Mass and Balance

MASS AND BALANCE
If the fuel load of a large aircraft was given in litres, but was entered on the load sheet in kilograms,
how would this affect the expected handling of the aircraft?
a) the stick force required on rotation will be lighter <-- Correct

b) the stick force required on rotation will be heavier
c) the stick force required would be the same in both cases
d) the stick force required would be the same in both cases but the rate of climb will be less
Fuel is lighter than water. A volume of fuel typically weighs about 70-80% of the equivalent volume of
water. e.g. 100 litres of water is 100 Kg but 100 litres of aviation fuel is 100 x 0.8 = 80 Kg. If for example
the fuel was supposed to be 30,000 litres then actually its weight would be less than 30,000 Kg i.e.
30,000 x 0.8 = 24,000 Kg. If accidentally 30,000 Kg instead of 30,000 litres (which was 24,000 Kg) is
entered on the load sheet then the aircraft according to the load sheet will be 6000 Kg heavier than
actual. In other words actual aircraft mass will be lighter as compared to the load sheet.
Fuel loaded onto an aeroplane is 15,400 kg but is erroneously entered into the load and trim sheet as
14,500 kg. This error is not detected by the flight crew but they will notice that:
a) V1 will be reached sooner than expected

b) speed at un-stick will be higher than expected <-- Correct
c) V1 will be increased
d) the aeroplane will rotate much earlier than expected
Preparation (speed calculation etc) will be for a lighter weight whereas the aircraft will be heavier than
planned. Acceleration will be slower and speeds will be higher than expected.
In order to provide an adequate BUFFET BOUNDARY at the commencement of the cruise a speed of
1.3 Vs is used. At a mass of 120,000 kg this is a CAS of 180 knots. If the mass of the aeroplane is
increased to 135,000 kg the value of 1.3Vs will be:
a) increased to 202 knots but since the same angle of attack is used, drag and range will remain the
same
b) unaffected as Vs always occurs at the same angle of attack
c) increased to 191 knots, drag will decrease and air distance per kg of fuel will increase
d) increased to 191 knots drag will increase and air distance per kg of fuel will decrease <-- Correct
Weight increment = 135000/120000 = 1.125
Stall speed is proprtional to square root of weight
Square root of 1.125 is 1.06
180 x 1.06 = 191 kts
Increase in weight increases the induced drag. Increase in drag decreases the range.
At maximum certificated take-off mass an aeroplane departs from an airfield which is not limiting for
either take-off or landing masses. During initial climb the number one engine suffers a contained
disintegration. An emergency is declared and the aeroplane returns to departure airfield for an
immediate landing. The most likely result of this action will be:
a) a high threshold speed and possible undercarriage or other structural failure <-- Correct
b) a landing further along the runway than normal
An aeroplane, which is scheduled to fly an oceanic sector, is due to depart from a high altitude airport
in the tropics at 1400 local time. The airport has an exceptionally long runway. Which of the following is
most likely to be the limiting factor(s) in determining the take-off mass?
a) maximum certificated take-off mass

b) maximum zero fuel mass
c) altitude and temperature of the departure airfield <-- Correct
d) en route obstacle clearance requirements
An aircraft is about to depart on an oceanic sector from a high elevation airfield with an exceptionally
long runway in the tropics at 1400 local time. The take offb mass is likely to be limited by:
a) MZFM
b) Obstacle limited mass
c) Maximum certified take-off mass
d) Climb limited mass <-- Correct
The maximum mass to which an aeroplane may be loaded, prior to engine start, is:
a) maximum certificated taxi (ramp) mass <-- Correct

b) maximum regulated taxi (ramp) mass
The mass displacement caused by landing gear extension:
a) does not create a longitudinal moment

b) creates a pitch-up longitudinal moment
c) creates a longitudinal moment in the direction (pitch-up or pitch-down) determined by the type of
landing gear <-- Correct
d) creates a pitch-down longitudinal moment
The Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass is:
a) a limit which may not be exceeded for any take-off <-- Correct
b) a take-off limiting mass which is affected by the aerodrome altitude and temperature
The Maximum Zero Fuel Mass is: "a structural limit listed in the Flight Manual as a fixed value"
To calculate the allowable take-off mass, the factors to be taken into account include:
a) the sum of the Maximum Landing Mass and the trip fuel <-- Correct
b) the sum of the Maximum Landing Mass and the fuel on board at take-off
c) the sum of the Maximum Zero Fuel Mass and the trip fuel
d) the Maximum Take-off Mass minus the trip fuel
The Allowable TOM is the lower of the following three:
i) Max Structural TOM Limit

ii) Max Landing Mass + Trip Fuel
iii) Max ZFW + Takeoff Fuel
Considering only structural limitation, on long distance flights (at the aeroplane maximum range), the
traffic load is normally limited by:
a) The maximum zero fuel mass plus the take-off mass

b) The maximum zero fuel mass
c) The maximum take-off mass <-- Correct
d) The maximum landing mass
Considering only structural limitations, on very short legs with minimum take-off fuel, the traffic load
is normally limited by:
a) Maximum landing mass

b) Maximum zero fuel mass <-- Correct
c) Maximum take-off mass
d) Actual landing mass
These questions can be understood from an example. If:
DOM = 100,000 Kg
MZFW = 120,000 Kg
MTOM = 140,000 Kg
Total Fuel Capacity = 25,000 Kg
The Maximum traffic load that can be loaded is MZFW-DOM = 20,000 Kg
For a short sector the fuel requirement is not much e.g. lets say it is 15,000 Kg.
Thus traffic load can be loaded until it reaches its Max zero fuel weight limit.
Putting in the values TOM = 100,000 + 20,000 + 15,000 = 135,000 Kg i.e. within limit.
Now lets say the flight is re-routed and becomes longer than before.
This means more fuel e.g. lets say it requires full tank capacity of 25,000 Kg.
Now the TOM = 100,000 + 20,000 + 25,000 = 145,000 Kg i.e. 5000 Kg above max takeoff mass limit.
Thus to be within the max takeoff mass limit 5000 Kg of traffic load has to be off-loaded.
i.e. TOM = 100,000 + 15,000 + 25,000 = 140,000 (within limit).
So for a longer flight traffic load does not reach its Max zero fuel weight limit, it is limited by the
maximum takeoff mass limit.
Which of the following statements is correct?
a) The Maximum Zero Fuel Mass ensures that the centre of gravity remains within limits after the uplift
of fuel
b) The Maximum Landing Mass of an aeroplane is restricted by structural limitations, performance
limitations and the strength of the runway <-- Correct
c) The Maximum Take-off Mass is equal to the maximum mass when leaving the ramp
d) The Basic Empty Mass is equal to the mass of the aeroplane excluding traffic load and usable fuel but
including the crew
The maximum taxi (ramp) mass is governed by: "structural considerations"
If the maximum structural landing mass is exceeded:
a) the aircraft will be unable to get airborne

