this is true, but an average user rarely uses
100 percent of his Central Processing Unit's power. (CPU). Things like encoding video or
encrypting files, or anything that computes large, complex, numbers requires a lot of
processor power. Most users spend most of their time typing, reading email or viewing
web pages. During this time, the computer's CPU is probably hovering around 1 or 2
percent of it's total speed. Startup time is probably the only time the CPU is under stress,
and even then it's often limited due to the hard drive speed.

 Megahertz (MHZ) or Gigahertz (GHZ or 1000MHZ) is the number of times the CPU
can switch back and forth from 1 to 0. It is the driving force in the power the
processor has (all other things being equal). Higher MHZ chips use more power and
produce more heat.
 Level 1 (L1) and Level 2(L2) cache is usually onchip RAM that is extremely fast.
SRAM is different than System RAM and only used on processors. It stores data right
before and after it is processed. SRAM is extremely expensive; most chips today only
have 128 Kilobytes of L1 cache, and 256-512K of L2 cache. (This is what makes a
Pentium 3 or 4 chip different than a celeron chip)
 x86 is the architecture type of all Windows based computers. All processors sold
today for computers running the Windows OS (operating system) are 32 bit, meaning
they process 32 bits of information each clock cycle (a 1GHZ chip does 1 billion
clock cycles per second). Not all CPU's are x86. For example Apple computers use
Motorola's chip design called PowerPC, which comes in both 64 and 128 bit flavors.
This is one reason apple computers can outpreform high-end PC's, despite their lower
processor speeds. Currently Intel and AMD are developing 64 bit x86 chips. The
disadvantage of higher bit architecture is that one needs to make changes to any
software that one may want to work with on the new design; this is one reason Mac
software will not run without specialized software on PC's, and visa-versa.
 System RAM speed and size

The amount and speed of the RAM in your computer makes a huge difference in how
your computer performs. If you are trying to run Windows XP with 64 MB of RAM it
probably won't even work. When the computer uses up all available RAM it has to
start using the hard drive to cache data, which is much slower. The constant transfer
of data between RAM and virtual memory (hard drive memory) slows a computer
down considerably. Especially when trying to load applications or files.
The two types differ in the technology they use to hold data, dynamic RAM being the
more common type. Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed thousands of times per
second. Static RAM does not need to be refreshed, which makes it faster; but it is also
more expensive than dynamic RAM. Both types of RAM are volatile, meaning that
they lose their contents when the power is turned off.
Also the speed of your RAM can be influential.

Disk speed and size

The biggest factor in your computer's performance is the hard disk speed. How fast
the hard drive can find (average seek time), read, write, and transfer data will make a
big difference in the way your computer performs. Most hard drives today spin at
7,200 RPMS, older models and laptops still spin at 5,200 RPMS, which is one reason
laptops often appear sluggish to a desktop equivalent.
The size of your hard drive plays a very little role in the performance of a computer.
As long as your have enough free space for virtual memory and keep the disk
defragmented it will perform well no matter what the size.

Video card

Whenever your computer puts an image on the screen something has to render it. If a
computer is doing this with software it is often slow and will affect the performance
of the rest of the computer. Also, the image will not be rendered as crisp or as
smoothly in the case of video. Even a low-end video card will significantly improve
the performance of the computer by taking the large task of rendering the images on
the screen from the CPU to the graphics card. If you work with large image files,
video or play games you will want a higher end video card.

Video cards use their own RAM called Video RAM. The more Video RAM a
computer has the more textures and images the card can remember at a time. High
end graphics cards for desktops now come with up to 64 megabytes of Video RAM,
Laptops often only have 8 or 16 megabytes of Video RAM.

b) What are the factors to consider before the buying a computer software? (10)
  Is the software use-friendly - Accounting is an area that many business owners have
limited knowledge of. If the accounting software is easy to understand, there is a
better chance that someone will actually use it to input daily transactions.

 Is the software compatible with your current computer operating system - A

computer’s operating system needs to be compatible with the program in order to run
properly. Look at the accounting software requirements before purchasing.

 What features are offered in the application - After you have defined what
accounting processes you want the accounting software to address, all you need to do
is find the solution that has the features to address those needs. As always, it is
important to compare the different vendors that have solutions that meet your needs.

 What accounting software features are necessary - Features that include

functionality to store customer and vendor information, create invoices and
statements, track inventory with purchase orders, track daily transactions with
account numbers, and create monthly/annual reports are all key factors to a good
accounting software solution. Also, depending on what industry your company is in,
you might need more features to ensure you meet any financial compliance
regulations.

 Will the accounting software grow with my company - Most software

manufactures offer discounted, upgradable applications. This is perfect for business
that is growing because it allows you to purchase a standard package in the beginning
and upgrade as your needs increase.

 Does the software company offer technical support - Technical support is very
important, especially right after the solution is implemented. Most accounting
software solutions will come with 30 days of free support, but it could be a wise idea
to subscribe to the vendor’s support package. You won’t realize how important
technical support is until you’re faced with a problematic situation. Of course,
accounting software that offers free technical support is more favorable.

