7 8 9

Introduction to Industrial
Electronics
Objectives
• To discuss the brief history of industrial electronics

• To define industrial electronics
• To identify some tools and equipment used in
industrial electronics
• To explain the components and basic block diagram of
industrial control system
• To be familiar with some industrial control system
History of Industrial Electronics
• In our modern world, we make daily use of
products made from the industrialized area
known commonly as factories.
• These product includes a wide variety of goods
/ products manufactured for our consumption.
• There was a time when almost all products
were hand-made and the factory system did
not exist.
• The transition from a world of artisan manufacture
to a factory system, and all its attendant benefits
with which we are familiar, is known as the Industrial
Revolution.
• It began in Britain in the early years of the 18 th
century.
• In a little over a century, Britain went from a largely
rural, agrarian population to a country of
industrialized towns, factories, mines and workshops.
• Britain was, in fact, already beginning to
develop a manufacturing industry during the
early years of the early 18th century, but it
was from the 1730’s that its growth
accelerated.
• By the middle of the 19th century, the
Industrial Revolution had produced great
changes in Britain and in Europe.
• The major driving force of the period was
steam power.
• Steam technology was highly developed and,
with the help of the newly-invented precision
lathe, larger, more efficient engines were
produced.
• These engines used much less coal to fuel
them.
2nd Industrial Revolution
• As we have seen, the second Industrial
Revolution was based on the development of
new found fuel energy sources, such as gas
and electricity.
• These energy sources were used to generate
the power needed to drive industry.
• Among the emerging new fuel sources,
mineral oil was also put to use in some ways it
was the needs of the Industrial Revolution
itself which, in the end, came to the aid of the
working classes.
• As the Industrial Revolution progressed there
was an increasing need for educated workers.
• In the old days it was not a problem if a farm
hand was illiterate.
• However, in the new industrial society,
engineers, architects, mechanics and builders
all needed literate workers who were able to
read instructions, take measurements and
interpret drawings and plans.
• History also includes:
– Power Electronics (1930)
– Robotics (late 1950)
– Programmable Logic Controllers (late 1960)
– Microcontroller ( 1971)
– Field Programmable Gate Array (mid 1980)
– Programmable Automation Controller (2001)
Power Electronics
• 1880-1890 – electric light, DC generator and motor,
alternator, and synchronous motor.
• 1890-1900 – induction motor, large transformer,
rotary converters.
• 1900-1920 – three-phase transmission, mercury arc
rectifier, diode and triode
• 1920-1940 – thyratron, klystron, and magnetron
• 1940-1960 – transistor, thyristor, triac
• 1960----MOSFET, IGBT, ETC.
Industry
• It refers to an area of economic production
focused on manufacturing which involves
large amount of upfront capital investment
before any profit can be realized.
• It is the organized action of making goods and
services for sale.
Industrial Electronics
• It refers to an equipment, tools, and processes
that involve electronics and are used in an
industrial application.
Industrial Control System
Control
Input Output
Feedback
• Human operator input usually has the form of
selector switch settings and/or potentiometer dial
settings.
• Such operator input represents the desired system
response or, in other words, the production results
expected from the system.
• The information represents such things as the
mechanical positions of movable parts:
temperatures, pressures, fluid flow, etc.
• In any industrial system, the control circuits

constantly receive and process information about the
condition in the system.
• The control circuitry must take all this information
and combine with input from human operator.
• Based on the comparison between system
information and human input, the control circuitry
makes decision.
• These decisions concern the next action of the
system itself, such as whether to start/stop a
motor, whether to speed up or slow down a
mechanical motion, whether to open or close
a control valve, or even whether to shut down
the system entirely because of unsafe
condition.
• The output part do the action.
• The feedback part sends information in the
control system to regulate some action of the
whole system.
• Industrial system consists of the following:
power control system, electronic switches,
industrial electronic devices.
Example of Industrial Control System
– automatic welding system
– servo system
– warehouse humidity controller
– pressure control system
– automatic weighing controller
– tension controller
– temperature controller
– refrigeration system
END
1
Objectives
After the completion of this section, you should
be able to:
• Describe the basic structure of different
thyristors and other industrial electronic
devices in terms of:
– Schematic symbols
– Terminals
2
• The two layer semiconductor
diode has led to three, four,
and even five layer devices.
• Thyristors refer to a class
of solid-state silicon
switching devices that are
constructed of four
semiconductor layers
(PNPN).
Electronic Devices by T. Floyd
3
• These devices do not require any control
current once they are turned on when triggered
or a quick pulse of control current is applied,
they turn on and become low-resistance
current paths and remain so.
• When the trigger is removed, thyristors keep
going as though nothing happened until the
current is reduced to a certain level or
triggered off depending on the type of device.
4
• It is constructed of four semiconductor layers
that form a pnpn structure. The device acts as
a switch and remains off until the forward
voltage reaches a certain value; then it turns
on and conducts.
• Conduction continues until the current is
reduced below a specified value (Holding
Current)
5
6
• Thyristors are mostly used to control the
amount of power going to a working device.
They are used in lamp dimmers, motor speed
control, ignition systems and charging circuits.
• UJTs and PUTs can be used as triggering
devices for thyristors, oscillators and timing
circuits. They are generally high-power
devices that can handle great deal of power
without reaching harmful temperatures.
7
• The most important thyristors are SCR and
the triac.
• Like power FETs, the SCR and the triac can
switch large currents on and off.
• Because of this, they can be used for
overloading protection, motor controls,
heaters, lighting systems, and other heavy
current loads.
8
• A family of four-layer and other important
devices that will be discussed in this module
are:
• Shockley diode (Four-Layer Diode)
• Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Gate Turn-Off SCR (GTO)
• Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS)
• Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS)
• Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS)
9
• A family of four-layer and other important
devices that will be discussed in this module
are:
• Diac and Triac
• Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• Programmable UJT (PUT)
• Phototransistor
• Light-Activated SCR (LASCR)
10
Shockley Diode
Also called four-layer diode

11
SCR
12
SUS SBS
13
SCS GTO
Anode
Gate
Cathode
14
TRIAC DIAC
15
UJT PUT
16
LASCR Phototransistor
17
OPTOCOUPLERS
18
END
1
Objectives
• To know the characteristics and parameters of :
SUS, SCR, SCS
• To enumerate the applications of: SUS, SCR, SCS
• To solve and analyze related circuit in: SUS, SCR,
SCS
2
SCR - Introduction
• SCR is another 4-layer pnpn device similar to SUS,
except with three terminals: anode, cathode, and
gate.
Electronic Devices by T. Floyd 3

SCR Characteristics and Ratings
• Forward-break over voltage (VBR(F)): the voltage at
which the SCR enters the forward-conduction (on)
region. VBR(F) is maximum if IG=0. when the gate
current increased, VBR(F) decreases and so on for
increasing steps in gate current.
• Holding current (IH): the value of anode current below
which the SCR switches from the forward conduction
region to forward blocking (off) region. The value
increases with an decreasing value of IG.
4
• Gate trigger current (IGT): the gate current necessary
to switch the SCR from the forward blocking region
to the forward conduction region under specified
condition
• Average forward current (IF(avg)): maximum
continuous anode current that the device can
withstand in the conduction state under specified
condition
• Forward conduction region: the region corresponds
to the on condition of the SCR where there is
forward current from anode to cathode through the
very low resistance of the SCR
5
• Forward blocking and reverse blocking regions:
these regions correspond to the off condition of
the SCR where the forward current from anode to
cathode is blocked by the effective open circuit of
the SCR
• Reverse breakdown voltage (VBR(R)): values if
reverse voltage from anode to cathode at which
the device breaks into the avalanche region and
begins to conduct heavily
6
SCR – State Condition
• It has two possible state:
• on state ( acting like a short between the anode
and cathode , but actually there is a small on
forward resistance) and
• off state (acting as an open circuit between the
anode and the cathode, but actually there is a very
high resistance)
7
Applications
• motor controls
• time delay circuit
• heater control
• phase control
• relay control, etc.
8
SCR – Equivalent Circuit
• Like the 4-layer diode operation, the SCR can best
be understood by thinking of its internal pnpn
structure as two-transistor arrangement as shown
above.
• The structure is like the SUS except for the gate
connection
9
SCR – Equivalent Circuit
10
Turning the SCR “ON”
• When IG=0, the device in the off state. The device
can be approximated as an open switch
• When a positive pulse is applied to the gate, both
transistor turns on. And even the pulse is removed;
both transistors stay “ON” due to regenerative
action
11
E 12
Example: Determine the gate trigger current and the anode
current when the switch SW1 is momentarily closed. Assume
VAK = 0.2V, VGK = 0.7V and IH = 5mA
Turning the SCR “ON”
• SCR can also be turned on (even IG=0) by
increasing A-to-K voltage to a value exceeding the
forward-breakover voltage VBR(F).
• Care should be taken in turning on the SCR. The
device should only be trigger by a pulse on the gate
terminal to limit the current that can damage the
device
14
Turning the SCR “OFF”
• When the gate pulse is remove, IG=0, but the SCR
cannot be turn off; it stays in the forward
conduction region
• The anode current must drop below the value of
the holding current, to turn off the device
• Two basic methods in turning off the SCR:
– anode current interruption
– force commutation
15
Anode current interruption – When the anode current is
reduced below a minimum value called holding current, the
SCR turns off. Thus, the simple way to turn off the SCR is to
open the line switch S.
Forward commutation – a method of discharging a
capacitor in parallel with an SCR to turn it off. In the figure,
the capacitor C will perform the commutation to turn off the
SCR.
SCR Half-wave Rectifier
- one important application of an SCR is the controlled
half-wave rectification.
E 18
• Conduction  - is the number of degrees of an
AC cycle during which the SCR is turned on.
• Firing delay  - is the number of degrees of an
AC cycle that elapses before the SCR is turned
on.
• Firing delay  + Conduction  = 180°
E 20
Mathematical Equations:
let v=Vmsinθ be the alternating voltage at
secondary
let α be the firing angle
At α=0°
At α=90°
E 22
E 24
E 25
E 26
SCR Full-wave Rectifier
- like an ordinary center-tap circuit except that the two
diodes have been replaced by two SCRs..
E 27
Mathematical Equations:
let v=Vmsinθ be the alternating voltage at
secondary
let α be the firing angle
E 29
SCR Applications
• ON-OFF control current
• Half-wave power control
• Lighting System for power interruption
• Over voltage protection circuit
30
Silicon Unilateral Swicth
• The pnpn structure can be
represented by an equivalent circuit
consisting of pnp transistor and an
npn transistor
31
SUS - Characteristic Curve

32
SUS - Forward-Blocking Region
• It is a region of forward bias in which the device has a very
high forward resistance (ideally an open) and is in the off
state.
It exists from VAK = 0 V up to a value of VAK called the
forward-breakover voltage
SUS - Switching Current