b) the undercarriage could collapse on landing <-- Correct
c) no damage will occur providing the aircraft is within the regulated landing mass
d) no damage will occur providing the aircraft is within the performance limited landing mass
To calculate a usable take-off mass, the factors to be taken into account include:
a) Maximum landing mass augmented by fuel on board at take-off

b) Maximum landing mass augmented by the fuel burn <-- Correct
c) Maximum zero fuel mass augmented by the fuel burn
d) Maximum take-off mass decreased by the fuel burn
its about box B
The responsibility for determination of the mass of OPERATING MASSES and CREW MEMBERS included
within the Dry Operating Mass lies with: "the operator"
The maximum aircraft mass excluding all usable fuel is:
a) fixed and listed in the Aircraft Operating Manual <-- Correct

b) variable and is set by the payload for the trip
c) fixed by the physical size of the fuselage and cargo holds
d) variable and depends on the actual fuel load for the trip
The maximum certificated taxi (or ramp) mass is that mass to which an aeroplane may be loaded
prior to engine start, it is: "a fixed value which is listed in the Flight Manual"
In relation to an aeroplane, the term BASIC EMPTY MASS includes the mass of the aeroplane structure
complete with its power plants, systems, furnishings and other items of equipment considered to be an
integral part of the particular aeroplane configuration. Its value is: "found in the latest version of the
weighing schedule as corrected to allow for modifications"
The aircraft basic mass and CG position is found in:
a) The weighing schedule in the Aircraft Flight Manual and the aeroplane must be re-weighed if
equipment change causes a change in mass or balance
b) The weighing schedule in the Aircraft Flight Manual and is adjusted to take account of any mass
changes <-- Correct
During a violent avoidance manoeuvre, a light twin aircraft, was subjected to an instantaneous load
factor of 4.2. The Flight manual specifies that the aircraft is certified in the normal category for a load
factor of -1.9 to +3.8. Considering the certification requirements and taking into account that the
manufacturer of the twin did not include, during its conception, a supplementary margin in the flight
envelope, it might be possible to observe:
a) rupture of one or more structural components

b) a permanent deformation of the structure <-- Correct
c) an elastic deformation whilst the load was applied, but no permanent distortion
d) no distortion, permanent or temporary of the structure
A safety factor of 1.5 separates the limit and ultimate loads. The g "Limit Load" in this case is +3.8g. The
"Ultimate Load" would be 3.8 x 1.5 = +5.75g. The structure may not fail between limit and ultimate load
but can can lead to permanent deformation.
An aeroplane is loaded with its centre of gravity towards the rear limit. This will
a) an increased risk of stalling due to a decrease in tail-plane moment <-- Correct

b) a reduced fuel consumption as a result of reduced drag
c) an increase in longitudinal stability
d) a reduction in power required for a given speed
Option (a) is about risk of stalling and tail-plane moment and not stall speed so be careful in selecting
the right choice as some other options like (b) and (d) are also correct.
If the centre of gravity of an aeroplane moves forward during flight the elevator control will:
a) become heavier making the aeroplane more difficult to manoeuvre in pitch <-- Correct
b) become lighter making the aeroplane more difficult to manoeuvre in pitch
c) become heavier making the aeroplane more easy to manoeuvre in pitch
d) become lighter making the aeroplane more easy to manoeuvre in pitch
a) If the actual centre of gravity is close to the forward limit of the centre of gravity the aeroplane may
be unstable, making it necessary to increase elevator forces
b) If the actual centre of gravity is located behind the aft limit of centre of gravity it is possible that the
aeroplane will be unstable, making it necessary to increase elevator forces
c) A tail heavy aeroplane is less stable and stalls at a lower speed than a nose heavy aeroplane <--
Correct
d) The lowest stalling speed is obtained if the actual centre of gravity is located in the middle between
the aft and forward limit of centre of gravity
Which of the following is most likely to affect the range of centre of gravity positions on an aeroplane?
a) The need to minimise drag forces and so improve efficiency

b) Location of the undercarriage
c) The need to maintain a low value of stalling speed
d) Elevator and tail-plane (horizontal stabiliser) effectiveness in all flight conditions <-- Correct
When the centre of gravity is at the forward limit, an aeroplane will be: "extremely stable and will
require excessive elevator control to change pitch"
In cruise flight, an aft centre of gravity location will: "decrease longitudinal static stability"
A forward C of G would result in:
a) A reduced rate of climb

b) A decrease in cruise range
c) A decrease in both rate of climb and cruise range <-- Correct
d) An increase in both rate of climb and cruise range
If the CG is aft of the neutral point it results in:
a) increased stability with increased elevator trim

b) Decreased stability with decreased elevator trim
c) Neutral stability
d) Longitudinal instability <-- Correct
Longitudinal Stability
If the aeroplane is neutrally stable this would suggest that:
a) the CG is forward
b) the CG is in mid range
c) the CG is on the rear limit
d) the CG is behind the rear limit <-- Correct
Static Margin
An aeroplane is said to be NEUTRALLY STABLE. This is likely to:
a) Be caused by the CG towards the forward limit

b) Be caused by the CG at the aerodynamic centre of the aircraft <-- Correct
c) Be totally unrelated to the position of the CG
d) Cause the CG to move forward
Aerodynamic Center
What determines the longitudinal stability of an aeroplane?
a) The dihedral, angle of sweepback and the keel effect

b) The effectiveness of the horizontal stabiliser; rudder and rudder trim tab
c) The relationship of thrust and lift to weight and drag
d) The location of the centre of gravity with respect to the neutral point <-- Correct
The effect of operating an aeroplane with a CG too far forward is to experience:
a) Inability or difficulty in trimming when flaps are retracted

c) Inability or difficulty in flaring on touch down, resulting in nosewheel landing first <-- Correct
The handling and performance problems encountered with a CG too far aft include:
a) Improvement in nose wheel steering

b) Higher stick forces per G loading with no risk of over-stressing the airframe in manoeuvres
c) Difficulty or inability to recover from a spin <-- Correct
d) No likelihood of a nose up overbalance (on a bicycle gear aircraft) on the ground resulting in tail
damage
a) The station (STA) is always the location of the centre of gravity in relation to a referenced point,
normally the leading edge of the wing at MAC
b) A tail heavy aeroplane is less stable and stalls at a lower speed than a nose heavy aeroplane <--
Correct
c) The centre of gravity is given in percent of MAC calculated from the leading edge of the wing, where
MAC always = the wing chord halfway between the centre line of the fuselage and the wing tip
d) if the actual centre of gravity is located behind the aft limit the aeroplane longitudinal stability
increases
The safe CG range falls between the front and rear CG limits and "includes both limits".
The centre of gravity of an aeroplane is at 25% of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord. This means that the
centre of gravity of the aeroplane is situated at 25% of the length of: "the mean aerodynamic chord in
relation to the leading edge"
The datum for determining the CG has to be along the longitudinal axis: "but does not have to be
between the nose and the tail"
The centre of gravity of a body is that point:
a) which is always used as datum when computing moments