Question 9
a) Describe the CPU and its variants [10]
CPU stands for Central Processing Unit, and is the Heart of a computer. In any normal
computer this CPU is a microprocessor. A microprocessor is a chip that does all of the
calculations for the computer. The CPU contains three major parts:
 the Control Unit (CU),
 the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU),

and the primary memory (Note: in some definitions the primary memory does not belong to
the CPU).
 Control Unit (CU)
The Control Unit controls the CPU and manages what happens inside of it.
 Controls sequence of execution
 Moves data between the CPU and the computer memory via the data bus
 Controls what is stored in the cache for fastest access
 Accesses the memory addresses with the address bus. The address bus is connected to
the address section of the computer’s memory
 Also takes care of fetching and decoding

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

 Carries out logical operations (ex. Comparisons)
 Carries out arithmetic operations (ex. Addition)

b. Explain 5 the input you are familiar with. [5]

 Keyboard - The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter keyboard with a few
additional keys. The basic QWERTY layout of characters is maintained to make it easy to
use the system. The additional keys are included to perform certain special functions.
These are known as function keys that vary in number from keyboard to keyboard.
 Mouse - A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen.
A mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard and flat surface. Its name is derived
from its shape, which looks a bit like a mouse. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the
display screen moves in the same direction.

 Trackball - A trackball is an input device used to enter motion data into computers or
other electronic devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but is designed with a
moveable ball on the top, which can be rolled in any direction.

 Touchpad - A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input positioning) on a

computer display screen. It is an alternative to the mouse. Originally incorporated in
laptop computers, touch pads are also being made for use with desktop computers. A
touch pad works by sensing the user’s finger movement and downward pressure. • Touch
Screen: It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the display
screen. A display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. Widely used on
ATM machines, retail point-of-sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical monitors
and industrial control panels.

 Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) - MICR can identify character printed
with a special ink that contains particles of magnetic material. This device particularly
finds applications in banking industry.
  Optical mark recognition (OMR) - Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense
reader is a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark,
such as pencil mark. OMR is widely used in tests such as aptitude test.

 Bar code reader - Bar-code readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or
vertical zebra strips marks, printed on product containers. These devices are generally
used in super markets, bookshops etc

 Scanner - Scanner is the third important input device of a computer system. A scanner
converts printed documents in to images. Some types of scanners scan documents and
produce the results in black & white images. The scanner operates in the same manner as
a Photocopier. A colored scanner works somewhat in a complicated manner as compared
to a simple scanner.

 Digital Camera - Digital Cameras are used to capture images. Those images are then
transferred to a computer when the Camera is connected to the computer. Mostly the
Digital Camera images are in JPEG format.

c. List and explain 5 output devices you are familiar with. [5)

 Monitor - is often used synonymously with “computer screen” or “display.” Monitor is

an output device that resembles the television screen (fig. 1.8). It may use a Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT) to display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual
input of characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the
program or application output. Like the television, monitors are also available in different
sizes.
 Printer - Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hard copy) output.
Based on the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.

Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the
paper through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall
under this category.

Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or
electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal printers
fall under this category of printers.
 Plotter: Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer
commands and makes line drawings on paper using multi colored automated pens. It is
capable of producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc.
 Facsimile (FAX): Facsimile machine, a device that can send or receive pictures and text
over a telephone line. Fax machines work by digitizing an image.
 Speaker(s) - An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output
sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become
commonplace on modern personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output
 sound through speakers connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone
connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.

Question 10

Explain the terms

i. Trojan horse - Trojan horses are impostors—files that claim to be something desirable
but, in fact, are malicious. A very important distinction from true viruses is that they do
not replicate themselves, as viruses do. Trojans contain malicious code, that, when
triggered, cause loss, or even theft, of data. In order for a Trojan horse to spread, you
must, in effect, invite these programs onto your computers--for example, by opening an
email attachment.
ii. Optical character recognition - is the mechanical or electronic conversion of scanned or
photographed images of typewritten or printed text into machine-encoded/computer-
readable text. It is widely used as a form of data entry from some sort of original paper
data source, whether passport documents, invoices, bank statement, receipts, business
card, mail, or any number of printed records. It is a common method of digitizing printed
texts so that they can be electronically edited, searched, stored more compactly, displayed
on-line, and used in machine processes such as machine translation, text-to-speech, key
data extraction and text mining. OCR is a field of research in pattern
recognition, artificial intelligence and computer vision.
Often abbreviated OCR, optical character recognition refers to the branch of computer
science that involves reading text from paper and translating the images into a form that
the computer can manipulate (for example, into ASCII codes). An OCR system enables
you to take a book or a magazine article, feed it directly into an electronic computer file,
and then edit the file using a word processor.
All OCR systems include an optical scanner for reading text, and
sophisticated software for analyzing images. Most OCR systems use a combination
of hardware (specialized circuit boards) and software to recognize characters, although
some inexpensive systems do it entirely through software. Advanced OCR systems can
read text in large variety of fonts, but they still have difficulty with handwritten text.
The potential of OCR systems is enormous because they enable users to harness the
power of computers to access printed documents. OCR is already being used widely in
the legal profession, where searches that once required hours or days can now be
accomplished in a few seconds.

iii. Ethics in information technology - Ethics are moral standards that help guide
behaviour, actions, and choices. Ethics are grounded in the notion of responsibility (as
free moral agents, individuals, organizations, and societies are responsible for the actions
that they take) and accountability (individuals, organizations, and society should be held
accountable to others for the consequences of their actions). In most societies, a system
of laws codifies the most significant ethical standards and provides a mechanism for
 holding people, organizations, and even governments accountable.”
iv. End-user - An end user is the person that a software program or hardware device is
designed for. The term is based on the idea that the "end goal" of a software or hardware
product is to be useful to the consumer. The end user can be contrasted with the
developers or programmers of the product. End users are also in a separate group from
the installers or administrators of the product.

To simplify, the end user is the person who uses the software or hardware after it has been
fully developed, marketed, and installed. It is also the person who keeps calling the "IT
guy" with questions about why the product isn't working correctly. Generally, the terms
"user" and "end user" mean the same thing.

b) List and explain any 6 forms of information system abuse (6)

 Plagiarism - Plagiarism is another unethical use of the computer. By going online, it is

becoming increasingly easy to find material for plagiarism. The computer also facilitates
writing articles through plagiarism by the use of writing programs and simply copying
and pasting the words onto a document and taking credit for the work.