 It is the value of the anode current at the point where the
device switches from the forward-blocking region (off) to
the forward-conduction region (on).
 Its value is always less than the holding current, IH.
33
SUS - Holding Current
• It is when the device is in the on state and acts as a
closed switch.
SUS - Forward-Conduction Region
 It is when the device is in the on state and acts as a
closed switch
 When IA falls below IH, the device turns off
34
Turning ON the SCS
• The anode gate current can be used to turn the SCS
‘on’ or ‘off’
Negative pulse at GA = ON
Positive pulse at GA = OFF
35
Advantages of SCS
• Turn OFF time
– Typically 1 to 10 s for SCS and 5 to 30 s for SCR.
• Increase in control sensitivity
• Increase in triggering sensitivity
Disadvantages of SCS
• Low Voltage rating
• Low Current rating
• Low Power rating
Applications of SCS
• Counters
• Registers
• Timing circuits
36
Sample Application: Alarm system
Electronic Devices by R. Boylestad
37
Unijunction Transistor &
Programmable Unijunction
Transistor
Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• UJT is another solid state three terminal device that can be used
in gate pulse, timing circuits and trigger generator applications
to switch and control thyristors and triacs for AC power control
applications.
• Equivalent Circuit: UJT’s have unidirectional conductivity and
negative impedance characteristics acting more like a variable
voltage divider during breakdown
• As the physical position of the p-n junction is closer to
terminal B2 than B1 the resistive value of RB2will be less than RB1.
• These two series resistances produce a
voltage divider network between the two
base terminals of the Unijunction transistor
• Since this channel stretches from B2 to B1,
when a voltage is applied across the device,
the potential at any point along the channel
will be in proportion to its position between
terminals B2 and B1.
• The level of the voltage gradient therefore
depends upon the amount of supply voltage.
• When used in a circuit, terminal B1 is connected to ground and
the Emitter serves as the input to the device.
• Suppose a voltage VBB is applied
across the UJT between B2 and B1 so
that B2 is biased positive relative
to B1.
• With zero Emitter input applied, the
voltage developed across RB1 (the
lower resistance) of the resistive
voltage divider can be calculated as:
𝑅𝐵1
𝑉𝑅𝐵1 = 𝑉𝐵𝐵
𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅𝐵2
• For a Unijunction transistor, the resistive ratio of RB1 to RBB is
called the intrinsic stand-off ratio (η).
𝑅𝐵1
𝜂=
• Typical standard values of η range

from 0.5 to 0.8 for most common
UJT’s.
• If a small positive input voltage (less than the voltage
developed across resistance RB1 is now applied to the Emitter
input terminal, the diode p-n junction is reverse biased, thus
offering a very high impedance and the device does not
conduct.
• The UJT is switched “OFF” and zero current flows.
• However, when the Emitter input voltage is increased and
becomes greater than VRB1 (or ηVBB + 0.7V, where 0.7V equals
the p-n junction diode volt drop) the p-n junction becomes
forward biased and the Unijunction transistor begins to
conduct.
• The result is that Emitter current, ηIE now flows from the
Emitter into the Base region.
UJT Characteristics
UJT Characteristics
Example-1
• The intrinsic stand-off ratio for a UJT is determined to be 0.6.
If the inter-base resistance (RBB) is 10kΩ what are the values of
RB1 and RB2?
• Intrinsic stand-off ratio for a UJT is given as
𝑅𝐵1
𝜂=
Example-1
• Inter-base resistance (RBB) is 10kΩ
Example-2
• A UJT has 10V between the bases. If the intrinsic stand off
ratio is 0.65, find the value of stand off voltage. What will be
the peak point voltage if the forward voltage drop in the pn
junction is .7V?
• VBB=10V, 𝜂 = 0.65, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7𝑉

• Stand off voltage (VRB1) is given as
𝑉𝑅𝐵1 = 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵
Example-2
• VBB=10V, 𝜂 = 0.65, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7𝑉
• Peak point Voltage (VP) is given as
𝑉𝑃 = 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷
Exercise-1
• Determine the minimum and maximum peak-
point voltage for UJT with VBB=24V. Given that
UJT has a range of 𝜂 = 0.74 𝑡𝑜 0.86.
UJT Applications
• The most common application of a Unijunction
transistor is as a triggering device for SCR’s and Triacs
• Other UJT applications include sawtoothed

generators, simple oscillators, phase control, and
timing circuits.
• The simplest of all UJT circuits is the Relaxation

Oscillator producing non-sinusoidal waveforms.
UJT Relaxation Oscillator
• In a basic and typical UJT relaxation oscillator
circuit, the Emitter terminal of the Unijunction
transistor is connected to the junction of a series
connected resistor and capacitor.
UJT Relaxation Oscillator
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵𝐵 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅3 𝐶 )
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵𝐵 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅3𝐶 ) UJT Relaxation Oscillator
• Discharge of the capacitor occurs when VC =Vp.
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉𝐵𝐵 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅3 𝐶 )
𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐵 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅3𝐶 )
• Note: VD is ignored in above equation
1 − 𝜂 = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅3 𝐶
𝑡
ln(1 − 𝜂) = −
𝑅3 𝐶
1
𝑅3𝐶 ln( )=𝑡
1−𝜂
Example-3
• The data sheet for a 2N2646 Unijunction Transistor gives
the intrinsic stand-off ratio η as 0.65. If a 100nF capacitor
is used to generate the timing pulses, calculate the
timing resistor required to produce an oscillation
frequency of 100Hz.
• The timing period is given as: Example-3
1
𝑇= = 10𝑚𝑠
100
• The value of the timing resistor, R3 is

calculated as:
1
𝑅3𝐶 ln( )=𝑡
1−𝜂
10𝑚
𝑅3 =
1
𝐶 ln( )
1−𝜂
𝑅3 = 95.23𝐾Ω
UJT Motor Speed Control Circuit
• Consider the UJT relaxation oscillator Example-4
shown in figure. Assume that UJT has
following characteristics.
𝜂 = 0.63 𝑉𝑣 = 1.5 𝑉c 𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 9.2 𝐾Ω

𝑅𝐵1 = 5.8 𝐾Ω 𝑅𝐵2 = 3.4 𝐾Ω
𝐼𝑃 = 5𝜇𝐴 𝐼𝑉 = 3.5 𝑚𝐴Ω

Find
a) VP
b) Output Frequency 𝑓
c) Prove that a 10 𝐾Ω 𝑅𝐸 is within
acceptable range 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉
i.e 𝑅𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑅𝐸 < 𝑅𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑉
• Solution Example-4
a) VP
𝑉𝑝 = 𝜂𝑉𝑏𝑏 + 0.7
𝑅𝐵𝐵
𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝑠
𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 22.6 𝑉
𝑉𝑝 = 0.63 × 22.6 + 0.7
𝑉𝑝 = 14.938 𝑉
b) Output Frequency 𝑓
1
𝐹=
1
𝑅𝐸 𝐶𝐸 ln 1 − 𝜂
𝐹 = 502.890 𝐻𝑧
c) Prove that a 10 𝐾Ω 𝑅𝐸 is within
acceptable range
i.e 𝑅𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑅𝐸 < 𝑅𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 24 − 14.938
𝑅𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 1.81𝑀Ω
𝐼𝑃 5𝜇𝐴
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉 24 − 1.5
𝑅𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 2.5 𝐾Ω
𝐼𝑉 3.5𝑚𝐴
Line-Synchronized UJT Trigger Circuit
for SCR
Line-Synchronized
UJT Trigger Circuit
for SCR
1
Objectives
• To define the operation of DC to DC, AC to

DC, DC to AC and AC to AC, conceptualize
its circuit diagram, and solve some
related problems.
2
Power electronic interfaces • Power electronic converters provide the
necessary adaptation functions to integrate
Power electronics is the application all different microgrid components into a
of solid-state electronics to the control and common system.
conversion of electric power.
Power electronic interfaces
• Integration needs:
• Component with different characteristics:

• dc or ac architecture.
• Sources, loads, and energy storage devices output.
• Control issues:
• Stabilization
• Operational issues:
• Optimization based on some goal
• Efficiency (e.g. MPPT)
• Flexibility
• Reliability
• Safety
• Other issues:
•Interaction with other systems (e.g. the main grid)
• Types of interfaces: Power electronics basics
• dc-dc: dc-dc converter
• ac-dc: rectifier
• dc-ac: inverter
• ac-ac: cycloconverter (used less often)
• Power electronic converters components:

• Semiconductor switches:
• Diodes
• MOSFETs
• IGBTs
• SCRs
Diode MOSFET
• Energy storage elements
• Inductors
• Capacitors
• Other components:
• Transformer IGBT
SCR
• Control circuit
The resulting power electronic circuits are
classified into four types:
• dc-dc converters (dc choppers)
• ac-dc converters (controlled rectifiers)
• dc-ac converters (inverters)
• ac-ac converters (ac voltage controllers)
6
Power Electronics Converters
AC to DC: RECTIFIER
DC to AC: INVERTER
AC input DC output
DC input AC output
DC to DC: CHOPPER
DC input DC output
7
DC Chopper (DC-DC)
• DC-DC converter (chopper) is used to convert constant DC voltage into variable
DC voltage.
• In DC-DC conversion circuits, thyristors are used as switching elements. Here,

thyristors must be turned off using forced commutation as they lack facility of
natural commutation that is available in AC circuits.
• Buck chopper produces output that is less than or equal to input voltage.
• Boost chopper provides an output voltage that is greater than or equal to input
voltage.
• Typical application of DC choppers is DC motor speed control.
8
Principles Of Basic
DC Choppers
Basic DC Chopper
• Switch is turned on and off periodically. In this way constant voltage can be
connected to and disconnected from the load.
• By a periodic application of constant voltage at a particular frequency across

the load, variable voltage can be achieved by controlling the on period of the
switch.
9
• Instantaneous voltage across load is either zero (S off) or Vi (S on).
• Average (DC) output voltage over a cycle is:
V0= TON Vi
TON+TOFF
V0=TON Vi
T
V0=d Vi 10
Output voltage as function of duty cycle
Output voltage varies linearly with duty cycle.
It is possible to control output voltage from zero to V i as duty cycle

varies from zero to 1.
11
Methods for varying Average Output Voltage
Pulse-Width Modulation Pulse-Frequency Modulation
• Pulse width TON is varied while • Pulse width TON is kept

overall switching period is constant while the period
kept constant. (frequency) is varied.
Controlled rectifiers (AC-DC)
 Diodes of rectifier circuits are replaced by thyristors.
 In thyristor based rectifiers, output voltage can be controlled. So they are termed
as controlled rectifiers.
 Controlled rectifiers produce variable DC output, whose magnitude is varied by

Phase control.
Phase Control
• DC output from rectifier is controlled by controlling duration of the conduction
period by varying the point at which gate signal is applied to SCR.
 Main drawback of phase control is Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
13
Controlled rectifiers are of two types,
1- Fully Controlled rectifiers
• DC current is unidirectional, but DC voltage has either polarity.
With one polarity, flow of power is from AC source to DC load---
Rectification.
• With the reversal of DC voltage by the load, flow of power is from
DC load to AC source---Inversion.
2- Half controlled rectifiers

• Half of SCRs are replaced by diodes.
• DC output current and voltage are unidirectional. i.e., flow of
power is from AC source to DC load.
14
Half-Wave Controlled Rectifiers
15
With Resistive Load
16
Control characteristics of half-wave rectifier
17
With an Inductive (RL) Load
18
With Inductive Load and
Freewheeling Diode
19
Full-Wave Controlled
Center-Tap Rectifiers
20
With Resistive Load
21
With an Inductive (RL) Load
22
Control Characteristics for center-tap rectifier
23
With Freewheeling Diode
24
Example
Show direction of power flow and
operating mode (rectifying or inversion) of
center-tap rectifier circuit with following
firing angles:
A) α > 0°
B) α < 90°
C) α > 90°
D) α < 180°
25
Solution
• For firing angle in the range 0° < α < 90°

1. Average output voltage is positive.
2. Converter operates in the rectifying mode.
3. Power to the load is positive
4. Power flow is from AC source to the DC load.
• For firing angle in the range 90° < α <

180°
1. Average output voltage is negative
2. Converter operates in inversion mode
3. Power to the load is negative
4. Power flow is from DC load to AC source
26
Full-Wave Controlled Bridge Rectifier
• In fully-controlled rectifier, only rectification can be
obtained by connecting a freewheeling diode across the
output terminals of the rectifier.
Half-Controlled OR Semi-controlled Bridge
Rectifiers
• Another method of obtaining rectification in bridge
rectifiers is replacing half of the SCRs with diodes. These
circuits are called semi-controlled bridge rectifiers.
27
(DC-AC)
Inverters
28
29
30
31
32
Half-bridge DC-AC Inverter
• Half-bridge inverter
(One leg of full bridge converter)
E 33
Effect of Blanking Time
• Effect on the output voltage