b) where the sum of the moments from the external forces acting on the body is equal to zero
c) where the sum of the external forces is equal to zero
d) through which the sum of the forces of all masses of the body is considered to act <-- Correct
Which of the following is unlikely to have any effect on the position of the centre of gravity on an
aeroplane in flight?
a) Lowering the landing gear

b) Changing the tailplane (horizontal stabiliser) incidence angle <-- Correct
c) Movement of cabin attendants going about their normal duties
d) Normal consumption of fuel for a swept wing aeroplane
Simple. Reason for putting this here is that the question is asking for "UNLIKELY"
The centre of gravity of an aeroplane is that point through which the total mass of the aeroplane is
said to act. The weight acts in a direction:
a) always parallel to the aeroplane's vertical axis

b) parallel to the gravity vector <-- Correct
Loads must be adequately secured in order to:
a) allow steep turns

b) avoid any centre of gravity (cg) movement during flight
c) prevent excessive g-loading during the landing flare
d) avoid unplanned centre of gravity (cg) movement and aircraft damage <-- Correct
Take-off mass is described as:
a) The take-off mass subject to departure airfield limitations

b) The mass of an aeroplane including everything and everyone contained within it at the start of the
take-off run <-- Correct
c) DOM fuel but without traffic load
d) The lowest of performance limited and structural limited T.O.M
The maximum zero-fuel mass:
1. is a regulatory limitation
3. is based on the maximum permissible bending moment at the wing root
5. is defined on the assumption that fuel is consumed from the inner wing tanks first
2. is calculated for a maximum load factor of +3.5 g

4. is defined on the assumption that fuel is consumed from the outer wing tanks first
1,3,5 Correct
What is the zero fuel mass?
a) MTOM minus fuel to destination minus fuel to alternative airfield

b) Maximum allowable mass of the aircraft with no usable fuel on board
c) Operating mass minus the fuel load
d) Actual loaded mass of the aircraft with no usable fuel on board <-- Correct
By adding to the basic empty mass the following fixed necessary equipment for a specific flight
(catering, safety and rescue equipment, fly away kit, crew), we get: "Dry Operating Mass"
For the purpose of completing the Mass and Balance documentation, the Traffic Load is considered to
be equal to the Take-off Mass: "less the Operating Mass"
Operating mass = DOM + Useable Fuel
In relation to an aeroplane the Dry Operating Mass is the total mass of the aeroplane ready for a
specific type of operation but excluding: "usable fuel and traffic load"
The zero fuel mass of an aeroplane is always:
a) The take-off mass minus the take-off fuel mass <-- Correct
b) The maximum take-off mass minus the take-off fuel mass
Beware of the term "Maximum"
The actual Zero Fuel Mass is equal to the:
a) Operating Mass plus all the traffic load

b) Dry Operating mass plus the traffic load <-- Correct
Operating mass (DOM + Fuel) contains fuel so it cant come under "zero" fuel!
Allowed traffic load is the difference between:
a) operating mass and basic means

b) allowed take off mass and basic mass plus trip fuel
c) allowed take off mass and basic mass
d) allowed take off mass and operating mass <-- Correct
For the purpose of completing the Mass and Balance documentation, the Operating Mass is
considered to be Dry Operating Mass plus:
a) Ramp Fuel Mass less the fuel for APU and run-up
b) Ramp Fuel Mass
c) Trip Fuel Mass
d) Take-off Fuel Mass <-- Correct
While making mass and balance calculation for a particular aeroplane, the term Empty Mass applies
to the sum of airframe, engine(s), fixed ballast plus:
a) all the consumable fuel and oil, but not including any radio or navigation equipment installed by
manufacturer
b) all the oil, fuel, and hydraulic fluid but not including crew and traffic load
c) unusable fuel and full operating fluids <-- Correct
d) The maximum mass for some aeroplanes including the fuel load and the traffic load
The actual Take-Off Mass is equivalent to: "Dry Operating Mass plus take-off fuel and the traffic load"
The Traffic Load is defined as: "The total mass of passengers, baggage and cargo, including any non-
revenue load"
When establishing the mass breakdown of an aeroplane, the empty mass is defined as the sum of the:
"standard empty mass plus specific equipment mass plus trapped fluids plus unusable fuel mass"
What is the zero fuel mass?
a) The maximum permissible mass of an aeroplane with no usable fuel mass

b) DOM plus traffic load but excluding fuel <-- Correct
Again be careful of the word "Maximum"
The chemical fluids used to charge the aircraft toilets are counted as:
a) part of the basic empty mass

b) part of the dry operating mass <-- Correct
Basic Empty Mass (Basic Mass): It is the mass of an aeroplane plus standard items such as: unusable
fuel and other unusable fluids; lubricating oil in engine and auxiliary units; fire extinguishers;
pyrotechnics; emergency oxygen equipment; supplementary electronic equipment.
Variable Load: It consists of the crew, their baggage and any removable equipment that is required for
that flight, for instance catering and passenger service equipment food and beverages, potable water
and lavatory chemicals. It is also referred to as "operational items".
DOM = Basic Empty Mass + Variable Load
The chemical fluids used to charge the aircraft toilets are counted as?
a) part of the basic empty mass

b) part of the variable load <-- Correct
Variable load includes: "mass of crew, their baggage, plus removable units of equipment"
The difference between the Traffic Load and the Useful Load is: "Usable fuel"
Useful Load: It is the total mass of the passengers, baggage and cargo, including any non-revenue load
and usable fuel. Useful Load = TOM-DOM.
The Operating Mass equals: "the take-off mass minus the traffic load"
The take-off fuel of an aircraft is: "TOM minus ZFM"