 Cheating - Cheating in relationships is made easier through social networking online or

the use of emails. Everything is password protected, making users able to be unfaithful in
their relationships and even engage in cyber sex without anyone catching on.

 Identity Theft - Theft of someone's identity is facilitated by the computer, making it yet
another unethical use. If criminals are knowledgeable enough at computer hacking, then
it is easy for them to gain access to the personal and financial information of other people
and proceed in stealing their identity and ruining their lives.

 Pornography - Distribution and use of pornography has been greatly facilitated with the
use of the computer. Not only is the use of adult pornography widespread with the use of
computers, but so is child pornography. Child pornography is one of the most, if not the
most, unethical uses of the computer today.

 Cyber-bullying - Bullying online is another form of unethical computer use. It is

widespread and getting increasing coverage in the media as it becomes a larger problem.
Sitting in front of a computer screen takes away the need to bully and harass someone in
person and thus makes even worse actions and harassment possible. Additionally, the use
of social networking on the computer as a tool for cyber-bullying is growing.

Explain any three control measures managers can adopt to ensure information system
security. (6)
General controls apply to information system activities throughout an organization. The most
important general controls are the measures that control access to computer systems and the
information stored there or transmitted over telecommunications networks. General controls
include administrative measures that restrict employees’ access to only those processes directly
relevant to their duties. As a result, these controls limit the damage that any individual employee
or employee impersonator can do. Fault-tolerant computer systems installed in critical
environments, such as in hospital information systems or securities marketplaces, are designed to
control and isolate problems so that the system can continue to function.

Application controls are specific to a given application and include such measures as validating
input data, logging the accesses to the system, regularly archiving copies of various databases,
and ensuring that information is disseminated only to authorized users.

1. System Access Controls.

Ensuring that unauthorized users don't get into the system, and by encouraging (and
sometimes forcing) authorized users to be security-conscious–for example, by changing
their passwords on a regular basis. The system also protects password data and keeps
track of who's doing what in the system, especially if what they're doing is security-
related (e.g., logging in, trying to open a file, using special privileges).
2. Data Access Controls.
Monitoring who can access what data, and for what purpose. Your system might support
discretionary access controls; with these, you determine whether other people can read or
change your data. Your system might also support mandatory access controls; with these,
the system determines access rules based on the security levels of the people, the files,
and the other objects in your system.

"Data Access: Protecting Your Data" introduces the basics of data access controls. In
Chapter 6, the section entitled "Security Policy Requirements" describes the Orange
Book security policy requirements, which specify the data access controls defined for
different levels of secure systems.

3. System and Security Administration.

Performing the offline procedures that make or break a secure system–by clearly
delineating system administrator responsibilities, by training users appropriately, and by
monitoring users to make sure that security policies are observed. This category also
involves more global security management; for example, figuring out what security
threats face your system and what it will cost to protect against them.
4. System Design.
Taking advantage of basic hardware and software security characteristics; for example,
using a system architecture that's able to segment memory, thus isolating privileged
processes from nonprivileged processes.

Although a detailed discussion of secure system design is outside the province of this
book, the section "System Architecture" in Chapter 6 describes briefly the major Orange
Book design requirements for different levels of secure systems.
Question 11
a) Explain the reasons for networking computers [8]
 File sharing - Network file sharing between computers gives you more flexibity than
using floppy drives or Zip drives. Not only can you share photos, music files, and
documents, you can also use a home network to save copies of all of your important
data on a different computer. Backups are one of the most critical yet overlooked
tasks in home networking.

 Printer / peripheral sharing - Once a home network is in place, it’s easy to then set up
all of the computers to share a single printer. No longer will you need to bounce from
one system or another just to print out an email message. Other computer peripherals
can be shared similarly such as network scanners, Web cams, and CD burners.

 Internet connection sharing - Using a home network, multiple family members can
access the Internet simultaneously without having to pay an ISP for multiple
accounts. You will notice the Internet connection slows down when several people
share it, but broadband Internet can handle the extra load with little trouble. Sharing
dial-up Internet connections works, too. Painfully slow sometimes, you will still
appreciate having shared dial-up on those occasions you really need it.
 Entertainment - Many popular home computer games support LAN mode where
friends and family can play together, if they have their computers networked.
 Internet telephone service: Voice over IP (VoIP) services allows you to make and
receive phone calls through your home network across the Internet.

 Home entertainment - Newer home entertainment products such as digital video

recorders (DVRs) and video game consoles now support either wired or wireless
home networking. Having these products integrated into your network enables online
Internet gaming, video sharing and other advanced features.
 Fewer Peripherals Needed - many devices can be connected on a network. Each
computer on the network does not need to have its own printer, scanner, or backup
device. Multiple printers can be set up in a central location and shared among the
network users. All network users send print jobs to a central print server that manages
the print requests. The print server can distribute print jobs over multiple printers, or
queue jobs that require a specific printer.
 Increased Communication Capabilities - Networks provide several different
collaboration tools that can be used to communicate between network users. Online
collaboration tools include e-mail, forums and chats, voice and video, and instant
messaging. With these tools, users can communicate with friends, family, and
colleagues.
 Avoid File Duplication and Corruption - A server manages network resources.
Servers store data and share it with users on a network. Confidential or sensitive data
can be protected and shared with the users who have permission to access that data.
 Document tracking software can be used to prevent users from overwriting files, or
changing files that others are accessing at the same time.
 Lower Cost Licensing - Application licensing can be expensive for individual
computers. Many software vendors offer site licenses for networks, which can
dramatically reduce the cost of software. The site license allows a group of people or
an entire organization to use the application for a single fee.
 Centralized Administration - Centralized administration reduces the number of
people needed to manage the devices and data on the network, reducing time and cost
to the company. Individual network users do not need to manage their own data and
devices. One administrator can control the data, devices, and permissions of users on
the network. Backing up data is easier because the data is stored in a central location.
 Conserve Resources -Data processing can be distributed across many computers to
prevent one computer from becoming overloaded with processing tasks