E 34
Full-Bridge DC-AC Inverter
E 35
Unipolar Voltage Switching
E 36
Unipolar Voltage Switching
• Harmonic components around the switching frequency

are absent
E 37
38
39
(AC-AC)
AC Chopper
40
41
Single Phase Full Wave AC Chopper
42
43
• Electromagnetic induction is unique because it actually
generates heat inside the material that is heated, has an
immediate effect.
• Compared to other heating techniques, it takes less
time to heat and is more efficient and accurate.
44
45
END
46
THYRISTOR
Devices that are constructed of four semiconductor layers
(pnpn) forming three pn junctions some with control
mechanism .
1. Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
2. Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS)
3. Shockley Diode
4. DIAC
5. TRIAC
Applications:
It control the amount of power to a load.
ex. Motor speed control, ignition systems, charging
circuits, lamp dimmer, triggering circuits
SHOCKLEY DIODE
 Two-terminal thyristor that conducts when the
potential across its terminals exceeds the breakover
potential.
 The construction can be represented by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a pnp transistor and
an npn transistor.
 The middle pn junction is shared by both transistor.
 Both transistor are in the linear region when a
positive bias voltage is applied to the anode.
ELECTRONIC SYMBOL
1st pn junction
3rd pn junction
A
pn
pn
pn 2nd pn junction
K
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
IS = switching
current, the value Forward-conduction
of the anode IA region (ON)
current when the
device switches
from OFF state to
ON state
IH
IS
VAK
VBR(F)
Forward-blocking
region (OFF) Forward-breakover
voltage
High resistance
(open)
BASIC OPERATION
IE1 = IA
IB1 = IC2
VBIAS < VBR(F)
IC1 = IB2
ICBO1 + ICBO2 IE2

IA =
1 – ( α1 + α2)
This is the forward current when When α1 + α2 = 1
the device is OFF, but forward- Leakage
biased. current IA = IS
SILICON-CONTROLLED
RECTIFIER
A three-terminal thyristor that conducts current when triggered on by a
positive voltage at the gate terminal and remains on until the anode
current falls below a specified value.
Applications:
1. relay control
2. time-delay circuit
3. regulated power supplies
4. static switches
5. motor control
6. choppers
7. inverters
8. battery chargers
9. phase control
ELECTRONIC SYSMBOL
Basic construction
Equivalent circuit
BASIC OPERATION
 SCR has two states of operation.
 It acts ideally as an open switch (high resistance) between anode
and cathode terminal during “OFF” state.
 In the “ON” state, the SCR acts ideally as a short circuit (low
resistance) from the anode and cathode terminal.
 SCR remains in the ON state until its anode current automatically
decreases below the critical value called holding current.
 A positive pulse/spike of sufficient magnitude is applied to the
gate terminal to turn on the device. Gate current must reach a
certain critical value called gate-triggering current (IGT ).
 An SCR cannot be turned off by simply removing the gate
voltage.
 Only few SCR can be turned off by applying a negative pulse.
 SCR can be turned off by anode-current interruption and forced-
commutation techniques.
 Once ‘fired’, SCR remains ON even when triggering pulse is
removed. This ability of the SCR to remain ON even when gate
current is removed is referred to as latching. In fact, SCR
belongs to a class of devices known as latching devices.
SCR WAVEFORMS
 Conduction  - is the number of degrees of
an AC cycle during which the SCR is turned
on.
 Firing delay  - is the number of degrees of
an AC cycle that elapses before the SCR is
turned on.
 Firing delay  + Conduction  = 180°
VAK AND VL WAVEFORMS
SCR CHARACTERISTIC
CURVES
IA
Forward
conduction
region
Reverse breakdown
voltage IH
VF
Forward breakover
voltage
Forward blocking region

Reverse blocking region
SCR PARAMETERS
 Forward Breakover Voltage (VBR) - voltage above
which the SCR enters the conduction region.
 Holding Current (IH) - the value of current below
which the SCR switches from the conduction state to
the forward blocking region.
 Forward and Reverse Blocking Regions –
corresponds to the open-circuit conduction for the
controlled rectifier which block the flow of charge
from anode to cathode.
 Reverse Breakdown Voltage - equivalent to zener
avalanche region of the fundamental two-layer
semiconductor diode.
 Forward-Conduction Region – corresponds to the on
condition of the SCR.
SAMPLE APPLICATION
Battery-charging regulator
Capacitors Used To Delay
Firing
LIGHT-ACTIVATED SCR
(LASCR)
 LASCRs can be operated
as conventional SCRs.
 Light energy acts as the
trigger signal in LASCR.
 Most sensitive to light when
the gate terminal is open.
To reduce the sensitivity,
connect a parallel resistor
across gate-cathode
terminals.
SILICON-CONTROLLED
SWITCH (SCS)
 SCS is similar in construction to the SCR except it has
two gate terminals.
 Can be turned on and off using either gate terminal.
 Power ratings are lower than those of the SCR.
SYMBOL
Anode
gate
Anode
gate
Cathode
gate
Cathode
gate
Anode
gate
SCS OPERATION
 Turn-on: Positive pulse on GK or negative pulse
on GA
GA
GK
 Turn-off: Positive pulse on GA or negative
pulse on GK
GA
GK
DIAC
 The diac is basically two parallel Shockley
diodes in opposite directions.
 Type of thyristor that can conduct current in
both directions.
 Diac can be turned on when the breakover
voltage is exceeded. It turns off when the
current drops below the holding value.
SYMBOL I
Anode 1
VBR
VBR
Anode 1
Anode 2
characteristic
n
p
n
p
n
Anode 2
TRIAC
A1
 Fundamentally a diac with a
gate terminal for controlling
the turn-on conditions of the
bilateral device in either n n
direction. p
 Triac is basically two SCRs
connected in parallel and in n
opposite directions with a p
common gate terminal.
 When the voltage is more n n
positive on A2, current flows
from A2 to A1.When the
voltage is more positive on G
A1, current flows from A1 to
A2. A2
Gate Turn-Off thyristor, GTO
 Power semiconductor switch that turns ON by
a positive gate signal. It can be turned OFF
by a negative gate signal.
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR
(UJT)
 UJT is a breakover-type switching device.
 The term unijunction refers to the fact that the UJT has a
single pn junction.
 UJT is not a thyristor.
 A three terminal device that exhibits a negative resistance
characteristic. The decrease in resistance in the active
region is due to the holes injected into the n-type slab from
the aluminum p-type rod when conduction is established.
 The intrinsic standoff ratio determines the voltage at which
the device will trigger on.
 Base 2 terminal is made positive with respect to the base 1
terminal because the aluminum rod is alloyed to the Si slab
closer to base 2 contact than base 1 contact.
 Originally called a duo base diode.
ELECTRONIC SYMBOL
Emitter Base1
Base2
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
V BB
Interbase resistance, RBB and
intrinsic stand-off ratio, 
RBB = RB1 + RB2 , IE = 0
= RB1 / (RB1 + RB2 ) = RB1 /RBB , IE = 0
Emitter Firing Potential

VP= VD + VRB1 = VD + VBB
VBB
VE
EMITTER-CHARACTERISTIC
CURVE Peak point
VE
Negative
Cutoff region resistance
region Saturation region
Vp
Active
region
VE (sat)
Vv
IE
Ip Iv Valley point
UJT TRIGGERING OF AN SCR
V
R1 must be chosen to ensure that the load line determined

by R1 passes through the device characteristics in the
negative resistance region
LOAD LINE
P( Ip, Vp)
Load line
Negative
resistance
region V( Iv, Vv)
To ensure firing at peak point.
VE = VP
IR1 = IP
+V - IRI R1 - VE = 0
R1 = (V - VE)/ IR1 = (V - VP ) / IR1
R1 < ( V - VP)/ IP
To ensure turning off at valley point
VE = VV
IR1 = IV
R1 = (V – VV) / IV
R1  (V – VV) / IV
Range of R1:
(V – VV) / IV < R1 < ( V - VP)/ IP
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
WAVEFORMS
τd = (RB1 + R2)C
Vc τc = R1C
Vp
Vv
t1 Τ
VR2
VB2
t2
FORMULAS
 Equation for the charging period
vC = Vv + ( V – Vv)(1 – e- t / R1C)
 Discharge equation
vC = Vp e- t / ( RB1 + R2)C
 Period t1
t1 = R1C ln [ (V – Vv ) / ( V – Vp)]
 Period t2
t2 = (RB1 + R2) C ln [Vp / Vv]

 One cycle
T = t1 + t2
 Oscillator frequency
fosc = 1 / T
Example
 Line-synchronized UJT trigger circuit for an SCR
PROGRAMMABLE UNIJUNCTION
TRANSISTOR (PUT)
 PUT can be externally programmed (controlled) by the resistors,
RB1, RB2, and the supply voltage, V BB.
 Three-terminal device that is more like an SCR than a UJT.
 It is triggered into conduction when the anode voltage exceeds
the gate voltage by 0.7 V.
 PUT can be used in some oscillator application to replace the
UJT.
 The gate is always biased positive with respect to the cathode.
 When the pn junction is forward-biased, PUT turns on.
SYMBOL
PUT Biasing V BB
Firing potential (Vp)

R B2
necessary to “fire” the PUT
Vp = VG + VD = VG + 0.7 V
VG = [ RB1 / (RB1 + RB2)] VBB
V AK VG = η VBB
R B1
Firing Potential, Vp
Characteristic Curve
Application: PUT Relaxation
Oscillator
APPLICATION
 PUT Relaxation Oscillator
R2
R3
Voltage Waveforms
Application: Lighting System for Power Failure
SCR: OFF
 The battery charges through D 3 and R1 as long as the ac source is available.
 Vk is more positive than V A, thus preventing SCR conduction.
 Vc = Vs – (VR2 + VD1)
SCR: ON
 Power interruption
 The capacitor discharges through the closed path D3, R1, and R3.
 VA is more positive than Vk.
 VG is more positive than Vk
Application: Crowbar
 Over-voltage protection circuit.

 The dc output Vout is monitored by D 1 and the voltage divider
network.
 The upper limit of the output is set by D 1. If this voltage exceeded,
D1 conducts and turns on the SCR.
 Anode current causes the fuse to blow.
Relay, Programmable
Logic Controllers (PLC)
and Ladder Diagram
Relay Circuit
Objectives
–To be familiar with the basic
construction of a relay.
–To know how relay works.
–To know the importance of a relay.
– To create a ladder diagram circuit.
2
Definition
• Relay is a simple electromechanical switch up
of an electromagnet and a set of contacts.
• Relays are found hidden in all sorts of devices.
In fact, some of the first computers ever built
used relays to implement Boolean gates.
3
Relay Construction
• Relays are amazingly simple devices.
• There are four parts in every relay:
1. Electromagnet
2. Armature that can be attracted by the
electromagnet
3. Spring
4. Set of electrical contacts
4
Relays
• In General, Relays Transform a Control Signal
into a Control Action
• Relays Provide:
– Isolation Between Input and Output
– Leverage (Small Signal Can Control Large
Action)
– Automation (Minimize Human Interaction
with a Control Process)
5
Types of Relay
• Control relays
• Power relays or contactors
• Magnetic motor starters
• Reed relays
• Overload relays
– Thermal
– Magnetic
6
Relay
Components
7
Relay
A Relay consists of two parts, the coil and the contact(s).
Contacts:
a. Normally open -| |-
b. Normally closed -|/|-
c. Positive transition sensing -|P|-
contact
d. Negative transition sensing -|N|-
Coil:
a. Coil -( )-
b. negative coil -(/)- coil
c. Set Coil -(S)-