The true Dry Operating Mass is the:
a) basic empty mass plus disposable load

b) basic empty mass plus variable load <-- Correct
An aeroplane is performance limited to a landing mass of 54230 kg. The Dry Operating Mass is 35000
kg and the zero fuel mass is 52080 kg. If the take-off mass is 64280 kg the useful load is:
Usefull load = traffic load + useable fuel
TOM - DOM = useful load
64280-135000 = 29280 Kg
With reference to mass and balance calculations (on an aeroplane) a datum point is used. This datum
point is:
a) a point near the centre of the aeroplane. It moves longitudinally as masses are added forward and aft
of its location
b) the point through which the sum of the mass values (of the aeroplane and its contents) is assumed to
act vertically
c) a fixed point from which all balance arms are measured. It may be located anywhere on the
aeroplane's longitudinal axis or on the extensions to that axis<--Correct
d) a point from which all balance arms are measured. The location of this point varies with the
distribution of loads on the aeroplane.
The distance from the datum to the CG is:
a) the index
b) the moment
c) the balance arm <-- Correct
d) the station
In mass and balance terms, what is an index? "A moment divided by a constant"
In calculations with respect to the position of the centre of gravity a reference is made to a datum.
The datum is: "a reference plane which is chosen by the aeroplane manufacturer. Its position is given in
the aeroplane Flight or Loading Manual"
The datum is a reference from which all moment (balance) arms are measured. Its precise position is
given in the control and loading manual and it is located: "at a convenient point which may not
physically be on the aeroplane"
The mass of an item multiplied by its distance from the datum is it's: "Moment"
A location in the aeroplane which is identified by a number designating its distance from the datum is
known as: "Station"
Mass Limit Calculations:
Calculating the mass limits is pretty easy if you keep the bigger picture in mind.
The bigger picture is that the aircraft has an upper limit and a lower limit.
The upper limit is the maximum takeoff mass.
The lower limit is the mass of the aircraft itself plus the crew and stuff necessary for the operation (i.e.
Dry operating mass).
In between the two limits we can load:
1) Fuel
2) Passengers and their baggage
3) Cargo
4) Any other non-revenue stuff etc
Maximum fuel which we can load (staying within the limits) depends on the fuel tank capacity.
Maximum traffic load which we can load (staying within the limits) depends on the maximum zero fuel
weight.
If we load more fuel then we will have to compromise on traffic load.
If we load more traffic laod then we will have to compromise on fuel.
Either way we are playing around staying within the upper and the lower limits.
Calculating the lower limit is simple and uncomplicated as it is mostly given in the question as Dry
Operating Mass.
If it is not given then it can be found out by adding Basic Empty Mass and Crew Masses or Mass of any
other operational item as given in the question.
The tricky part of these questions is calculating the upper limit.
If you calculate it properly you hit the jackpot otherwise you've had it.
Calculating the upper limit is not difficult, its just that there is no room for complacency.
An example of calculating the upper limit is given below:
Another important thing is to organize the data given in the question into a logical sequence for neat
(error free) calculations e.g.
An aircraft has a Dry Operating Mass of 37400 kg. The Performance Limited Take-Off Mass is 67400 kg
and the Performance Limited Landing Mass 52800 kg. The Certificate of Airworthiness Maximum
Structural Take-Off Mass is 66000 kg, the Maximum Structural Landing Mass is 54000 kg and the
Maximum Zero Fuel Mass is 52000 kg. The fuel load before taxi is 16000 kg. Allowing 500 kg for start,
taxi and take-off and 12400 kg for trip fuel the maximum allowed traffic load is:
First of all make six columns A, B, C, D, E, F
A = Box A, B = Box B, C = Box C, D = DOM, E = Extra Info and F = Fuel Info (you can customize it
according to your needs and convenience)
While reading the question, enter the data (as it comes while reading) into the relevant columns as
shown below:
Rest is simple calculation:
Operating Mass (OM) = DOM + Takeoff Fuel = 52900 Kg
Allowed Traffic Load = TOM - OM = 12,300 Kg
(Refer to figure 031_3-1)The performance limited Maximum Take-Off Mass of the specimen aircraft is
4800 lb and the performance limited Maximum Landing Mass 4400 lb. The Basic Empty Mass is 3210 lb
and the flight is to be conducted with two pilots whose masses are 180 lb and 210 lb respectively. The
fuel load on take-off is 106 USG and the trip fuel is 86 USG. The maximum Allowed Traffic Load is:
a) 680 lb
b) 514 lb <-- Correct
c) 870 lb
d) 565 lb
Solution:
Simple but Dangerous! If you dont take into account the regulated TOM then you'll end up with option
"d".
Performance limited Maximum Take-Off Mass = 4800 lbs

Structure limited Maximum Take-Off Mass = 4750 lbs
Regulated takeoff mass = 4750 lbs
Performance limited Maximum Landing Mass = 4400 lbs

Structure limited Maximum Landing Mass = 4513 lbs
Regulated landing mass = 4400 lbs
Box A = 4750
Box B = 4400 + 516 = 4916 (Trip fuel of 86 USG is 516 lbs when calculated @ 6 lbs/USG as mentioned in
the fig)
Box C = 4470 + 636 = 5106 (Takeoff fuel of 106 USG is 636 lbs when calculated @ 6 lbs/USG as
mentioned in the fig)
MTOM = 4750
DOM = BEM + Pilots mass = 3210+390 = 3600
OM = DOM + Takeoff Fuel = 3600 + 636 = 4236
Maximum Allowed traffic load = MTOM - OM = 4750 - 4236 = 514 lbs
The following data applies to a planned flight:
Dry Operating Mass: 34900 kg

Performance limited Take-off Mass: 66300 kg
Performance limited Landing Mass: 55200 kg
Maximum Zero Fuel Mass: 53070 kg
Fuel required at ramp:

Taxi fuel: 400 kg
Trip fuel: 8600 kg
Contingency fuel: 430 kg
Alternate fuel: 970 kg
Holding fuel: 900 kg
Traffic load: 16600 kg
Fuel costs at the departure airfield are such that it is decided to load the maximum fuel quantity
possible. The total fuel which may be safely loaded prior to departure is:
Answer: 12700 Kg
Solution:
Box A = 66300
Box B = 63800
Box C = 63970
DOM (34900) + Traffic Load (16600) = ZFM of 51500
Box B (63800) - ZFM (51500) = 12300 (max fuel at takeoff)
12300 is the max fuel for takeoff. Since the question is about total fuel loaded prior to departure, taxi
fuel will added i.e. 12300 + 400 = 12700 Kg
A flight has been made from London to Valencia carrying minimum fuel and maximum traffic load. On
the return flight the fuel tanks in the aeroplane are to be filled to capacity with a total fuel load of 20100
litres at a fuel density of 0.79 kg/l. The following are the aeroplane structural limits:
Maximum Ramp Mass: 68900 kg

Maximum Take Off Mass: 69300 kg
Maximum Landing Mass: 58900 kg
The performance limited Take off mass at Valencia is 67330 kg

The landing mass at London is not performance limited.
Trip Fuel (Valencia to London) 5990 kg

Taxi Fuel: 250 kg
The maximum traffic load that can be carried from Valencia will be:
Answer: 14331 Kg
Solution:
Box A = 67330
Box B = 64890
Box C = 68619 (20100 litres with a density of 0.79 = 20100 x 0.79 = 15879 Kg)
MTOM = Box B
Allowed Traffic Load = MTOM - Operating Mass
Operating Mass = DOM + Takeoff Fuel
This was the tricky part in this question. 15879 is the total (block) fuel loaded in the aircraft. Takeoff fuel
will be block fuel minus taxi fuel i.e. 15879 - 250 = 15629
So OM = 34930 + 15629 = 50559
Allowed Traffic Load = 64890 - 50559 = 14331 Kg
Refer to figure L226. Using the data given in the Load & Trim sheet, determine from the following the
correct value for the limiting take off mass for this flight.
a) 52900 kg with an underload of 4200 kg