c. What problems can you face when using networked computers? [6]
 Theft of Personal information - With the use of Internet there are chances that personal
information such as name, address, credit card, bank details and other information can be
accessed by unauthorized persons. If you use a credit card or internet banking for online
shopping, then your details can also be ‘stolen’.
 Most parents do not realize the dangers involved when their children log onto the
Internet. When children talk to others online, they do not realize they could actually be
talking to a harmful person. Moreover, pornography is also a very serious issue
concerning the Internet, especially when it comes to young children.
 Malware - Virus is a program created to disrupt the normal functioning of computer
systems. Computers attached to internet are more prone to virus attacks and they can end
up into crashing your whole hard disk.
 Spamming - It is often viewed as the act of sending unsolicited email. This multiple or
vast emailing is often compared to mass junk mailings.
 Phishing - Phishing attack refers to sending a convincing mail to targeted user with an
embedded URL in the same. When the user clicks the URL it directs the user to the
phishing website. And when the person enters there personal details, the same is utilized
by phisher to transfer money.
 Security Issues - One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security issues
involved. If a computer is a standalone, physical access becomes necessary for any kind
of data theft. However, if a computer is on a network, a computer hacker can get
unauthorized access by using different tools. In case of big organizations, various
network security software are used to prevent the theft of any confidential and classified
data.
 Expensive Set Up: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high depending
on the number of computers to be connected. Costly devices like routers, switches, hubs,
etc., can add up to the bills of a person trying to install a computer network. He will also
have to buy NICs (Network Interface Cards) for each of the workstations, in case they are
not inbuilt.
  Dependency on the Main File Server: In case the main File Server of a computer
network breaks down, the system becomes useless. In case of big networks, the File
Server should be a powerful computer, which often makes it expensive.

d. Suggest any solution to the problems stated above [6]

Question 12.
What is a database? [3]

A database is a collection of data or information which is held together in an organised or logical

way.

b. Describe the uses of a database [5]

Uses for Database Systems

Uses for database systems include:

 They store data

 They store special information used to manage the data. This information is called
metadata and it is not shown to all the people looking at the data.
 They can solve cases where many users want to access (and possibly change) the same
entries of data.
 They manage access rights (who is allowed to see the data, who can change it)
 When there are many users asking questions to the database, the questions must be
answered faster. So, the last person to ask a question, can get an answer in reasonable
time.
 Certain attributes are more important than others, they can be used to find other data. This
is called indexing. An index contains all the important data and can be used to find the
other data.
 They ensure that the data always has context (makes sense). There are a lot of different
rules that can be added to tell the database system if the data makes sense. One of the
rules might say November has 30 days. This means if someone wants to enter November
31 as a date, this change will be rejected.

 In a library, use a full-text database when you are looking for magazine, journal, or
newspaper articles. Full-text means the entire article is available for you to print.
 Use a database when you need statistics. Numerical data is ideal for a database format
since retrieval of organized data is much easier than wading through volumes of
unorganized data.
  Product Information - You can use your e-business database to hold and update
information on your products, including detailed product descriptions and specifications,
product reference numbers, prices, promotional offers and availability. You also can
include details of the supplier for each product that you stock. By updating the
information in the database, rather than changing and publishing individual website
pages, you can save time and ensure your website always shows visitors the latest
information.

 Customer Information - The database should hold information on your customers,

including their full names and contact details. For business customers, include the type
and size of business and their industry sector. For consumers, add any personal
information that would be relevant to their buying potential, such as age range, income,
demographic details and interests. In certain countries, data protection legislation applies
to personal information that organizations hold on a database, so ensure you comply if
you sell in export markets.

c. Explain the differences between a database and a database system. [4]

Database is an organised collection of data or information so that it can be easily accessed,
updated or manipulated. Database management system (DBMS) is a software that manages
database on a computer. Eg. microsoft access, MySQL, oracle etc.
A database is a collection of organized data and the system that manages a collection of
databases is called a Database Management System. The database holds the records, fields and
cells of data. The DBMS is the tool used to manipulate the data inside the database. However, the
term database is increasingly used as shorthand for Database Management System. To make the
distinction simple, consider and operating system and the individual files stored in the system.
Just like you need an operating system to access and modify files in the system, you need a
DBMS to manipulate databases stored in the database system.
A system intended for easily organizing, storing and retrieving large amounts of data, is called a
database. In other words, a database holds a bundle of organized data (typically in digital form)
for one or more users. Databases, often abbreviated DB, are classified according to their content,
such as document-text, bibliographic and statistical. But, a DBMS (Database Management
System) is actually the whole system used for managing digital databases which allows storage
of database content, creation/maintenance of data, search and other functionalities. In today’s
world a database itself is useless if there is no DBMS associated with it for accessing its data.
But, increasingly, the term Database is used as shorthand for Database Management System.

d. Give the advantages and disadvantages of using a database. [8]

Database advantages include the following:

 Controlling Data Redundancy - In non-database systems (traditional computer file

processing), each application program has its own files. In this case, the duplicated copies
of the same data are created at many places. In DBMS, all the data of an organization is
integrated into a single database. The data is recorded at only one place in the database
 and it is not duplicated. For example, the dean's faculty file and the faculty payroll file
contain several items that are identical. When they are converted into database, the data is
integrated into a single database so that multiple copies of the same data are reduced to-
single copy.
In DBMS, the data redundancy can be controlled or reduced but is not removed
completely. Sometimes, it is necessary to create duplicate copies of the same data items
in order to relate tables with each other. By controlling the data redundancy, you can save
storage space. Similarly, it is useful for retrieving data from database using queries.
 Data Consistency - By controlling the data redundancy, the data consistency is obtained.
If a data item appears only once, any update to its value has to be performed only once
and the updated value (new value of item) is immediately available to all users.
If the DBMS has reduced redundancy to a minimum level, the database system enforces
consistency. It means that when a data item appears more than once in the database and is
updated, the DBMS automatically updates each occurrence of a data item in the database.
 Data Sharing - In DBMS, data can be shared by authorized users of the organization.
The DBA manages the data and gives rights to users to access the data. Many users can
be authorized to access the same set of information simultaneously. The remote users can
also share same data. Similarly, the data of same database can be shared between
different application programs.
 Data Security - Data security is the protection of the database from unauthorized users.
Only the authorized persons are allowed to access the database. Some of the users may be
allowed to access only a part of database i.e., the data that is related to them or related to
their department. Mostly, the DBA or head of a department can access all the data in the
database. Some users may be permitted only to retrieve data, whereas others are allowed
to retrieve as well as to update data. The database access is controlled by the DBA. He
creates the accounts of users and gives rights to access the database. Typically, users or
group of users are given usernames protected by passwords.
 Control Over Concurrency - In a computer file-based system, if two users are allowed
to access data simultaneously, it is possible that they will interfere with each other. For
example, if both users attempt to perform update operation on the same record, then one
may overwrite the values recorded by the other. Most DBMSs have sub-systems to
control the concurrency so that transactions are always recorded" with accuracy.
 Backup and Recovery Procedures - In a computer file-based system, the user creates
the backup of data regularly to protect the valuable data from damaging due to failures to
the computer system or application program. It is a time consuming method, if volume of
data is large. Most of the DBMSs provide the 'backup and recovery' sub-systems that
automatically create the backup of data and restore data if required. For example, if the
computer system fails in the middle (or end) of an update operation of the program, the
recovery sub-system is responsible for making sure that the database is restored to the
state it was in before the program started executing.
 Data Independence - The separation of data structure of database from the application
program that is used to access data from database is called data independence. In DBMS,
database and application programs are separated from each other. The DBMS sits in
 between them. You can easily change the structure of database without modifying the
application program. For example you can modify the size or data type of a data items
(fields of a database table).

Disadvantages are as follows

 Cost of Hardware & Software - A processor with high speed of data processing and
memory of large size is required to run the DBMS software. It means that you have to
upgrade the hardware used for file-based system. Similarly, DBMS software is also Very
costly.
 Cost of Data Conversion - When a computer file-based system is replaced with a
database system, the data stored into data file must be converted to database files. It is
difficult and time consuming method to convert data of data files into database. You have
to hire DBA (or database designer) and system designer along with application
programmers; Alternatively, you have to take the services of some software houses. So a
lot of money has to be paid for developing database and related software.
 Cost of Staff Training - Most DBMSs are often complex systems so the training for
users to use the DBMS is required. Training is required at all levels, including
programming, application development, and database administration. The organization
has to pay a lot of amount on the training of staff to run the DBMS.
 Appointing Technical Staff - The trained technical persons such as database
administrator and application programmers etc are required to handle the DBMS. You
have to pay handsome salaries to these persons. Therefore, the system cost increases.
 Database Failures - In most of the organizations, all data is integrated into a single
database. If database is corrupted due to power failure or it is corrupted on the storage
media, then our valuable data may be lost or whole system stops.

Question 13.
a) Explain the terms: data transmission, time sharing and multitasking as they are used in
computers [6]

 Time-sharing is the sharing of a computing resource among many users by means of

multiprogramming and multi-tasking. By allowing a large number of users to interact
concurrently with a single computer, time-sharing dramatically lowered the cost of
providing computing capability, made it possible for individuals and organizations to use
a computer without owning one, and promoted the interactive use of computers and the
development of new interactive applications.

Time-sharing was developed out of the realization that while any single user would make
inefficient use of a computer, a large group of users together would not. This was due to
the pattern of interaction: Typically an individual user entered bursts of information
followed by long pauses but a group of users working at the same time would mean that
the pauses of one user would be filled by the activity of the others. Given an optimal
 group size, the overall process could be very efficient. Similarly, small slices of time
spent waiting for disk, tape, or network input could be granted to other users.

 Data transmission – the sending and receiving data via cables (e.g., telephone lines or
fibre optics) or wireless relay systems. Because ordinary telephone circuits pass signals
that fall within the frequency range of voice communication (about 300–3,500 hertz), the
high frequencies associated with data transmission suffer a loss of amplitude and
transmission speed. Data signals must therefore be translated into a format compatible
with the signals used in telephone lines. Digital computers use a modem to transform
outgoing digital electronic data; a similar system at the receiving end translates the
incoming signal back to the original electronic data. Specialized data-transmission links
carry signals at frequencies higher than those used by the public telephone network.
 Multitasking - Mode of computer operation in which the computer works on multiple
tasks at the same time. A task is a computer program (or part of a program) that can be
run as a separate entity. On a single-processor system, the CPU can perform preemptive
(also called time slicing or time sharing) multitasking, where it executes part of one
program, then switches to another program, and then returns to the first one.