d. Reset Coil -(R)- input
8
Relay
Coil:
e. Retentive memory Coil -(M)-
f. Set retentive memory Coil -(SM)-
g. Reset retentive memory Coil -(RM)-
h. Positive Transition-sensing Coil -(P)-
h. Negative Transition-sensing Coil -(N)-
(set coil latches the state, reset coil deenergize the set coil. retentive
coil retain the state after power failure.)
9
Basic Relay Symbols
10
Relay Applications
• Relays can be Designed to Perform Many
Functions
– Detect Out of Limit Conditions on Voltages
and Currents
– Start Motors
– Prevent Motors from Over Heating
– Control Assembly Lines
– Adjust Lighting
11
Relay Applications
• In general, the point of a relay is to use a
small amount of power in the
electromagnet to move an armature that is
able to switch a much larger amount of
power.
• For example, you might want the
electromagnet to energize using 5 volts and
50 milliamps (250 milliwatts), while the
armature can support 120V AC at 2 amps
(240 watts).
12
Relay Applications
• Relays are quite common in home appliances
where there is an electronic control turning on
something like a motor or a light.
• They are also common in cars, where the 12V
supply voltage means that just about
everything needs a large amount of current.
13
Relay Applications
• In places where a large amount of power
needs to be switched, relays are often
cascaded.
• In this case, a small relay switches the power
needed to drive a much larger relay, and that
second relay switches the power to drive the
load.
14
Programmable Logic controllers
(PLCs)
• Were introduced in 1968
• Were primarily intended to replace relay
devices , so it is appropriate to be familiar
with the components used in relay devices
15
PLC’s Are ...
• Similar to a Microcontroller:
– Microprocessor Based
– Onboard Memory for Storing Programs
– Special Programming Language: Ladder Logic
– Input/Output Ports
16
PLC’s Are...
• Dissimilar to Microcontrollers:
– Intended for Industrial Applications
– I/O Designed to interface with Control
Relays
– Emphasis on Maximum Reliability
17
PLC’s
• Widely Applied in Every Industry
• Were Developed to Simplify the Implementation
of Control Automation Systems in Plants and
Assembly Lines
• Designed to Minimize the Number of Control
Relays in a Process and Maximize the Ways Relays
can be Used
• First Applied to Automobile Industry in the Late
1960’s
• Flexible, Reliable and Low Cost
18
PLC Architecture
PC
Program
Loader
Switches
Printer
I/O
Processor
Modules Machines
Cassette
Loader
Power
EPROM Memory Supply
Loader
Peripherals External Devices
19
PLC Components :
• Processor : The processor (CPU) scans the status of the input
peripheral , examines the control logic to see what action to
take , and then execute the appropriate output response
• Memory : the control program and the peripheral status are
stored in the memory
ROM( Read Only Memory )
RAM (Random Access Memory),
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory),
EEPROM (Electric Erasable Programmable ROM),
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory),
EAPROM (Electronically Alterable Programmable
20
• Input/Output :
PLC Components
modular plug-in periphery
Ac voltage input and output
Dc voltage input and output
Low level analog input
High level analog input and output
Specail purpose modulas
• Power supply : Ac power
• Peripherals : Hand-Held Programmer ( HHP)
CRT programmer
Operetor console
Printer
Simulator
EPROM loader
Graphics processor
21
I/O Modules
• Input Modules: Input Signals can be AC or DC,
Analog or Digital
• Output Modules: Outputs are either AC or DC
Analog Signals (Although it is possible to
‘Construct’ Digital Outputs)
• Modern PLC’s have Expansion Ports to
Increase the Number of Available Inputs and
Outputs
22
23
Examples of I/O Signals
• Inputs:
– Pushbutton (Energizing or Grounding an Input)
– Relay Contact Output
– DC Voltage Level
– Digital Logic Signal (+5V or 0 V, etc)
• Outputs:
– 24 V ac
– 120 V ac
– 120 Vdc
– etcetera
24
PLC Programming
• Ladder Diagram - most common

• Structure Text Programming (ST)
• Functional Block Programming (FB)
• Instruction List (IL)
• Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
25
Ladder Diagram
A ladder diagram (also called contact symbology) is a
means of graphically representing the logic required
in a relay logic system.
Rail
start emergency stop

PB1 PB2
R1
Rung
R1
R1
A
26
PLC Ladder Diagram
INSTRUCTIONS
1) Relay, • Hint : Relay , timer and
2) Timer and counter, counter instructions
3) Program control, are the most
fundamental because
4) Arithmetic, they correspond to
5) Data manipulation, what is on a ladder
diagram and are
6) Data transfer, and
available on all PLCs so
7) Others, such as we limit our
sequencers. disscussion to them
PLC’s Use Ladder Logic
• Ladder Logic Diagrams Provide a Method to

Symbolically Show How Relay Control
Schemes are Implemented
• Relay Contacts and Coils, Inputs and Outputs
lie on “Rungs” Between the Positive and
Ground Rails
28
PLC Special Features
• Time Delay Relays
• Counter Relays
• Special Functions
• User Defined Functions
• Special Bits
29
Origin of Ladder Diagram
30
Ladder Diagram - Relay Logic
Control Circuit
• This circuit is used to control industrial electronics circuits using
relays and contacts.
• Ladder or line diagram
– The schematic diagram
• Rails
– Two vertical lines, for potential difference
• Rungs
– The horizontal lines where contacts and components
where placed
• Branch
– Part of rung where conditional circuit is made
• Condition Section
– Input field devices
31
What is a Rung?
32
Series Vs Parallel Operations
33
Ladder Logic Execution
34
Ladder Diagram Rules
• The vertical lines represents power lines AC or DC.
• Left rail is designated as L1 and the active line for AC
or + terminal for DC.
• Right rail as designated as L2 and the neutral line for
AC or – terminal for DC.
• Rungs are labeled in numerical order from top to
bottom.
• To read the diagram: left to right, top to bottom.
35
• The components are shown in their normal condition
(de-energized).
• Contacts will always have the same letter and
number designation as the device that controls
them, and it includes timers, switch, coils, relays, and
motor starters.
• A normally open contact closes when the device that
controls it is energized.
• A normally closed contact opens when the device
that controls it is energized.
36
• Controlling devices are always between L1 and

output devices.
• Controlling devices can be connected in series or in
parallel.
• Output devices are always connected to L2.
37
Contacts
38
39
Non Retentive Coils
40
Retentive Vs Non-retentive
Operation
41
Example of Ladder Diagram
42
Counters
• Counter Relays must “Count” a pre-determined
number of events before changing contact status
• Can Count Up (UpCounter) or Count Down
(DownCounter)
• e.g. An UpCounter is set to 8 and is programmed
to detect every occurrence of a 5 Volt pulse.
When it has detected 8 such occurrences, the NO
Contacts close and the NC contacts open.
• Great for making Real-Time Clocks, etc
43
TIMERS AND COUNTERS
Timers:
a. Retentive on delay -(RTO)- Input
b. Retentive off delay -(RTF)- True False True
c. Reset -(RST)- RTO counting stop counting
resume
Counter:
RTF stop counting stop
a. Counter up -(CTU)-
b. Counter down -(CTD)-
RTO reach PR value, output ON
c. Counter reset -(CTR)- RTF reach PR value, output OF
PR value in 0.1 second
TIMERS AND COUNTERS
Clock
input
Register Accumulator
reset
Accumulator Register
reset
Contact
contact
contact
output
output
COUNTER TIMER
45
Time Delay Symbol
• Can be Constructed With or Without a
Reset Input
46
• Delay Motor Start While Alarm Sounds for
Safety
Making Use
of
Delays
47
Transducers
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding
signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus
sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system
Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
– convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
• General Electronic Sensor
– primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical signal
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or digital values
real primary analog secondary usable

world transducer signal transducer values
• Typical Electronic Sensor System sensor
input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication
Example Electronic Sensor Systems
• Components vary with application
– digital sensor within an instrument
• microcontroller sensor µC keypad
– signal timing
signal timing
sensor memory display
– data storage handheld instrument
– analog sensor analyzed by a PC

sensor interface e.g., RS232
PC
sensor A/D, communication
signal processing comm. card
– multiple sensors displayed over internet

internet
sensor sensor
sensor bus sensor bus
processor PC processor
comm. comm.
comm. card
Primary Transducers
• Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
– thermocouple: temperature difference
– compass (magnetic): direction
• Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
– photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
• infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
– piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
– microaccelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car crash)
– chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
– DNA arrays: match DNA sequences
• Skvarenina/DeWitt, Electrical Power and
Controls, Pearson-Prentice Hall, 2004
References
52
The end.
53
53
BASIC DC POWER
SUPPLY
1
DC POWER SUPPLY
A transformer steps
down the ac voltage to a
TRANSFORMER desired output.
A diode rectifier
provides pulsating dc
RECTIFIER voltage. It can be in a
full-wave or half-wave.
2
DC POWER SUPPLY
FILTER
A capacitor filter provides a

filtered output voltage. The
resulting dc output has a ripple REGULATOR
or ac voltage variation.
A transistor, zener, and op-amp or IC

regulator can be used to have a LOAD
regulator circuit to provide much less
ripple output or pure dc like in battery
and remains the same dc value even if
the input and load varies. 3
DC POWER SUPPLY
• THE TRANSFORMER
• Transformer – is a device that has two or more
coil windings used to step-up or down AC voltage.
• Power companies in the United States supply a
nominal line voltage of 120 Vrms and a frequency
of 60 Hz (in Philippines it is 220 Vrms and 60 Hz
respectively). For power supply application the
line voltage must be step down for safer and
lower levels that are more suitable for use with
diodes, transistors and other semiconductor
devices.
4
DC POWER SUPPLY
Phasing dots shown at the upper ends of the

windings means that the secondary windings
have the same instantaneous phase with the
primary windings.
Primary Winding is usually the input of the
transformer where main power source
connected.
Secondary Winding is usually the output side of
5
the transformer where the load is connected.
DC POWER SUPPLY
• Turns Ratio
V1 N2
V2  or
V2  V1
N1 N2 N1
P1  P2 V1  primary vo ltage
V2  secondary voltage
V1 I1  V2 I 2
N 1 # of turns of primary coil
I1 V2 N2 N 2 # of turns of secondary coil
 
I2 V1 N1 I1  primary current
I 2  secondary current
6
DC POWER SUPPLY
• Rectification – is the process of converting an

AC input into pulsating DC output.
• Half-wave Rectifier
7
DC POWER SUPPLY
For ideal diode the

peak output voltage Ideal half wave : Vp(out)  Vp(in)
equals the peak input
voltage.
The dc value of the Vp
signal is the average half wave : Vdc   0.318V p
value. 
8
BASIC DC POWER SUPPLY
The output frequency is the same half wave : f out  f in

as the input frequency.
using practical diodes:

half wave(prac tical diode) : Vp(out)  Vp(in) - 0.7volts
where :
V p ( out)  peak output vol tage (across the load, if there is)
V p (in)  peak input volt age (across the secondary transforme r)
f out  output signal frequency (or ripple frequency)
f in  input signal frequency (or ripple frequency
9
• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

>the peak value that the diode can withstand in repetitive
reverse voltage.
>the maximum value of reverse voltage that the diode can
handle satisfactorily.
>also called as Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV)
>using KVL at the reverse condition of the diode(s)
condition.
PIV  V p (out)
10
• Full-Wave Rectifiers
1. Center-Tapped rectifier
11
For ideal diode the peak

output voltage equals the
Ideal full wave : Vp(out)  0.5Vp(in)
half of the peak input
voltage.
The dc value of the 2Vp(out)
full wave : Vdc   0.636V p ( out)
signal is the average value. 
The output frequency
is twice the input full wave : f out  2f in
frequency.
using practical diodes, the full wave(prac tical diode) : Vp(out)  0.5Vp(in) - 0.7volts
diode will not turn ‘on’ until the
ac source voltage reaches
approximately the barrier
potential of 0.7V at both half
cycles.
PIV  2V p ( out)  V p (in)  full - wave, center - tapped
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) 12
2. Bridge-type rectifier
13
For ideal diode the

