Directional Solidification of Multicrystalline

Silicon
May 3, 2010 Birgit Ryningen

Directional Solidification - Birgit Ryningen

Bridgman is the most commonly used method for producing multicrystalline silicon because it
gives columnar growth and a planar front.

Three major casting methods are commonly used in silicon solar cell production (float zone,
Czochralski and Bridgeman). The first two methods are used to produce single crystals, and will
not be treated here, but the basic principles for the Bridgeman are given in this article.

Directional Solidification

The feedstock (made by purification of silicon or by alternative refining methods) is charged in a

silicon nitride coated quartz crucible and heated until all the silicon is melted. Heat is then
extracted from the bottom of the crucible by moving the heat zone up compared to the crucible
and / or cooling the bottom of the crucible. Often the crucible is lowered away from the heat
zone and simultaneously the bottom is revealed to a cooling source.

A temperature gradient is created in the melt and the solidification will start at the bottom and
crystals will grow upwards, and grain boundaries will grow parallel to the solidification
direction. To obtain a directional solidification the solidification heat must be transported
through the steadily growing layer of solid silicon. It is necessary to maintain a net heat flux over
the solid-liquid interface and the temperature at the lower part of the crucible must be decreased
according to the increase in solid silicon thickness to maintain a steady growth rate. The growth
rate is proportional to the temperature gradient difference between the solid and the liquid
silicon.

Impurity Distribution in Directionally Solidified Ingots

Due to the fact that most elements are more soluble in liquid than in solid silicon, impurities
dissolved in the melt will segregate and the element concentration in the ingot will in most cases
increase upwards in the ingot following Scheil’s equation when the melt solidifies from the
bottom and up. The exponential distribution will create a heavily contaminated thin layer at the
top of the resulting ingot.

The Scheil equation assumes no diffusion in the solid state, complete mixing in the liquid state
and equilibrium at the solid/liquid interface. If convection is not sufficient to provide complete
mixing in the liquid phase, solute atoms are rejected by the advancing solid at a greater rate than
they can diffuse into the bulk of the melt. A concentration gradient is thus developed ahead of
the solid. This enriched region will determine the rate of solute incorporation into the solid front.
This region is called a diffusion boundary layer. Scheil’s equation is still valid if an effective
distribution coefficient is used.

Forming of Precipitates

Precipitates may form after saturation is met, and Scheil’s equation will no longer be valid. The
amount of super saturation needed for precipitates to form will vary with the chemical
composition and the growth conditions in the system.

Diffusion of Impurities

In addition to the Scheil distribution the impurity distribution will depend on diffusion.
Impurities will diffuse into the solidified silicon from the crucible walls and bottom as well as
from the coating. Back-diffusion can also occur as impurities diffuse from the heavily
contaminated top layer back into the bulk material after solidification, or from the boundary
layer during solidification. Both in-diffusion from the crucible and coating and back-diffusion
are temperature dependent and the impurity distribution varies with varying temperature profile
during growth and the subsequent cooling.

Boron Doped Silicon

Boron is an acceptor in silicon, and multicrystalline silicon ingots made by directional

solidification are often pre-doped with boron. A small amount of boron is added together with
the feedstock prior to melting and solidification. Boron is most commonly used because it is the
doping element with the distribution coefficient closest to 1 (k0 = 0.8). The distribution profile
will thus not vary as much with height as the other doping elements.

References:

• Flemmings, M.C., Solidification Processing. 1974: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

• H. R. Huff, T. G. Digges, Jr., and O. B. Cecil, Distribution Coefficient of Boron and
Phosphorus in Silicon, J. Appl. Phys. 42, 1235 (1971)

Copyright Birgit Ryningen. Contact the author to obtain permission for republication.

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