In computing, multitasking is a method where multiple tasks (also known as processes)

are performed during the same period of time – they are executed concurrently (in
overlapping time periods, new tasks starting before others have ended) instead of
sequentially (one completing before the next starts). The tasks share common processing
resources, such as a CPU and main memory.

Multitasking does not necessarily mean that multiple tasks are executing at exactly the
same instant. In other words, multitasking does not imply parallelism, but it does mean
that more than one task can be part-way through execution at the same time, and more
than one task is advancing over a given period of time.

In the case of a computer with a single CPU, only one task is said to be running at any
point in time, meaning that the CPU is actively executing instructions for that task.
Multitasking solves the problem by scheduling which task may be the one running at any
given time, and when another waiting task gets a turn. The act of reassigning a CPU from
one task to another one is called a context switch.

b. Explain fibre optical cable, coaxial cable and twisted pair cable and give their uses. [8]
 Twisted pair - Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication.
Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary
telephone wires consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer
networking cabling (wired Ethernet as defined by IEEE 802.3) consists of 4 pairs of
copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two
wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The
transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 10 billion bits per second.
Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms which are Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and
 Shielded twisted-pair (STP) which are manufactured in different increments for various
scenario.

 Coaxial cable - Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office
buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or
aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high
dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers of
insulation help minimize interference and distortion.
 Optical fiber - Optical fiber cable consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber
wrapped in protective layers that carries data by means of pulses of light. It transmits
light which can travel over extended distances. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by
electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed may reach trillions of bits per second. The
transmission speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than for coaxial cables and
thousands of times faster than a twisted-pair wire. This capacity may be further increased
by the use of colored light, i.e., light of multiple wavelengths. Instead of carrying one
message in a stream of monochromatic light impulses, this technology can carry multiple
signals in a single fiber.

c. Explain the advantages and the disadvantages of each cable. [6]

Twisted Pair

Advantages
 Cheaper and far easier to splice
 Less susceptible to electrical interference caused by nearby equipment or wires.
 In turn are less likely to cause interference themselves.
 Because it is electrically "cleaner", STP wire can carry data at a faster speed.

Disadvantages
 STP wire is that it is physically larger and more expensive than twisted pair
wire.
 STP is more difficult to connect to a terminating block.

Coaxial Cable
Advantages
 Coaxial cable can support greater cable lengths between network devices than
twisted pair cable.
 Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that help keep moisture
away.

Disadvantages
  Thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Fiber Optic

Advantages
 Low loss of signal (typically less than 0.3 dB/km), so repeater-less transmission over long
distances is possible
 Large data-carrying capacity (thousands of times greater, reaching speeds of up to 1.6
Tb/s in field deployed systems and up to 10 Tb/s in lab systems)
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear electromagnetic pulses (but
can be damaged by alpha and beta radiation)
 No electromagnetic radiation; difficult to eavesdrop
 High electrical resistance, so safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between areas
with different earth potentials
 Low weight
 Signals contain very little power
 No crosstalk between cables.
Disadvantages
 Fiber optic cable is difficult to splice in order to make connections
 Cost - Cables are expensive to install but last longer than copper cables.
 Transmission - transmission on optical fibre requires repeating at distance
intervals.
 Fragile - Fibres can be broken or have transmission loses when wrapped around
curves of only a few centimetres radius. However by encasing fibres in a plastic
sheath, it is difficult to bend the cable into a small enough radius to break the
fibre.
 Protection - Optical fibres require more protection around the cable compared to
copper.


14 a) Explain difference between primary storage and secondary storage. (10)

 Processor access the primary memory in a random fashion. Unlike primary memory,
secondary memory is not directly accessed through CPU. The accessing of the primary
memory through CPU is done by making use of address and data buses, whereas input/
output channels are used to access the secondary memory.
 The primary memory is embedded with two types of memory technologies; they are the
RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory). The secondary
memory is accessible in the form of Mass storage devices such as hard disk, memory
chips, Pen drive, floppy disk storage media, CD and DVD.
 Primary memory is volatile in nature, while secondary memory is non volatile. The
information that is stored in the primary memory cannot be retained when the power is
turned off. In case of secondary memory, the information can be retrieved even if the
power is turned off because the data will not be destructed until and unless the user erases
it.
 When the data processing speed is compared between the primary and secondary
memory, the primary memory is much faster than the secondary memory.
  In the cost perspective, the primary memory is costlier than the secondary memory
devices. Because of this reasons most of the computer users install smaller primary
memory and larger secondary memory.
 As the secondary memory is permanent, all the files and programs are stored in the
secondary memory most and as the primary memory interacts very fast with the
microprocessor, when the computer needs to access the files that are stored in the
secondary memory, then such files are first loaded into the primary memory and then
accessed by the computer.
 The following table list out some of the key differences between the
primary and secondary memory:
PRIMARY MEMORY SECONDARY MEMORY
The memory devices used for primary The secondary memory devices are
memory are semiconductor memories magnetic and optical memories.
The primary memory is categorized as
volatile and non-volatile memories, RAM
is the volatile memory and ROM is the The secondary memory is always non
non-volatile memory volatile
The primary memory is composed of The secondary memory is enough
programs and data that are presently capable to store huge amount of
being used by the micro-processor information
The secondary memories are somewhat
The primary memories are more slow in interacting with the
effective and fast to interact with the microprocessor, when compared with
micro-processor the primary memory.
Primary memory is known as main Secondary memory is known as
memory additional memory or back memory
These memories are also called as These memories are also called as
internal memory external memory
Primary memory is temporary The secondary memory is permanent
Commonly used primary memory (main Generally secondary memories range
memory) available in the range of 512 between 80 GB to 4 TB Hard Disc
MB to 8 GB RAMs. Drives.
The primary memory devices are The secondary memory devices are
connected to the computer through connected to the computer through
“slots” Cables

b) Explain differences between Rom, Ram, and Cache (10)

RAM is Random Access Memory; it's very fast and is used to store data and programs which a
computer processor is currently processing and needs to have easily to hand. It is volatile (loses
its contents when the power is switched off). RAM is needed because most data on comptuters is
stored in much slower "storage media" such as hard disks, solid state drives or flash memory. For
the processor to be able to work on data or run programs at any reasonable speed, the programs
or data need to be copied into RAM first.