Ideal full wave : Vp(out)  Vp(in)
peak output voltage
equals the peak input
voltage.
2Vp(out)
The dc value of the signal is full wave : Vdc   0.636V p ( out)
the average value. 
The output frequency is

full wave : f out  2f in
twice the input frequency.
using practical diodes full wave(prac tical diode) : Vp(out)  Vp(in) - 1.4volts
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) PIV  V p ( out )  full - wave, bridge - type
14
DC POWER SUPPLY
FILTER
• Power supply filter ideally eliminates the fluctuations
in the output voltage of a half-wave or full-wave
rectifier and produces a constant-level dc voltage.
Filtering is necessary because electronic circuits
require a constant source of dc voltage and current to
provide power and biasing for proper operation.
Filters are implemented with capacitors.
• Rating a filter
• To rate a filter circuit is to test the effectiveness of a
circuit as a filter. In designing a power supply we
want to have an output that is similar to battery output
which is pure dc but the output of a filter still have a
ac component, meaning the smaller the ac
component the better the filter circuit’s operation.
15
DC POWER SUPPLY
Ripple is the ac variation

or ac component in the filtered
output. Define as:
ripple voltage (rms) RV(rms)
r  100%   100%
dc voltage Vdc 16
DC POWER SUPPLY
Output of a RECTIER (without a capacitor) has also a

ripple factor.
FOR HALF - WAVE : Vdc  0.318Vp(out)

RVrms  0.385Vp(out)
r  121%
FOR FULL - WAVE : Vdc  0.636Vp(out)
RVrms  0.308Vp(out)
r  48%
17
• Choke-input filter
Disadvantage: 1. costly, bulky and heavy weight. 2. Trend

nowadays is toward low-voltage, high-current power
supplies. 3. Line frequency is 60Hz, large inductances
have to be used.
Advantage: 1. Specially used in computers, monitors and
an increasing variety of equipment.
18
DC POWER SUPPLY
• Capacitor-Input Filter
Capacitor-input filter is the most widely used in
power supplies. It produces a dc output voltage
equal to peak value of the rectified voltage.
>half-wave rectifier with filter capacitor
19
>For Full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter:
20
DC POWER SUPPLY
Ripple Formula I dc
Vr pp 
Estimation of the fC
peak-to-peak ripple out where :
of any capacitor filter Vr pp  peak - to - peak ripple voltage
can be derived from: I dc  dc load current
f  ripple frequency
C  capacitanc e
Ripple Formula, in rms
I dc I dc Vdc
Vr rms   2.4  2.4
4 3 fC C R LC
where : I dc  dc load current in milliamper es
C  capcitance in microfarad s
R L  Load resistance in kilohms
21
DC POWER SUPPLY
DC voltage, Vdc
I dc I dc
Vdc  Vp(out) -  Vp(ou) - 4.17
4fC C
Ripple for filter capacitor, r
Vrrms I dc 2.4
r 100%  2.4 100%  100%
Vdc CVdc R LC
where : I dc  dc load current in milliamper es
C  capcitance in microfarad s
R L  Load resistance in kilohms
22
DC POWER SUPPLY
RC Filter
To further reduce the amount of ripple across a filter by using an
additional RC filter section. For design, R should be much
greater than at the ripple frequency. The ripple is reduced
before it reaches the load resistor. Typically, R is at least 10
times greater than .The disadvantage is the loss of dc voltage
XC
across each R.
>after the capacitor filter >after the RC filter
23
DC POWER SUPPLY
>RC Filter Section in DC operation:

RL
V 'dc  Vdc
R  RL
>RC Filter Section in AC operation:

XC 1 .3
V 'r (rms)  Vr (rms)  Vr (rms)
R RC
where :
C  capaci tan ce(microfarad )
R  resis tan ce(kilohms)
V 'r (rms)
r  100%
V 'dc 24
DC POWER SUPPLY
REGULATION
Regulation is the process of maintaining a

constant output even though there is a change in
some parameters. It determines the quality of a
power supply. There are two basic categories of
voltage regulation; line regulation and load
regulation. Line regulation is the process of
maintaining a nearly constant output voltage when
the input voltage varies. Load regulation is the
process of maintaining a nearly constant output
voltage when the load varies.
25
TYPES OF VOLTAGE
REGULATORS
• linear regulators
–series regulators and shunt
regulators
• switching regulators.
–step-up, step-down and inverting.
26
DC POWER SUPPLY
• Line Regulation
When the input line voltage has a nominal value of
220Vrms, the actual voltage coming out of a power
outlet may vary from 210 to 230 Vrms. Since the
secondary voltage of transformer is directly
proportional to the line voltage, the load voltage will
change when line voltage changes.
The smaller the line regulation, the better power supply
VHL  V LL
Line Regulation   100%
VLL
where : VHL  load voltage with a high line
VLL  load voltage with a low line 27
DC POWER SUPPLY
• Load Regulation
When the amount of current through the load
changes due to varying load resistance, the
voltage regulator must maintain a nearly constant
output voltage across the load. Load Regulation is
the percentage change in the output voltage for a
given change in load current.
28
Load Regulation (cont.) DC POWER SUPPLY
VNL  V FL
Load Regulation   100%
VFL
where : VNL  output vol tage without a load
VFL  output vol tage with load
RL
VOUT  VFL  VNL 
R TH  R L
R TH  R L
so that : VNL  V FL 
RL
RTH  R L
VFL   VFL
RL  R  RL 
therefore : Load Regulation   100%   TH  1  100%
VFL  RL 
R TH
Load Regulation   100%
RL
V NL  VFL
RTH  29
I FL
DC POWER SUPPLY
• BASIC SERIES REGULATOR
The basic connection of a series regulator circuit is shown in
the block diagram of FIGURE BSR1. The series elements
control the amount of input parameters that gets to the
output. The output sample circuit senses changes in the
output voltage. The error detector compares the sample
voltage with a reference voltage and causes the control
element to compensate in order to maintain a constant
output voltage.
30
DC POWER SUPPLY
BASIC SERIES REGULATOR (cont.)
1. If the output voltage increases, the comparator circuit
provides a control signal to cause the series control
element to decreases the amount of the output voltage
– thereby maintaining the output voltage.
2. If the output voltage decreases, the comparator
circuit provides a control signal to cause the series
control element to increase the amount of the output
voltage.
31
DC POWER SUPPLY
BASIC SERIES REGULATOR
(cont.)
• The simplest series regulator is the zener follower of

FIGURE BSR2. The zener diode operates in the
breakdown region, producing a base voltage equal to
the zener voltage. Transistor is the series control
element, and zener diode provides the reference
voltage. The regulating operation can be described
as follows:
1. If the output voltage decreases, the increased base-
emitter voltage causes transistor to conduct more,
thereby raising the output voltage – maintaining the
output constant.
2. If the output voltage increases, the decreased base-
emitter voltage causes transistor to conduct less,
thereby reducing the output voltage – maintaining the32
output constant.
DC POWER SUPPLY
BASIC SERIES REGULATOR
(cont.)
VO  V Z  V BE
VO
IL 
RL
IC
IB 

IZ  IR  IB
33
Improved Series Regulator DC POWER SUPPLY
34
DC POWER SUPPLY
Improved Series Regulator
(cont.)
• An improved series regulator circuit is that of

FIGURE ISR. Resistors and act a sampling
circuit, zener diode providing a reference
voltage, and transistor then controls the
base current to transistor to vary the current
passed by transistor to maintain the output35
voltage constant.
DC POWER SUPPLY
Improved Series Regulator
(cont.)
R2
V BE 2  V Z  V2  VO
R1  R2
R1  R2
 VO  (V BE 2  VZ )
R2
36
DC POWER SUPPLY
Op-amp series regulator
FIGURE OSR 37
DC POWER SUPPLY
Op-amp series regulator (cont.)
38
DC POWER SUPPLY
Op-amp series regulator (cont.)
 R1 
VOUT  1  VREF
 R2  39
DC POWER SUPPLY
• Overload Protection or Short Circuit

If an excessive amount of load current is drawn, the series pass
transistor can be quickly damaged or destroyed. Most
regulators use some type of excess current protection in the
form of a current-limiting mechanism. The current limiting of
op-amp regulator consists of transistor Q2 and resistor R4.
40
DC POWER SUPPLY
Overload Protection or Short
Circuit (cont.)
• The load current through R4

produces a voltage from base to
emitter of Q2. when the load
current reaches a predetermined
maximum value, the voltage drop
across R4 is sufficient to forward
bias the base-emitter junction of
Q2, thus causing it to conduct.
Enough Q1 base current is
diverted into the collector of Q2
so that load current is limited to
its maximum value. Since the 0.7
base-to-emitter voltage of Q2 I L ( MAX ) 
cannot exceed 0.7V for silicon R4
transistor, the voltage across R4
is held to this value, and the load
current is limited to 41
BASIC SHUNT REGULATOR
• Block Diagram
42
Notes on Block Diagram
FIGURE SR shows the block diagram of a basic
shunt regulator, a shunt regulator provides regulation by
shunting current away from the load to regulate the output
voltage. The input R1 is in series from unregulated
voltage in which the total current flowing is divided to the
control element and the load. Control element will pull
away some of the current to maintain the regulated
voltage across the load. The sampling circuit will detect
changes in the input voltage and provides feedback signal
to the comparator, which provides control signal to
change the shunt current, providing more or less load
current and keep the output voltage constant.
43
BASIC TRANSISTOR SHUNT REGULATOR
A simple shunt regulator circuit is shown in FIGURE SR1.
Resistor R1 drops the unregulated voltage by an amount that
depends on the current supplied to the load. Transistor Q1 is
the control element. The output voltage is set by the zener
voltage and base-emitter voltage of Q1.
44
BASIC TRANSISTOR SHUNT REGULATOR
45
IMPROVED SHUNT REGULATOR
Improved shunt voltage regulator is with added transistor Q2 and
another resistor R, for providing higher base current to transistor Q1
and sample voltage from output respectively. The circuit in FIGURE
SR2 can handle larger load current and the output voltage is set by
the zener voltage and the two base-emitter voltage of transistors Q1
and Q2.
VO  VZ  VBE1  VBE 2
46
OP-AMP SHUNT VOLTAGE REGULATOR
47
From FIGURE SR3, the control element is a transistor

Q1, in parallel with load. A resistor Rs is in series with
load. Op-amp is used as a comparator in which the
feedback voltage comes from the R2 of sampling circuit.
When the output voltage suddenly decreases due to the
change in input voltage or load current caused by a
change in load resistance, FIGURE SR3-a, the
attempted decrease is sensed by R1 and R2 and
applied to the op-amp’s non inverting input. The
resulting difference voltage reduces the op amp’s
output (VB), driving Q1 less, thus reducing its collector
current and thus increasing the load current and 48
maintaining output voltage.
49
Voltage Regulation
and
Instrumentation
Voltage Regulation
Power Supply Regulation
An ideal power supply provides a constant dc voltage despite
changes to the input voltage or load conditions.
The output voltage of a real power supply changes under load as shown
in the second plot. The output is also sensitive to input voltage changes.
Voltage Voltage
VNL VNL
VFL
Ideal power supply Real power supply

0 Current 0 Current
0 0
Line Regulation
Line regulation is a measure of how well a power supply is

able to maintain the dc output voltage for a change in the ac
input line voltage. The formula for line regulation is
 VOUT 
Line Regulation =  100%
 VIN 
Line regulation can also be expressed in terms of percent
change in VOUT per volt change on the VIN (%/V).
Line Regulation =
 VOUT / VOUT 100%
VIN
Load Regulation
Load regulation is a measure of how well a power supply is

able to maintain the dc output voltage between no load and
full load with the input voltage constant. It can be expressed as
a percentage change in load voltage:
 VNL  VFL 
Load Regulation =  100%
 VFL 
Load regulation can also be expressed in terms of percent
change in the output per mA change in load current (%/mA).
Sometimes a maximum error voltage is given in the specification as
illustrated in the next slide for a commercial power supply.
Load Regulation
A power supply has an output resistance of 25 mW and a full

load current of 0.50 A to a 10.0 W load.
(a) What is the load regulation?
(b) What is the no load output voltage?
 ROUT   0.025 W 
(a) Load regulation    100%   100% = 0.25%
 RFL   10.0 W 
(b) By Ohm’s law, VOUT = 5.0 V.
VOUT 5.0 V
VNL   = 5.013 V
 RL   10.0 W 
   
 OUT
R  RL 
 0.025 W + 10.0 W 
Series Regulators
Series Regulator block diagram:
Control
VIN VOUT
element
Reference Error Sample

voltage detector circuit Basic series regulator circuit:
Control element
VIN VOUT
R1 Q1
+
VREF
The control element maintains – R2

Error detector
a constant output voltage by D1 Sample
circuit
varying the collector-emitter R3
voltage across the transistor.