b) 57100 kg with an underload of 3770 kg <-- Correct
c) 58500 kg with an overload of 3770 kg
d) 62000 kg with an underload of 3770 kg
Fig L226 is of the trim sheet with some filled in details. Max TOM is the lower of the three limits which is
57100 (already worked out). Underload is the difference between the allowed traffic load and the actual
traffic load. Allowed traffic load is TOM - OM which is 57100 - 43948 = 13152. Actual traffic load as given
in the trim is 9382. So underload is 13152 - 9382 = 3770 Kg. However for this question one really doesnt
need to calculate the underload since there is only one option in the answer that mentions 57100 as the
max TOM.
Calculate the maximum possible last minute change for a planned flight, using the following
information:
MSTOM: 72500 kg
Fuel block: 18460 kg
DOM: 44000 kg
Taxi fuel: 460 kg
PLTOM: 73000 kg
Traffic load: 6800 kg
Answer: 3700 Kg
Solution:
MTOM = 72500
Allowed Traffic load = MTOM - Operating Mass (OM)
OM = DOM + Takeoff Fuel
Block Fuel (18460) - Taxi Fuel (460) = Takeoff Fuel (18000)
OM = 62000
Allowed Traffic load = 72500 - 62000 = 10500
Actual traffic = 6800
So 10500 - 6800 = 3700 Kg is the max possible last minute change.
The empty mass of an aeroplane, as given in the weighing schedule, is 61300 kg. The operational
items (including crew) is given as a mass of 2300 kg. If the take-off mass is 132000 kg (including a
usable fuel quantity of 43800 kg) the useful load is:
Answer: 68400 Kg
BEM (61300) + Operational items and crew (2300) = DOM (63600)
TOM (132000) - DOM (63600) = Useful Load (68400)

Useful Load = Traffic Load + Useable Fuel
An aeroplane takes off as normal on a scheduled flight however, shortly after take-off the aeroplane is
diverted to another airfield
Max Structural TOM 14000 kg

Performance Limited TOM 12690 kg
Max Structural LM (MSLM) 9600 kg
Trip Fuel to original destination 6000 kg

Contingency fuel 200 kg
Alternate fuel 200 kg
Final reserve fuel 750 kg
Expected landing mass at original destination 4600 kg

Actual flight duration 2 hour
Fuel consumption 1500 kg per hour
Performance Limited LM at diversion airfield (PLLM) 9000 kg
a) The aeroplane can land safely as it is below its MSLM

b) The aeroplane can land safely because it is below its PLLM <-- Correct
c) The aeroplane cannot land safely because it is above the MSLM
d) The aeroplane cannot land safely because it is above its PLLM
Solution:
Expected landing mass at original destination 4600 kg
That means we can calculate the Actual TOM since we know that trip fuel was 6000 Kg
Actual TOM = 4600 + 6000 = 10,600 Kg
Instead of going to the destination the aircraft went to the diversion airfield after 2 hours that means it
burnt 2 hours of fuel instead of 6000 Kg
So landing mass at diversion field = 10,600 - (2x1500) = 7600 which is below the Performace limited
Landing Mass of 9000 Kg.
Given that:
Maximum structural take-off mass: 146000 kg

Maximum structural landing mass: 93900 kg
Actual zero fuel mass: 86300 kg
Trip fuel: 27000 kg

Taxi fuel: 1000 kg
Final reserve fuel: 3000 kg
Determine the actual take-off mass:
Actual Zero Fuel Mass + Takeoff Fuel = 120,300 Kg. Simple but be careful as the question is about the
actual takeoff weight and not a max limit.
The take-off mass of an aeroplane is 141000 kg. Total fuel on board is 63000 kg including 14000 kg
reserve fuel and 1000 kg of unusable fuel. The traffic load is 12800 kg. The zero fuel mass is:
a) 79000 kg <-- Correct
b) 78000 kg
c) 93000 kg
d) 65200 kg
ZFM = TOM - Takeoff fuel = 141000 - 62000 = 79,000
Total fuel on board is 63000 out of which 1000 is unusable. The unusable fuel is part of the DOM. Takeoff
fuel is all useable.
The following data applies to an aeroplane which is about to take off:
Certified maximum take-off mass: 141500 kg

Performance limited take-off mass: 137300 kg
Crew and crew hand baggage mass: 640 kg

Crew baggage in hold: 110 kg
Fuel on board: 60700 kg
From this data calculate the mass of the useful load.
Answer: TOM (137,300) - DOM (58400) = Useful Load (78,900)
Based on actual conditions, an aeroplane has the following performance take-off mass limitations:
Flaps : 0/10/15
Run way : 4100/4400/4600 (Masses are in kg)
Climb : 4700/4500/4200 (Masses are in kg)
Structural limit for Take off/landing/zero fuel is 4300 kg
What is the maximum take-off mass?
Answer: 4300 Kg
Solution:
For a Flaps 0 takeoff Runway limited mass = 4100 and Climb limited mass = 4700.
To meet both (runway and climb) limits the lower mass will be the limit. Thus for:
Flaps 0 it is 4100
Flaps 10 it is 4400
Flaps 15 it is 4200
Maximum takeoff mass can be 4400 if we takeoff with flaps 10, but due to max structural takeoff limit of
4300 it will be limited to 4300 Kg.
(For this question use Figure 4.4)The medium range jet transport aeroplane is to operate a flight
carrying the maximum possible fuel load. Using the following data as appropriate, determine the mass of
fuel on board at start of take off.Departure airfield performance limited take-off mass:60400 kgLanding
airfield: not performance limitedDry Operating Mass:34930 kgFuel required for flight:Taxi fuel: 715 kgTrip
fuel: 8600 kgContingency and final reserve fuel: 1700 kgAlternate fuel: 1500 kgAdditional reserve: 400
kgTraffic load for flight: 11000 kg
Answer: 14470 Kg
Solution:
Box A = 60400
Box B = 63500
Box C = 63500
MTOM = 60400
ZFW = DOM + Traffic load = 34930 + 11000 = 45930
Maximum possible fuel load at take off:
TOM - ZFW = 60400 - 45930 = 14,470 Kg
(For this question use Figure 4.14)The medium range twin jet transport is scheduled to operate from a
departure airfield where conditions limit the take-off mass to 65050 kg. The destination airfield has a
performance limited landing mass of 54500 kg. The Dry Operating mass is 34900 kg. Loading data is as
follows:Taxi fuel: 350 kgTrip fuel: 9250 kgContingency and final reserve fuel 1100 kgAlternate fuel:1000
kgTraffic load: 18600 kgCheck the load and ensure that the flight may be operated without exceeding
any of the aeroplane limits. Choose, from those given below, the most appropriate answer.
a) The flight may be safely operated with the stated traffic and fuel load
b) The flight is zero fuel mass limited and the traffic load must be reduced to 14170 kg
c) The flight is landing mass limited and the traffic load must be reduced to 17500 kg <-- Correct
d) The flight may be safely operated with an additional 200 kg of traffic load
Solution:
Box A = 65050
Box B = 63750
DOM = 34900
Traffic Load = 18600
ZFW = DOM + Traffic Load = 53500
Takeoff Fuel = 11350
TOM = ZFW + Takeoff Fuel = 64850
Takeof was Box B limited thus with the data given the limit is exceeded by 64850-63750 = 1100 Kg
1100 Kg of traffic load has to be removed
So the traffic load must be limited to 18600 - 1100 = 17500 Kg
(For this question use Figure 4.14)A revenue flight is planned for the transport aeroplane. Take-off
mass is not airfield limited. The following data applies:Dry Operating Mass 34930 kg Performance limited
landing mass 55000 kgFuel on board at rampTaxi fuel 350 kgTrip fuel 9730 kg Contingency and final
reserve fuel 1200 kg Alternate fuel 1600 kg Passengers on board 130 Standard mass for each passenger
84 kgBaggage per passenger 14 kgTraffic load Maximum possibleUse the loading manual provided and
the above data. Determine the maximum cargo load that may be carried without exceeding the limiting
aeroplane landing mass.
Answer: 4530 Kg
Solution:
Box B 64730 (takeoff limit)
Allowed Trafic Load = MTOM - Operating Mass = 17270
Pax mass = 130 x 84 = 10920