ROM is Read Only Memory. It can also be quite fast. It is non-volatile and used to store data
which will not need to change, such as software to start up and run an electronic device or for the
basic start-up functions of a computer. ROM can either be write-once, where it holds data
permanently, or write-many, where it can be erased and re-written using special equipment (but
not during normal use). ROM has become less common than it once was, because other kinds of
memory have become cheaper, though of course CD-ROMs are quite prevalent.

Cache memory is a bit like RAM, except it's built right inside a processor and is even faster than
RAM. It's used by the processor to avoid having to slow down to the speed of the RAM all the
time. Like RAM, it is also volatile. Cache memory is usually quite low-capacity (a few
megabytes), so we still need RAM in order to avoid constantly accessing things from slow
storage media.

The term cache also refers to any system in which data is temporarily stored closer to its point of
use, to speed things up and reduce the transfer of data. Web browsers have a cache to store parts
of web pages, so they don't have to be downloaded every time the page is visited. Caches are
found all over the place in software as a performance-enhancement. Networking, operating
systems and servers can all make use of cacheing in one way or another.

Question 15
a) With clear examples explain the differences between open source software and licensed
software (10)

Open source software is software whose source code is available for modification or
enhancement by anyone.

"Source code" is the part of software that most computer users don't ever see; it's the code
computer programmers can manipulate to change how a piece of software—a "program" or
"application"—works. Programmers who have access to a computer program's source code can
improve that program by adding features to it or fixing parts that don't always work correctly.

Open source is a set of principles and practices on how to write software. Literally "open
source" means the source code is available to the users. The Open Source Definition, which was
created by Bruce Perens and Eric Raymond and is currently maintained by the Open Source
Initiative, adds additional meaning to the term. One should not only get the source code but also
have the right to use it. If the latter is denied the license is categorized as a shared source
license.A software license agreement is a memorandum of contract between a producer and a
user of computer software which grants the user a software license. Most often, a software
license agreement indicates the terms under which an end-user may utilize the licensed software,
in which case the agreement is called an end-user license agreement or EULA. When the
software license agreement is between the software licensor and a business or government entity,
it is often implemented as a specialized form of contract with many clauses unique to the license
and the nature of the software being licensed.

Some software has source code that cannot be modified by anyone but the person, team, or
organization who created it and maintains exclusive control over it. This kind of software is
frequently called "proprietary software" or "closed source" software, because its source code is
the property of its original authors, who are the only ones legally allowed to copy or modify it.
Microsoft Word and Adobe Photoshop are examples of proprietary software. In order to use
proprietary software, computer users must agree (usually by signing a license displayed the first
time they run this software) that they will not do anything with the software that the software's
authors have not expressly permitted.

Open source software is different. Its authors make its source code available to others who would
like to view that code, copy it, learn from it, alter it, or share it. LibreOffice and the GNU Image
Manipulation Program are examples of open source software. As they do with proprietary
software, users must accept the terms of a license when they use open source software—but the
legal terms of open source licenses differ dramatically from those of proprietary licenses. Open
source software licenses promote collaboration and sharing because they allow other people to
make modifications to source code and incorporate those changes into their own projects. Some
open source licenses ensure that anyone who alters and then shares a program with others must
also share that program's source code without charging a licensing fee for it. In other words,
computer programmers can access, view, and modify open source software whenever they like—
as long as they let others do the same when they share their work. In fact, they could be violating
the terms of some open source licenses if they don't do this.

So as the Open Source Initiative explains, "open source doesn't just mean access to the source
code." It means that anyone should be able to modify the source code to suit his or her needs, and
that no one should prevent others from doing the same. The Initiative's definition of "open
source" contains several other important provisions.

b) Differentiate between client –server and peer –peer network (10)

Peer-to-Peer

Peer-to-peer networks are more commonly implemented where less than ten computers are
involved and where strict security is not necessary. All computers have the same status, hence the
term 'peer', and they communicate with each other on an equal footing. Files, such as word
processing or spreadsheet documents, can be shared across the network and all the computers on
the network can share devices, such as printers or scanners, which are connected to any one
computer

Peer-to-peer networks allow users to share resources and files located on their computers and to
access shared resources found on other computers. However, they do not have a file server or a
centralized management source. In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal;
they all have the same abilities to use the resources available on the network. Peer-to-peer
networks are designed primarily for small to medium local area networks. Nearly all modern
desktop operating systems, such as Macintosh OSX, Linux, and Windows, can function as peer-
to-peer network operating systems.

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.

 Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may only need to be
reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications.

 Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.

Client/Server

Client/server networks are more suitable for larger networks. A central computer, or 'server',
acts as the storage location for files and applications shared on the network. Usually the server is
a higher than average performance computer. The server also controls the network access of the
other computers which are referred to as the 'client' computers. Typically, teachers and students
in a school will use the client computers for their work and only the network administrator
(usually a designated staff member) will have access rights to the server

Client/server networks allow the network to centralize functions and applications in one or more
dedicated file servers. The file servers become the heart of the system, providing access to
resources and providing security. Individual workstations (clients) have access to the resources
available on the file servers. The network operating system provides the mechanism to integrate
all the components of the network and allow multiple users to simultaneously share the same
resources irrespective of physical location. UNIX/Linux and the Microsoft family of Windows
Servers are examples of client/server network operating systems.