Series Regulators
 R 
The output voltage for the series regulator circuit is: VOUT  1  2 VREF
 R3 
(a) What is the output voltage for the series regulator?
(b) If the load current is 200 mA, what is the power
dissipated by Q1?
 R  VIN VOUT
(a) VOUT  1  2  VREF 18 V Q1
 R3  R1
4.7 kW
 100 kW 
+
VREF
 1+  3.9 V
 47 k W  – R2
= 12.2 V 3.9 V D1 100 kW
(b) P = VI R3
= (18 V – 12.2 V)(0.2 A) 47 kW
= 1.16 W
Series Regulators
Current limiting prevents excessive load current. Q2 will

conduct when the current through R4 develops 0.7 V across
Q2’s VBE. This reduces base current to Q1, limiting the load
current.
Q1 R4
The current limit is: VIN VOUT
0.7 V R1 Q2
I L(max)  +
R4 R2
Current limiter
For example, a 1.4 W –
resistor, limits current

to about 0.5 A. R3
Shunt Regulators
Shunt Regulator block diagram:
R1
VIN VOUT
Control
Reference Error element
voltage detector (shunt) Basic shunt regulator circuit:
Sample VOUT
circuit
VIN
R1
R2
Error detector
Control
VREF – element
Q1
The control element maintains + R3 RL
a constant output voltage by D1 Sample

circuit
varying the collector current in R4
the transistor.
Shunt Regulators
Shunt regulators use a parallel transistor for the control

element. If the output voltage changes, the op-amp senses
the change and corrects the bias on Q1 to follow. For
example, a decrease in output voltage causes a decrease in
VB and an increase in VC. V IN
V OUT
R1
R2
Although it is less efficient Error detector
Control
VREF –
than the series regulator, the element
Q1
shunt regulator has inherent + R3 RL
short-circuit protection. The D1 Sample
circuit
maximum current when the R4
output is shorted is VIN/R1.
Switching Regulators
Simplified step-down regulator

All switching regulators control the output voltage by

rapidly switching the input voltage on and off with a duty
cycle that depends on the load. Because they use high
frequency switching, they tend to be electrically noisy.
Andecrease
A increaseininthe
theduty
dutycycle
cycledecreases
increasesthe
theoutput
outputvoltage.
voltage.
on/off tonton ton tofftoff toff tonton ton tofftoff toff tonton ton tofftoff toff tonton ton
control
VC
VC
VC
VOUT
A step-down switching regulator controls the output

voltage by controlling the duty cycle to a series transistor.
The duty cycle changes depending on the load requirement.
Q1 C Lcharges
reversesLpolarity VOUT
Because the transistor is VIN off
on 
+ +
either ON or OFF on all D1 C RL
switching regulators, the Variable R2

pulse-width
power dissipated in the R1 oscillator
–
transistor is very small
+
and the regulator is very R3
efficient. The pulses are VREF
D2
smoothed by an LC filter.
In a step-up switching regulator, the control element

operates as a rapidly pulsing switch to ground. The switch
on and off times are controlled by the output voltage.
Step-up action is due to L field
L fieldcollapses
builds on charges
off C C discharges
+ +V OUT
VIN
the fact the inductor + L + D1
C
changes polarity during on
Variable off RL
switching and adds to R1 pulse-width Q1 R2
oscillator
VIN. Thus, the output
voltage is larger than
– +
the input voltage.
D2 R3
In a voltage-inverter switching regulator, the output is the

opposite polarity of the input. It can be used in conjunction
with a positive regulator from the same input source.
off
on
Inversion occurs Q1 D1
C discharges –VOUT
+VIN off
because the inductor on 
+
reverses polarity L C

+ C charges R2 RL
when the diode Variable
R1 pulse-width L field collapses
builds
conducts, charging oscillator
the capacitor with +
the opposite polarity –

R3
of the input. D2
IC Voltage Regulators
Integrated circuit voltage regulators are available as

series regulators or as switching regulators. The popular
three-terminal regulators are often used on separate pc
boards within a system because they are inexpensive and
avoid problems associated with large power distribution
systems (such as noise pickup). 78XX Regulators
Type number Output voltage
The 78XX series is a fixed TO-220 case 7805 +5.0 V
7806 +6.0 V
positive output regulator 7808 +8.0 V
D-PAK
available in various 4 7809 +9.0 V
7812 +12.0 V
packages and with 1 2
7815 +15.0 V
standard voltage outputs. 1
2
3 7818 +18.0 V
3 7824 +24.0 V
The only external components required Heat-sink surface
with the 78XX series are input and output 4
capacitors and some form of heat sink.

These IC’s include thermal shutdown
1 2
3
1
2
protection and internal current limiting. 3
The 78XX series are

(1) (3)
primarily used for fixed Positive
78XX
Positive
input output
output voltages, but with
(2) Gnd
additional components, they
can be set up for variable
voltages or currents.
The 79XX series is the negative output counterpart to the

78XX series, however the pin assignments are different
on this series. Other specifications are basically the same.
Type number Output voltage

(2) (3) 7905 –5.0 V
Negative Negative
input
79XX
output 7905.2 –5.2 V
7906 –6.0 V
(1) Gnd 7908 –8.0 V
7912 –12.0 V
7915 –15.0 V
7918 –18.0 V
7924 –24.0 V
The LM317 is a adjustable positive output IC regulator.

There is a fixed reference voltage of +1.25 V between the
output and adjustment terminals. There is no ground pin.
 R 
The output voltage is calculated by: VOUT  VREF 1  2   I ADJ R2
 R1 
What is VOUT ? +20 V (3) (2) +16.8 V

(Assume IADJ = 50 mA.) Positive
input
LM317 Positive
output
R11
(1) Adjustment 150 W
C11 C3
 2 kΩ 
   50 μA  2 kW 
R22
VOUT  1.25 V 1  C22 2 kW
 150 W 
= 16.8 V
END
Sensors Chapter 3
 Introduction
 Describing Sensor Performance
 Temperature Sensors
 Light Sensors
 Force Sensors
 Displacement Sensors
 Motion Sensors
 Sound Sensors
 Sensor Interfacing
Storey: Electrical & Electronic Systems © Pearson Education Limited 2004 OHT 3.‹Nr.›
Introduction 3.1
 To be useful, systems must interact with their

environment. To do this they use sensors and
actuators
 Sensors and actuators are examples of transducers
A transducer is a device that converts
one physical quantity into another
– examples include:
 a mercury-in-glass thermometer (converts temperature into
displacement of a column of mercury)
 a microphone (converts sound into an electrical signal).
 We will look at sensors in this lecture and at
actuators in the next lecture
 Almost any physical property of a material that
changes in response to some excitation can be used
to produce a sensor
– widely used sensors include those that are:
 resistive
 inductive
 capacitive
 piezoelectric
 photoresistive
 elastic
 thermal.
– in this lecture we will look at several examples
Describing Sensor Performance 3.2
 Range
– maximum and minimum values that can be measured
 Resolution or discrimination
– smallest discernible change in the measured value
 Error
– difference between the measured and actual values
 random errors
 systematic errors
 Accuracy, inaccuracy, uncertainty
– accuracy is a measure of the maximum expected error
 Precision
– a measure of the lack of random errors (scatter)
 Linearity
– maximum deviation from a ‘straight-line’ response
– normally expressed as a percentage of the full-scale
value
 Sensitivity
– a measure of the change produced at the output for a
given change in the quantity being measured
Temperature sensors 3.3
 Resistive thermometers
– typical devices use platinum wire (such a device is
called a platinum resistance thermometers or PRT)
– linear but has poor sensitivity
A typical PRT element A sheathed PRT
 Thermistors
– use materials with a high thermal coefficient of
resistance
– sensitive but highly non-linear
A typical disc thermistor A threaded thermistor
 pn junctions
– a semiconductor device with the
properties of a diode
– inexpensive, linear and easy to use
– limited temperature range (perhaps
-50C to 150 C) due to nature of
semiconductor material
pn-junction sensor
Light Sensors 3.4
 Photovoltaic
– light falling on a pn-junction
can be used to generate
electricity from light energy
(as in a solar cell)
– small devices used as sensors
are called photodiodes
– fast acting, but the voltage
produced is not linearly related
to light intensity A typical photodiode
 Photoconductive
– such devices do not produce
electricity, but simply change
their resistance
– photodiode (as described
earlier) can be used in this way
to produce a linear device
– phototransistors act like
photodiodes but with greater
sensitivity
– light-dependent resistors
(LDRs) are slow, but respond
like the human eye A light-dependent resistor (LDR)
Force Sensors 3.5
 Strain gauge
– stretching in one direction increases the resistance of
the device, while stretching in the other direction has
little effect
– can be bonded to a surface to measure strain
– used within load cells and pressure sensors
Direction of sensitivity
A strain gauge
Displacement Sensors 3.6
 Potentiometers
– resistive potentiometers are one of the most widely
used forms of position sensor
– can be angular or linear
– consists of a length of resistive material with a sliding
contact onto the resistive track
– when used as a position transducer a potential is
placed across the two end terminals, the voltage on
the sliding contact is then proportional to its position
– an inexpensive and easy to use sensor
 Inductive proximity sensors
– coil inductance is greatly
affected by the presence
of ferromagnetic materials
– here the proximity of a
ferromagnetic plate is
determined by measuring
the inductance of a coil
Inductive proximity sensors
 Switches
– simplest form of digital displacement sensor
 many forms: lever or push-rod operated microswitches; float
switches; pressure switches; etc.
A limit switch A float switch

 Opto-switches
– consist of a light source and a light sensor within a
single unit
 2 common forms are the reflective and slotted types
A reflective opto-switch A slotted opto-switch

 Absolute position encoders
– a pattern of light and dark strips is printed on to a strip
and is detected by a sensor that moves along it
 the pattern takes the form of a series of lines as shown below
 it is arranged so that the combination is unique at each point
 sensor is an array of photodiodes
 Incremental position encoder
– uses a single line that alternates black/white
 two slightly offset sensors produce outputs as shown below
 detects motion in either direction, pulses are counted to
determine absolute position (which must be initially reset)
 Other counting techniques
– several methods use counting to determine position
 two examples are given below
Inductive sensor Opto-switch sensor

Motion Sensors 3.7
 Motion sensors measure quantities such as velocity

and acceleration
– can be obtained by differentiating displacement
– differentiation tends to amplify high-frequency noise
 Alternatively can be measured directly
– some sensors give velocity directly
 e.g. measuring frequency of pulses in the counting techniques
described earlier gives speed rather than position
– some sensors give acceleration directly
 e.g. accelerometers usually measure the force on a mass
Sound Sensors 3.8
 Microphones
– a number of forms are available
 e.g. carbon (resistive), capacitive, piezoelectric and
moving-coil microphones
 moving-coil devices use a magnet and a coil attached to a
diaphragm –
Sensor Interfacing 3.9
 Resistive devices
– can be very simple
 e.g. in a potentiometer, with a fixed voltage across the outer
terminals, the voltage on the third is directly related to position
 where the resistance of the device
changes with the quantity being
measured, this change can be
converted into a voltage signal
using a potential divider – as shown
 the output of this arrangement is not
linearly related to the change in
resistance
 Switches
– switch interfacing is also simple
 can use a single resistor as below to produce a voltage output
 all mechanical switches suffer from switch bounce
 Capacitive and inductive sensors
– sensors that change their capacitance or inductance in
response to external influences normally require the
use of alternating current (AC) circuitry
– such circuits need not be complicated
Key Points
 A wide range of sensors is available