Baggage mass = 130 x 14 = 1820
Total = 10920 + 1820 = 12740
Allowed traffic load is 17270 so cargo = 17270 - 12740 = 4530 Kg
Determine the Landing Mass for the following single engine aeroplane. Given:
Standard Empty Mass: 1764 lbs

Optional Equipment: 35 lbs
Pilot + Front seat passenger: 300 lbs
Cargo Mass: 350 lbs
Ramp Fuel = Block Fuel: 60 Gal
Trip Fuel: 35 Gal
Fuel density: 6 lbs/Gal
a) 2659 lbs
b) 2799 lbs
c) 2589 lbs <-- Correct
d) 2449 lbs
However the data is incomplete. Taxi fuel is not given. In some other question banks this question
mentions that taxi fuel is 10 lbs.
Landing Mass = Ramp mass - Trip and taxi fuel
Ramp Fuel = 60 x 6 = 360 lbs
Ramp mass = 1764+35+300+350+360 = 2809
Taxi fuel (10) + Trip Fuel (210) = 220 lbs
Ramp Mass (2809) - Trip and Taxi Fuel (220) = Landing Mass (2589 lbs)
There's another one like this with the same data in which one has to determine the takeoff mass but
again 10lbs of taxi fuel is not given.
The following data is extracted from an aeroplane loading manifest:
Performance limited take-off mass: 93500 kg

Expected landing mass at destination: 81700 kg
Maximum certificated landing mass: 86300 kg
Fuel on board: 16500 kg
During the flight a diversion is made to an en-route alternate which is not performance limited for
landing. Fuel remaining at landing is 10300 kg. The landing mass:
a) is 87300 kg which is acceptable in this case because this is a diversion and not a normal scheduled
landing
b) is 83200 kg which is in excess of the regulated landing mass and could result in over-running the
runway
c) must be reduced to 81700 kg in order to avoid a high speed approach
d) is 87300 kg and excess structural stress could result <-- Correct
Fuel on Board = 16500 Kg

Fuel at Landing = 10300 Kg
Fuel Consumed = 6200 Kg
If TOM was 93500 Kg then after burning 6200 Kg of fuel Landing Mass will be 87300 Kg which is 1000 Kg
above the certified limit.
Given:
- The take-off mass of an aircraft is 8470 kg

- Total fuel on board is 1600 kg including 450 kg reserve fuel and 29 kg of unusable fuel
- The traffic load is 770 kg
What is the Zero Fuel Mass?
a) 6420 kg
b) 6129 kg
c) 6899 kg <-- Correct
d) 6870 kg
ZFW = TOM - Useable Fuel
Useable Fuel = 1600-29 = 1571 <-- This is the catch in this question
8470 - 1571 = 6899
Using the following, calculate the traffic mass:
PLTOM: 68000 kg
Taxi mass: 67640 kg
DOM: 38600 kg
Landing mass: 60500 kg
Operating mass: 50000 kg
Trip fuel: 7000 kg
PLLM: 64800 kg
MZFM: 59000 kg
Answer: 17500 Kg
Solution:
LM = 60500
Trip Fuel = 7000
TOM = 60500 + 7000 = 67500
OM (DOM + Takeoff Fuel) = 50000
TOM (67500) - OM (50000) = Traffic Mass (17500)
The Take-Off Mass of an aircraft is 3620 kg, the Landing Mass is 3280 kg and the Basic Empty Mass is
1875 kg. The fuel load on take-off is 380 kg and the traffic load is 1150 kg. The Dry Operating Mass is:
Answer: 2090 Kg
Solution:
Traffic Load (1150) + Takeoff Fuel (380) = Useful Load (1530)
TOM (3620) - Useful Load (1530) = DOM (2090)
(Refer to figure 031_L402) For the purpose of calculating traffic loads, an operators loading manual
gives the following standard mass values for passengers (these values include an allowance for hand
baggage)
Male: 88 kg
Female: 70 kg
Child: 35 kg
Infant: 6 kg
The standard mass value to be used for hold baggage is 14 kg per piece.
The loading manifest shows the following details:

Passengers loaded:
Males: 40
Females: 65
Children: 8
Infants: 5
Baggage in hold number 4: 120 pieces
Using the standard mass values given and the data in the appendix, select from the following the correct
value for the mass of freight (all loaded in hold No. 1) which constitutes the remainder of the traffic load:
a) 210 kg
b) 280 kg
c) no cargo can be loaded in hold number 1
d) 260 kg <-- Correct
Males = 40 x 88 = 3520
females = 65 x 70 = 4550
child = 8 x 35 = 280
inf = 5 x 6 = 30
bag = 120 x 14 = 1680
Traffic load = 10060
Total traffic load as given in the trim is 10320. This includes the load that is lying in hold 1.
That means the remainder of the traffic load in hold 1 is:
Total traffic load (10320) - Traffic Load given in the question (10060) = 260 Kg
Standard Mass Values in CAP 696 Section 1 Page 5
On an aeroplane with 20 or more seats engaged on an inter-continental flight, the standard mass
which may be used for passenger baggage is:in
a) 14 kg per passenger
b) 13 kg per passenger
c) 15 kg per passenger <-- Correct
d) 11 kg per passenger
Standard masses may be used for the computation of mass values for baggage if the aeroplane:
a) is carrying 30 or more passengers

b) has 6 or more seats
c) has 30 or more seats
d) has 20 or more seats <-- Correct
(Refer to CAP 696 Figure 4.8)Maximum allowed take-off mass limit: 37200 kgDry operating mass:
21600 kgTake off fuel: 8500 kgPassengers on board: male 33, female 32, children 5Baggages: 880 kgThe
company uses the standard passenger mass systems allowed by regulations. The flight is not a holiday
charter. In these conditions, the maximum cargo that may be loaded is:
a) 901 kg
b) 585 kg <-- Correct
c) 1098 kg
d) 1105 kg
Allowed Trafic Load = MTOM - Operating Mass = 7100
According to Standard Mass Values as mentioned above, we will refer to the first table.
The first table has two columns. One mentioning masses of males and females separately if seats are 20
or more and other "All Adult" mass if seats are 30 or more. Since the number of passengers given in the
question are more than 30 we assume that the aircraft has a configuration of 30 or more seats.
So we will use the "All Adult" standard mass of 84 for males and females and 35 for children.
84 x 65 = 5460
5 x 35 = 175
Passenger mass = 5635