Advantages of a client/server network:

 Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
 Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
 Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
 Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
 Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network:

 Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.

  Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
 Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network.

Peer-to-Peer Networks Client/Server Networks

· Easy to set up · More difficult to set up
· Less expensive to install · More expensive to install
· A variety of operating systems can be
· Can be implemented on a wide range supported on the client computers, but the
of operating systems server needs to run an operating system that
supports networking
· More time consuming to maintain the · Less time consuming to maintain the
software being used (as computers software being used (as most of the
must be managed individually) maintenance is managed from the server)
 High levels of security are supported, all
 Very low levels of security supported
of which are controlled from the server.
or none at all. These can be very
Such measures prevent the deletion of
cumbersome to set up, depending on
essential system files or the changing of
the operating system being used
settings
· Ideal for networks with less than 10 · No limit to the number of computers that
computers can be supported by the network
· Requires a server running a server
· Does not require a server
operating system
· Demands that the network administrator
· Demands a moderate level of skill to has a high level of IT skills with a good
administer the network working knowledge of a server operating
system

Question 16
a) Briefly describe the generations of computers from 1st generation to the 5th
generation (10)

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate
and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was
often the cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming

language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one
problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.
The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S.
Census Bureau in 1951.

Advantages

 Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.
 Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.
 These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

Disadvantages

 The computers were very large in size.

 They consumed a large amount of energy.
 They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.
 They were not very reliable.
 Air conditioning was required.
 Constant maintenance was required.
 Non-portable.
 Costly commercial production.
 Limited commercial use.
 Very slow speed.
 Limited programming capabilities.
 Used machine language only.
 Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage.
 Used punch cards for input.
 Not versatile and very faulty.

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the
late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that
subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,

or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Advantages

 Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.

 The 2nd generation Computers were more reliable
 Used less energy and were not heated.
 Wider commercial use
 Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.
 Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds
 Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
 Used Assembly language instead of Machine language.
 Accuracy improved.

Disadvantages

 Cooling system was required

 Constant maintenance was required
 Commercial production was difficult
 Only used for specific purposes
 Costly and not versatile
 Punch cards were used for input.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed
the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that
monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass
audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Advantages

 Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.

 More reliable.
 Used less energy
 Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of computers.
  Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.
 Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
 Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is reare.
 Totally general purpose
 Could be used for high-level languages.
 Good storage
 Versatile to an extent
 Less expensive
 Better accuracy
 Commercial production increased.
 Used mouse and keyboard for input.

Disadvantages

 Air conditioning was required.

 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled
an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in
1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and
memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use
microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Advantages

 More powerful and reliable than previous generations.

 Small in size
 Fast processing power with less power consumption
 Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.
 No air conditioning required.
 Totally general purpose
 Commercial production
 Less need of repair.
  Cheapest among all generations
 All types of High level languages can be used in this type of computers

Disadvantages

 The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in

development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are
being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology
will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.

b)What are the advantages and disadvantages of computers (10)

Advantages

1. High Speed

 Computer is a very fast device.

 It is capable of performing addition of very big data.

 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond and even the
picosecond.

 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who can
spend many months for doing the same task.

2. Accuracy

 In addition to being very fast, computer are very accurate.

 The computer has performed calculations 100% error free.

 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy.

3. Storage Capability
  Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

 The computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.

 It can store large amount of data.

 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and any other type.

4. Diligence

 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration.

 It can work continuously without creating any error and boredom.

 It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

5. Versatility

 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.

 This machine can be used to solve the problems relating to various different fields.

 At one instant, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.

6. Reliability

 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Modern electronic components have failure free long lives.

 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

7. Automation

 Computer is an automatic machine.

 Automation means ability to perform the task automatically.

 Once a program is given to computer i.e. stored in computer memory, the program
and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.
 8. Reduction in Paper Work

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in

paper work and speeds up the process.

 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of files gets reduced.

9. Reduction in Cost

 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially
reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of computer

The use of computer has also created some problems in society which are as follows.

Unemployment

Different tasks are performed automatically by using computers. It reduces the need of people
and increases unemployment in society.

Wastage of time and energy

Many people use computers without positive purpose. They play games and chat for a long
period of time. It causes wastage of time and energy. Young generation is now spending more
time on the social media websites like Facebook, Twitter etc or texting their friends all night
through smartphones which is bad for both studies and their health. And it also has adverse
effects on the social life.

Data Security

The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized persons through networks. It has
created serious problems for the data security.

Computer Crimes

People use the computer for negative activities. They hack the credit card numbers of the people
and misuse them or they can steal important data from big organizations.

Privacy violation

The computers are used to store personal data of the people. The privacy of a person can be
violated if the personal and confidential records are not protected properly.
Health risks

The improper and prolonged use of computer can results in injuries or disorders of hands, wrists,
elbows, eyes, necks and back. The users can avoid health risks by using the computer in proper
position. They must also take regular breaks while using the computer for longer period of time.
It is recommended to take a couple of minutes break after 30 minutes of computer usage.

Impact on Environment

The computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are polluting the environment. The
wasted parts of computer can release dangerous toxic materials. Green computer is a method to
reduce the electricity consumed and environmental waste generated when using a computer. It
includes recycling and regulating manufacturing processes. The used computers must be donated
or disposed of properly.