 Some sensors produce an output voltage related to the
measured quantity and therefore supply power
 Other devices simply change their physical properties
 Some sensors produce an output that is linearly related to
the quantity being measured, others do not
 Interfacing may be required to produce signals in the
correct form
ELECTRONIC
INTRUMENTATION
DC AND AC METER
1
OBJECTIVES
 At the end of this chapter, students

should be able to:
1. Explain the basic contruction and
working principle of D’Arsonval meter
movement.
2. Perfom basic electronic circuit analisis
for D’Arsonval meter family.
3. Identify the difference electronic circuit
design for measurement meters using
D’Arsonval meter principle.
2
Introduction
Meter: Any device built to accurately detect & display an
electrical quantity in a form readable by a human
being.
to accurately measure the basic quantities of

voltage, current, and resistance.
• Visual
Readable form
• Motion of pointer
on a scale
• Series of light 3
(digital)
The d’ Arsonval Meter
Hans Oersted (1777-1851) Jacques d’Arsonval (1851-1940)
Danish physicist who discovered French physiologist who discovered the

the relationship between current moving-coil galvanometer – from
and magnetism – from the muscle contractions in frogs using a
deflection of a compass needle telephone, which operates on an
extremely feeble currents similar to
4
animal electricity
The d’ Arsonval Meter
 In 1880s, two French inventors: Jacques
d’Arsonval and Marcel Deprez patented the
moving-coil galvanometer.
Jacques d’Arsonval Marcel Deprez

(1851 – 1940) (1843 – 1918)
Deprez-d'Arsonval Galvanometer 5
Ayrton Shunt or Universal Shunt
William Edward Ayrton studied
under Lord Kelvin at Glasgow.
In 1879 he was the first to advocate

power transmission at high
voltage, and with John Perry
(1850-1920) he invented the
spiral-spring ammeter, the
wattmeter, and other electrical
measuring instruments.
The ammeter (a contraction of ampere

meter) was one of the first to
measure current and voltage
reliably.
William Edward Ayrton (1847-1908)

British Engineer 6
DC AMMETER
 The PMMC galvanometer constitutes the
basic movement of a dc ammeter.
 The coil winding of a basic movement is
small and light, so it can carry only very
small currents.
 A low value resistor (shunt resistor) is used
in DC ammeter to measure large current.
 Basic DC ammeter:
7
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. D’Arsonval Meter Movement 8. Multi-range Ohmmeter

2. DC Ammeter 9. Multimeter
3. DC Voltmeter 10. AC Voltmeter using half-
4. Multi-range Voltmeter wave rectifier
5. Voltmeter Loading Effects 11. AC Voltmeter Loading
6. Ammeter Insertion Effects Effects
7. Ohmmeter 12. Wheatstone Bridge
13. Kelvin Bridge
14. Bridge-controlled Circuit
8
D’ARSORVAL METER
MOVEMENT
 Also called Permanent-Magnet Moving Coil

(PMMC).
 Based on the moving-coil galvanometer
constructed by Jacques d’ Arsonval in 1881.
 Can be used to indicate the value of DC and
AC quantity.
 Basic construction of modern PMMC can be
seen in Figure 2.1.
9
2.1.1:Operation of D’Arsonval
Meter
 When current flows through the coil, the
core will rotate.
 Amount of rotation is proportional to the
amount of current flows through the coil.
 The meter requires low current (~50uA) for
a full scale deflection, thus consumes very
low power (25-200 Uw).
 Its accuracy is about 2% -5% of full scale
deflection
10
Pointer
Permanent magnet
Coil
Core
Air Gap
Figure 2.1: Modern D’Arsonval Movement

11
+
I Ish Im
+
Rsh Rm
_
D’Arsonval
_ Movement
Figure 2.2: Basic DC Ammeter
12
 Referring to Fig. 2.2:
Rm = internal resistance of the
movement
Rsh = shunt resistance
Ish =shunt current
Im = full scale deflection current
of the movement
I = full scale current of the
ammeter + shunt (i.e. total
current)
13
I sh Rsh  I m Rm
+ I sh  I  I m
+
Rsh
_
Rm
I m Rm
Rsh 
D’Arsonval
Movement
_
I  Im
14
Problem #1
A 1mA meter movement with an
internal resistance of 100Ω is to be
converted into a 0-100 mA. Calculate
the value of shunt resistance
required. (ans: 1.01Ω)
15
2.2.1: MULTIRANGE AMMETER
The range of the dc ammeter is extended
by a number of shunts, selected by a
range switch.
The resistors is placed in parallel to give
different current ranges.
Switch S (multiposition switch) protects
the meter movement from being damage
during range changing.
Increase cost of the meter.
16
+
+
R1 R2 R3 R4 Rm
_
D’Arsonval
Movement
Figure 2.3: Multirange Ammeter
17
2.2.2: ARYTON SHUNT OR UNIVERSAL
SHUNT
Aryton shunt eliminates the possibility of having
the meter in the circuit without a shunt.
Reduce cost
Position of the switch:
a)‘1’: Ra parallel with series combination of Rb, Rc
and the meter movement. Current through the
shunt is more than the current through the meter
movement, thereby protecting the meter movement
and reducing its sensitivity.
b)‘2’: Ra and Rb in parallel with the series
combination of Rc and the meter movement. The
current through the meter is more than the current
through the shunt resistance.
c)‘3’: Ra, Rb and Rc in parallel with the meter.
18 Maximum current flows through the meter
movement and very little through the shunt.
This will increase the sensitivity.
Rc
+
3
Rm
+ 2 Rb _
1 D’Arsonval
Meter
Ra
Figure 2.4: Aryton Shunt
19
PROBLEM #2
 Design an Aryton shunt to provide an ammeter with a
current range of 0-1 mA, 10 mA, 50 mA and 100 mA. A D’
Arsonval movement with an internal resistance of 100Ω
and full scale current of 50 uA is used.
1m
A
+
R4
10mA
R3
+
50mA _
R2 D’Arsonval
Movement
100mA
R1
_
20
REQUIREMENT OF A SHUNT
1) Minimum Thermo Dielectric Voltage Drop
Soldering of joint should not cause a voltage drop.
2) Solderability
- never connect an ammeter across a source of
e.m.f
- observe the correct polarity
- when using the multirange meter, first use the
highest current range.
21
2.3: BASIC METER AS A DC
VOLTMETER
To use the basic meter as a dc voltmeter, must
know the amount of current (Ifsd) required to deflect
the basic meter to full scale.
The sensitivity is based on the fact that the full
scale current should results whenever a certain
amount of resistance is present in the meter circuit
for each voltage applied.
1
S
I fsd
22
PROBLEM #3
Calculate the sensitivity of a 200 uA meter

movement which is to be used as a dc voltmeter.
Solution:
1 1
S   5k / V
I fsd 200uA
23
2.4: A DC VOLTMETER
A basic D’Arsonval movement can be converted
into a DC voltmeter by adding a series resistor
(multiplier) as shown in Figure 2.3.
Rs
+
Multiplier Im
V Rm
Figure 2.5: Basic DC Voltmeter
24 Im =full scale deflection current of the movement (Ifsd)

Rm=internal resistance of the movement
Rs =multiplier resistance
V =full range voltage of the instrument
 From the circuit of Figure 2.5:
V  I m ( Rs  Rm )
V  I m Rm V
Rs    Rm
Im Im
V
Therefore, Rs   Rm
Im
Rs
+
Multiplier Im
V Rm
_
25
Figure 2.5: Basic DC Voltmeter
PROBLEM #4
A basic D’ Arsonval movement with a full-scale
deflection of 50 uA and internal resistance of
500Ω is used as a DC voltmeter. Determine the
value of the multiplier resistance needed to
measure a voltage range of 0-10V.
Solution:
V 10V
Rs   Rm   500  199.5k
Im 50uA
26
 Sensitivity and voltmeter range can be used to
calculate the multiplier resistance, Rs of a DC
voltmeter.
Rs=(S x Range) - Rm
 From example #4:
Im= 50uA, Rm=500Ω, Range=10V

Sensitivity,
1 1
S   20k / V
I m 50uA
So, Rs = (20kΩ/V x 10V) – 500 Ω

= 199.5 kΩ
27
2.5: MULTI-RANGE VOLTMETER
 A DC voltmeter can be converted into a
multirange voltmeter by connecting a number of
resistors (multipliers) in series with the meter
movement.
 A practical multi-range DC voltmeter is shown in
Figure 2.6.
R1 R2 R3 R4
Im
V2
V1 V3
Rm
+
V4
Figure 2.6: Multirange voltmeter 28

2.6: VOLTMETER LOADING EFFECTS
 When a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage
across a circuit component, the voltmeter circuit
itself is in parallel with the circuit component.
 Total resistance will decrease, so the voltage
across component will also decrease. This is
called voltmeter loading.
 The resulting error is called a loading error.
 The voltmeter loading can be reduced by using a

high sensitivity voltmeter.
 How about ammeter??
29
PROBLEM #5
Convert a basic D’ Arsonval movement with an internal
resistance of 1kΩ and a full scale deflection current of
50 µA into a multirange dc voltmeter with voltage
ranges of 0-3V, 0-10V, and 0-30V.
30
THE OHMMETER (SERIES OHMMETER)
The ohmmeter consists of battery, resistor and PMMC.
The full-scale deflection current,
E
I fs 
R Z  Rm
Fig. 2-7 Basic ohmmeter circuit
31
function of Rz and Rm are to limit the current through the meter
Rz = variable resistor
Fig. 2-8 Basic ohmmeter circuit with unknown resistor,Rx
connected between probes.
To determine the value of unknown resistor, Rx, The Rx

is connected to terminal X and Y. Fig 2-8 shows the
basic ohmmeter circuit with unknown resistor, Rx
32
connected between probes.
DC AND AC BRIDGE
INTRODUCTION
 DC & AC Bridge are used to measure

resistance, inductance, capacitance and
impedance.
 Operate on a null indication principle. This
means the indication is independent of the
calibration of the indicating device or any
characteristics of it.
 Very high degrees of accuracy can be achieved
using the bridges
TYPES OF BRIDGES
Two types of bridge are used in measurement:
1) DC bridge:
a) Wheatstone Bridge
b) Kelvin Bridge
2) AC bridge:
a) Similar Angle Bridge
b) Opposite Angle Bridge/Hay Bridge
c) Maxwell Bridge
d) Schering Bridge
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
BALANCE CONDITION
BRIDGE BALANCED EQUATION
SENSITIVITY OF THE W HEATSTONE BRIDGE
When the bridge is in an unbalanced condition, current flows
through the galvanometer, causing a deflection of its pointer. The
amount of deflection is a function of the sensitivity of the
galvanometer.
UNDER SMALL UNBALANCE
THEVENIN’S VOLTAGE
KELVIN BRIDGE
One of the major drawback of the Wheatstone bridge is that, it can measure
the resistance from few ohm to several mega ohm but to measure
low resistance it gives significant error.
So, we need some modification in Wheatstone bridge itself, and the

modified bridge so obtained is Kelvin bridge, which is not only suitable for
measuring low value of resistance but has wide range of applications in the
industrial world.
The kelvin’s bridge may be regarded as a modified of the wheatstone bridge

to secure increased accuracy in the measurement of low resistance. It is used
to measure resistance from few micro ohm to 1.0 ohm.
1
Bridge Balance Equation
2
3
Sub 7 in 8
From Equ. 1
9
10
4
Sub. equ. 7 & 10 in equ. 3