With Baggage of 880 the mass becomes 6515
Amount of cargo that can be loaded = 7100 - 6199 = 585
Mass for individual passengers (to be carried on an aeroplane) may be determined from a verbal
statement by or on behalf of the passengers if the number of:
a) passenger seats available is less than 6 <-- Correct

b) passengers carried is less than 6
From the following select the standard baggage mass for a domestic flight on a 300 passenger seat
aircraft:
a) 15 kg
b) 13 kg
d) 6 kg
Standard masses for baggage can only be used when the aircraft has:
a) 9 seats or more
b) 20 seats or more <-- Correct
c) 30 seats or more
d) less than 30 seats
On an aeroplane with a seating capacity of more than 30, it is decided to use standard mass values
for computing the total mass of passengers. If the flight is not a holiday charter, the mass value which
may be used for an adult is:
a) 88 kg (male) 74 kg (female)
b) 76 kg
c) 84 kg (male) 76 kg (female)
The operator of an aircraft equipped with 50 seats uses standard masses for passengers and
baggage. During the preparation of a scheduled flight a group of passengers present themselves at the
check-in desk, it is apparent that even the lightest of these exceeds the value of the declared standard
mass.
a) the operator may use the standard masses for the balance but must correct these for the load
calculation
b) the operator should use the individual masses of the passengers or alter the standard masses <--
Correct
c) the operator is obliged to use the actual masses of each passenger
d) the operator may use the standard masses for the load and balance calculation without correction
According to EU-OPS: On any flight identified as carrying a significant number of passengers whose
masses, including hand baggage, are expected to exceed the standard passenger mass, an operator
must determine the actual mass of such passengers by weighing or by adding an adequate mass
increment.
Standard Mass as used in the computation of passenger load establish the mass of a child as:
a) 35 kg for children over 2 years occupying a seat and 10 kg for infants (less than 2 years) not
occupying a seat
b) 35 kg only if they are over 2 years old and occupy a seat
c) 35 kg irrespective of age provided they occupy a seat <-- Correct
d) 35 kg for children over 2 years occupying a seat and 10 kg for infants (less than 2 years) occupying a
seat
In determining the Dry Operating Mass of an aeroplane it is common practice to use standard mass
values for crew. These values are
a) flight crew 85 kg, cabin crew 75 kg each. These are inclusive of a hand baggage allowance <-- Correct
b) flight crew 85 kg, cabin crew 75 kg each. These do not include a hand baggage allowance
An infant is a person between the ages of 0 years to 2 years.
For the purposes of mass and balance a child is a person aged: "Of 2 years but not having reached
their twelfth birthday"
a person of 13 years of age is defined as: "adult"
When standard mass values are being used, infants occupying separate passenger seats must be
considered as:
a) adults
b) children <-- Correct
c) infants after being weighed
d) the same if below 2 years of age
(For this question use Figures 4.5 and 4.6) For the medium range transport aeroplane, from the
loading manual, determine the maximum total volume of fuel which can be loaded into the main wing
tanks. (Fuel density value 0.78 )
a) 11349 litres <-- Correct

b) 8850 litres
c) 11646 litres
d) 5674 litres
Fig 4.6 is about unusable fuel quantities so it is not needed as the question is about filling up the tanks
not about useage.
Fig 4.5 gives the main wing tank capacity which is 1499 USG for left and 1499 USG right tank.
Thus the total wing tank capacity is 1499 x 2 = 2998 USG
The answer is in litres
1 USG = 3.785 litres
2998 x 3.785 = 11348 litres
Capacities in Kgs is 4542 per tank. So the maximum that can loaded is 4542 x 2 = 9084 Kg
However for capacities in Kg, the data in the in the fig assumes a density of 3.03 Kg/US gallon i.e. 3.03
Kg/3.785 litres, or 0.80
If the density is 0.78 as given in the question then 9084 Kg of fuel will be 11646 litres (9084/.78 )
11646 litres is not the right answer as it exceeds the volume capacity of the tanks (11348 litres).
When determining the mass of fuel/oil and the value of the SG is not known, the value to use is:
a) determined by the operator <-- Correct

b) set out in JAR OPS 1 Section 1
c) determined by the aviation authority
d) determined by the pilot
An aircraft fuel tank can hold a maximum volume equivalent to 2300 kg of fuel at 0.80 SG. The tank is
loaded with fuel at 0.78 SG, the volume of fuel that can be loaded is:
a) 1840 litres
b) 2243 litres
c) 2359 litres
d) 2875 litres <-- Correct
2300 Kg / 0.80 = 2875 Litres. This is the capacity of the tank. 2300 Kg fuel with SG of 0.78 is 2949 litres.
So the maximum you can put is 2875 litres. 2875 litres with SP of 0.78 is 2243 Kg.
(Refer to CAP 696 figure 3-2)From data sheet attached select the volume of the fuel allowance for
start, run up and taxi as per the worked example
Answer: 3.8 US Gallons
The fig gives the fuel in lbs i.e. 23 lbs. Converting @ 6lbs/USG, 23/6 = 3.8 USG.
How would you convert kilograms (Kg) to pounds (lb)? "kg x 2.20462262 lb"
How would you convert US Gallons to Litres (L)? "US gall x 3.785"
To convert 1 US gallon of AVGAS (100 LL) to lbs: "1 USG = 6 lbs"
A box has a mass of 122 lbs, what is the mass in kg?
a) 55.33 kg <-- Correct

b) 55.45 kg
122 / 2.204 = 55.35
You'll end up with a wrong answer if you use 2.2 only e.g. 122 / 2.2 = 55.45 (which is present in the
options)
2588 USG of fuel has been loaded into an aircraft, what is the volume in litres?
a) 9796.65 L <-- Correct