5
Sub. Equ. 5 in 4
6 11
7
12
From 5
8
13
INTRODUCTION AC BRIDGE
AC bridges are used to measure inductance and capacitances

and all ac bridge circuits are based on the Wheatstone bridge.
The general ac bridge circuit consists of 4 impedances, an ac
voltage source, and detector as shown in Figure below. In ac
bridge circuit, the impedances can be either pure resistance or
complex impedances.
General AC bridge circuit

INTRODUCTION AC BRIDGE
•When the four resistive arms of the basic Wheatstone

bridge are replaced by impedances and the bridge is
excited by an AC source, the result is an AC Bridge.
•To balance the bridge, two conditions must be satisfied,
the resistive (R) and the reactive components (XC or XL).
Once balanced, the AC Bridge indicates a null.
•AC bridge circuits are also used for shifting phase,
providing feedback paths for oscillators and amplifiers,
filtering out undesired signals, and measuring the
frequency of audio and radio frequency (RF) signals.
A) SIMILAR ANGLE BRIDGE
The similar angle bridge (refer figure below) is

used to measure the impedance of a capacitive
circuit. This bridge is sometimes called the
capacitance comparison bridge of the series
resistance capacitance bridge.
Bridge balance condition
In admittance form
Polar form of impedance
Sub. The polar values in balance condition

B) MAXWELL BRIDGE
• to determine an unknown inductance with capacitance
standard
Maxwell Bridge
1
4
C) OPPOSITE ANGLE BRIDGE
The Opposite Angle Bridge or Hay Bridge (see
Figure below) is used to measure the resistance
and inductance of coils in which the resistance is
small fraction of the reactance XL, that is a coil
having a high Q, meaning a Q greater than 10.
R1 R2 R3C1 2
Rx 
1   R1 C1
2 2 2
R2 R3C1
Lx 
1   R1 C1
2 2 2
Opposite angle bridge

D) SCHERING BRIDGE
used for the precession measurement of capacitors and
their insulating properties for phase angle is nearly 90°.
Schering bridge
Balance equation
END……
Introduction
to
Industrial Robot
Objectives
• Define ROBOT.
• Discuss the history of ROBOTs.
• Describe the development and timeline of ROBOT.
• Be acquainted with the Laws of Robotics
• Classify the robots and enumerate the services that the Robots are
meant of.
Definition
What is a ROBOT?
• It came from the Czech word “rabota” which means “obligatory work” and
”robotnik” which means “worker”.
• A robot can be defined as a programmable, self controlled device consisting
of electronic, electrical, or mechanical units.
More generally, it is a machine that functions in place of a living agent.
• According to the Robot Institute of America (1979) robot is:

A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material,
parts, tools, orspecialized devices through various programmed motions for
the performance of a variety of tasks.
According to Webster a robot is:

• An automatic device that performs functions normally ascribed to humans
or a machine inthe form of a human.
History
Who coined the term ROBOT?
• The acclaimed Czech playwright Capek (1890-1938) made the first use of
the word ‘robot’.
• The use of the word Robot was introduced into his play R.U.R. (Rossum's
Universal Robots) which opened in Prague in January 1921.
Who coined the term ROBOTICS?

• The word 'robotics' was first used in Runaround, a short story published
in 1942, by Isaac Asimov (1920-1992).
• Asimov also proposed his three "Laws of Robotics", and he later added a
'zeroth law'.
Laws of Robotics
Law One:
• A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a
human being to come to harm, unless this would not violate a higher order
law.
Law Two:
• A robot must obey orders given it by human beings, except where such
orders would conflict with a higher order law.
Law Three:
• A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with a higher order law
Law Zero:
• A robot may not injure humanity, or, through inaction, allow humanity to
come to harm.
History
Who made the first Industrial ROBOT?
• After the technology explosion during World War II, in 1956, a historic
meeting occurs between George C. Devol, a successful inventor and
entrepreneur, and engineer Jovel F. Engelberger, over cocktails the two
discuss the writings of Isaac Asimov.
• Together they made a serious and commercially successful effort to develop

a real, working robot.
What is the first Industrial ROBOT Company?

• Engelberger started a manufacturing company known as 'Unimation’
which stood for universal automation and so the first commercial company
to make robots was formed.
History
Who is the father of ROBOTICS?
• As a result, Joseph F. Engelberger is called the 'father of robotics.
• Devol wrote the necessary patents. Their first

robot nicknamed the 'Unimate’.
• The first Unimate was installed at a General Motors plant to work with
heated die-casting machines.
• In fact most Unimates were sold to extract die castings from die casting
machines and to perform spot welding on auto bodies, both tasks being
particularly hateful jobs for people.
Robot Timeline
1921 - The term "robot" was first used in a play called "R.U.R." or
"Rossum's Universal Robots" by the Czech writer Karel Capek. Plot was
simple: man makes robot then robot kills man!
• 1941 - Science fiction writer Isaac Asimov first used the word "robotics"
to describe the technology of robots and predicted the rise of a powerful
robot industry.
• 1942 - Asimov wrote “Runaround”, a story about robots which contained

the "Three Laws of Robotics“.
• 1948 - "Cybernetics", an influence on artificial intelligence research was

published by Norbert Wiener
Robot Timeline
• 1956 - George Devol and Joseph Engelber formed the world's first robot
company.
• 1959 - Computer-assisted manufacturing was demonstrated at the

Servomechanisms Lab at MIT.
• 1961 - The first industrial robot was online in a General Motors automobile
factory in New Jersey. It was called UNIMATE.
• 1963 - The first artificial robotic arm to be controlled by a computer was

designed. The Rancho Arm was designed as a tool for the handicapped and
it's six joints gave it the flexibility of a human arm.
• 1965 - DENDRAL was the first expert system or program designed to execute
theaccumulated knowledge of subject experts.
Robot Timeline
• 1968 - The octopus-like Tentacle Arm developed by Marvin Minsky.
• 1969 - The Stanford Arm was the first electrically powered, computer-
controlled robot arm.
• 1970 - Shakey was introduced as the first mobile robot controlled by

artificial
intelligence. It was produced by SRI International.
• 1974 - A robotic arm (the Silver Arm) that performed small-parts assembly
using feedback from touch and pressure sensors was designed.
• 1979 - The Standford Cart crossed a chair-filled room without human

assistance. The cart had a camera mounted on a rail which took pictures from
multiple angles and relayed them to a computer. The computer analyzed the
distance between the cart and the obstacles.
Robot Timeline
• 1989 - A walking robot named Genghis is unveiled by the Mobile Robots
Group at MIT. It becomes known for the way it walks, popularly referred to
as the "Genghis gait".
• 1997 - The Pathfinder Mission lands on Mars. Its robotic rover Sojourner,
rolls down a ramp and onto Martian soil in early July. It continues to
broadcast data from the Martian surface until September.
• 1999 - AIBO (Artificial Intelligence Robot) is an iconic series of robotic

designed and manufactured by Sony. AIBOs were marketed for domestic
use
as "Entertainment Robots". They were also widely adopted by universities
for educational purposes and research into robotics and human robot
interaction.
Robot Timeline
• 2000 - Honda debuts new humanoid robot ASIMO (Advanced Step for
Innovative Mobility)
• 2004 - Jan. 4th - the robot Rover Spirit lands on Mars.

- Jan. 23rd - The second Mars Exploration Rover - "Opportunity" safely lands
on the Meridium Planum.
• 2006 - QRIO ("Quest for cuRIOsity", originally named Sony Dream Robot or
SDR) was to be a bipedal humanoid entertainment robot developed and
marketed (but never sold) by Sony to follow up on the success of its AIBO
toy
• 2007 – KUKA Titan, “The World’s Strongest Robot”, at this time biggest and
strongest industrial robot with six axes. It was considered as entry in the
Guinness Book of World Records
Robot Timeline
• 2009 - HRP-4C, nicknamed Miim, is a feminine-looking humanoid robot
created by the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and
Technology (AIST), a Japanese research facility.
• Miim characteristics:
- has a realistic head and face, and the figure of an average
young Japanese female (based on the 1997–1998 Japanese body dimension
database).
- can move like a human
- can also respond to speech using speech recognition
software
- capable of recognizing ambient sounds
- can also sing
Robot Timeline
• 2013 - Kirobo is Japan's first robot astronaut, developed by Tomotaka
Takahashi, to accompany Koichi Wakata, the first Japanese commander of
the International Space Station.
• A twin to Kirobo, named Mirata was created with the same

characteristics. Mirata will stay on Earth as a backup crew member.
• Dimensions: Height: 34 cm, Width: 18 cm, Depth: 15 cm (approx.)
• Weight: Approx. 1 kg
Robots are designed to automate
services
• Industrial/assembly/inspection
• Search and rescue
• Hazardous operation (de-mining, defusing, chemical)
• Medical (surgery)
• Entertainment
• Space and underwater exploration and development
• Assistive/rehabilitation
• Education
• Transportation
• Ecology, geo-science
Classification of Robots
• Industrial manufacturing robots. - Unimate
• Research /hobby robots. - LEGO
• Demonstration robots. - ASIMO
• Home robots. - Roomba
• Planetary rovers. – Rover Spirit
• Movie robots. - Robocop
The end.
24
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Introduction to Industrial

• To discuss the brief history of industrial electronics

• In any industrial system, the control circuits

Also called four-layer diode

Electronic Devices by T. Floyd 3

Electronic Devices by T. Floyd

SUS - Switching Current

 When IA falls below IH, the device turns off

Electronic Devices by R. Boylestad

• Typical standard values of η range

• Intrinsic stand-off ratio for a UJT is given as

• VBB=10V, 𝜂 = 0.65, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7𝑉

• Peak point Voltage (VP) is given as

• Other UJT applications include sawtoothed

• The simplest of all UJT circuits is the Relaxation

𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐵 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅3𝐶 )

• Note: VD is ignored in above equation

• The value of the timing resistor, R3 is

𝜂 = 0.63 𝑉𝑣 = 1.5 𝑉c 𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 9.2 𝐾Ω

𝐼𝑃 = 5𝜇𝐴 𝐼𝑉 = 3.5 𝑚𝐴Ω

𝑉𝑝 = 0.63 × 22.6 + 0.7

• To define the operation of DC to DC, AC to

• Component with different characteristics:

• Power electronic converters components:

• In DC-DC conversion circuits, thyristors are used as switching elements. Here,

• Typical application of DC choppers is DC motor speed control.

• By a periodic application of constant voltage at a particular frequency across

Output voltage varies linearly with duty cycle.

It is possible to control output voltage from zero to V i as duty cycle

• Pulse width TON is varied while • Pulse width TON is kept

 Controlled rectifiers produce variable DC output, whose magnitude is varied by

 Main drawback of phase control is Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)

2- Half controlled rectifiers

• For firing angle in the range 0° < α < 90°

• For firing angle in the range 90° < α <

• Effect on the output voltage

• Harmonic components around the switching frequency

VBIAS < VBR(F)

ICBO1 + ICBO2 IE2

Forward blocking region

Emitter Firing Potential

R1 must be chosen to ensure that the load line determined

t2 = (RB1 + R2) C ln [Vp / Vv]

Firing potential (Vp)

 Over-voltage protection circuit.

c. Set Coil -(S)-

Peripherals External Devices

• Ladder Diagram - most common

start emergency stop

• Ladder Logic Diagrams Provide a Method to

• Controlling devices are always between L1 and

real primary analog secondary usable

• Typical Electronic Sensor System sensor

– analog sensor analyzed by a PC

– multiple sensors displayed over internet

A capacitor filter provides a

A transistor, zener, and op-amp or IC

Phasing dots shown at the upper ends of the

• Rectification – is the process of converting an

For ideal diode the

The output frequency is the same half wave : f out  f in

using practical diodes:

• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)