b) 9785.58 L
2588 x 3.785 = 9795.58
You'll end up with a wrong answer if you use 3.78 only e.g. 2588 x 3.78 = 9782.64 (which is closer to
9785 present in the options)
The mass of 729 US Gallons of fuel at SG 0.78 is: "2153 Kg"
729 USG x 3.785 = 2759.265 Litres
2759.265 Litres x 0.78 = 2152.22 Kg
If 567 kgs of fuel at SG 0.812 are on board an aircraft, the amount of fuel in US gallons is:
a) 161 USG
b) 168 USG
c) 184 USG <-- Correct
d) 201 USG
567 Kg / 0.812 = 698.275 Litres
698.275 Litres / 3.785 = 184.48 USG
5600 USG is equivalent to how many imperial gallons?
a) 6338 imp
b) 4366 imp
c) 4663 imp <-- Correct
d) 4848 imp
1 US Gallon = 3.785 Litres
1 Imperial gallon = 4.546 Litres
Imperial gallon is bigger. The conversion factor is 4.546/3.785 = 1.201
So 5600 USG = 5600/1.201 = 4662.78 Imp gallons
5600 usg x 3.785 = 21196 litres. 21196 litres / 4.546 = 4662.56 imp gallons.
Questions on CG Calculation
•Q
u K.Haroon » Tue May 22, 2012 10:24 am
Pby
oo
st
te
Memorizing the formulas:
Change of Mass will result in change of CG. So:
Mass Change = Change of CG
In all three formulas this is common. Only the denominator changes.
Regarding memorizing the denominator for the three formulas, the simplest is the 1st one i.e. for
Moving Mass.
If you memorize that then its easy to build up others.
Change of Mass is compared against the Total Mass that completes one part: Mass Change / Total
Mass CG is affected with movement of mass so "Change of CG / Distance Moved by Mass"
completes the second part.
So the complete formula for moving mass is:
Mass Change / Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance Moved by Mass
When a new mass is added the first part becomes:
Mass Change / New Total Mass (since a new mass is added thus a new total mass)
The second part becomes:
Change of CG / Distance between Mass & CG (since addition of mass will affect the CG)
The complete formula for adding a mass becomes:
Mass Change / New Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance between Mass & CG
Removing is opposite of adding so just change "New" to "Old" and rest of the formula is exactly
the same.
Mass Change / Old Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance between Mass & CG
Some Examples
Example of Moving Mass
Given: C of G is located at STN 15. Aeroplane mass is 3650 lbs. What is the effect on the C of G if
you move baggage (total
mass 64 lb) from STN 14 to STN 20?
Answer: It moves AFT by 0.1 unit
Solution:
Change of CG = Mass Change / New Total Mass x Distance Moved by Mass
Mass that has change position = 64 lbs
Total Mass = 3650
Distance Moved by the Mass = 6 (from stn 14 to 20)
Change of CG = 64/3650 x 6 = 0.1
Example of Adding Mass
A loaded aircraft weighs 4200 lb with a C of G of 9 inches AFT of the datum. An extra 200 lbs is
loaded into the aircraft 40 inches FWD of the datum. The new C of G position is:
a) 6.8 inches FWD

b) 6.8 inches AFT <-- Correct
Mass Change / New Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance between Mass & CG
Change of CG = Mass Change / New Total Mass x Distance between Mass & CG
Mass has shifted 40" fwd of datum, previously the CG was 9" aft of datum. Thus distance between
Mass and CG is 49".
Change of CG = 200/4400 x 49 = 2.227
Mass has moved forward so the CG will move forward (towards the datum) by 2.227"
Previous it was at 9" now it will be 9-2.227 = 6.773 or 6.8" AFT of datum.
It stil remains aft of datum. It will only be fwd of datum if it moves fwd by more than 9".
Example of Removing Mass
The planned take-off mass of a turbojet aeroplane is 190000 kg, with its centre of gravity located
at 29% MAC (Mean Aerodynamic Chord). Shortly prior to engine start, the local staff informs the
flight crew that 4000 kg must be unloaded from cargo 4 (23.89 m aft of the reference point).
Given:
Distance from reference point to leading edge: 14m
Length ofo MAC = 4.6m
After the handling operation, the new centre of gravity location in % MAC will be:
a) 31%
b) 25% <-- Correct
c) 33%
d) 27%
Solution:
Mass Change / Old Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance between Mass & CG
or
Change of CG = Mass Change / Old Total Mass x Distance between Mass & CG
Mass Change = 4000
Old Total Mass = 190,000
CG at 29% MAC i.e 29/100 x 4.6 = 1.334 aft of leading edge.
Leading edge is 14m aft from Ref point so CG is 14 + 1.334 = 15.334 aft of Ref point.
Mass is removed from cargo 4 which is located 23.89m aft of ref point.
So distance between Mass & CG = 23.89 - 15.334 = 8.556
Change of CG = 4000 / 190,000 x 8.556 = 0.18
CG will shift 0.18m forward from the last position since mass removed was behind the CG.
So new CG will be 1.334 - 0.18 = 1.154m aft of leading edge.
or 1.154 / 4.6 x 100 = 25% MAC
Examples of Some Variation in Above Formulas
Example .1. Given: Total mass: 2900 kg

Centre of gravity (cg) location station 115.0
Aft cg limit station: 116.0
The maximum mass that can be added at station 130.0 is:
a) 140 kg
b) 317 kg
d) 14 kg
Mass Change / Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance between Mass and Desired CG
Mass Change = Change of CG / Distance between Mass and Desired CG x Total Mass
Mass Change (i.e mass that can be added) = 1 / 14 x 2900 = 207 Kg

Example .2. Given that the total mass of an aeroplane is 112000 kg with a centre of gravity
position at 22.62m aft of the datum. The centre of gravity limits are between 18m and 22m. How
much mass must be removed from the rear hold (30m aft of the datum) to move the centre of
gravity to the middle of the limits:
a) 43120 kt
b) 16529 kg
c) 8680 kg
Mass Change / Old Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance between Mass and Desired CG
Desired CG between 18 and 22 is 20 and Distance between Mass and Desired CG is 30 -20 = 10
Change of CG from 22.62 to 20 is 2.62
Mass Change = 2.62 / 10 x 112000 = 29344 Kg
===========================================
An aeroplane has its centre of gravity located 7 metres from the datum line and it has a mass
of 49000 N. The moment about the datum is:
Answer: 343000 Nm
CG = Moment / Weight
Moment = CG x Weight = 7 x 49000 = 343000 Nm
(Refer to figure 031_4-11)With reference to the MRJT, what are the limits for the CG as a
percentage of the aircraft's MAC at TOM of 57500 kg?
Answer: 8% to 26.6%
(For this question use CAP 696 Figure 4.11)At the maximum landing mass the range of safe CG
positions, as determined from the appropriate graph in the loading manual, is:
a) Forward limit 8.0% MAC aft limit 26.8% MAC

b) Forward limit 8.0% MAC aft limit 27.2% MAC
c) Forward limit 8.6% MAC aft limit 27.0% MAC
d) Forward limit 7.4% MAC aft limit 27.0% MAC <-- Correct
(Refer to CAP 696 Figure 2-5)From the attached data sheet, what is the fwd CG limit for an
aircraft with a mass of 3500 lb?
Answer: +79.0 inches

(Refer to figure 031_8-2)Where is the centre of gravity of the aeroplane in the diagram?
a) 26.57 cm aft of datum

b) 26.57 cm forward of datum <-- Correct
CG = Total Moment / Total Mass
Moment = balance arm x mass
Nose wheel mass (1750) x balance arm (1.5) = (moment arm) 2625
The Ref is is 2.5m from datum and nose wheel is 1m behind it so arm between datum and nose
wheel is 2.5-1 = 1.5m
Right main wheel mass (4080) x balance arm (0) = (moment arm) 0
Left main wheel mass (4050) x balance arm (0) = (moment arm) 0
CG = 2625 / 9880 = 0.265m or 26.57 cm FWD of Datum.
An aeroplane with a two wheeled nose gear and four main wheels rests on the ground with a
single nose wheel load of 725 kg and a single main wheel load of 6000 kg. The distance between
the nose wheels and the main wheels is 10 meters. How far is the centre of gravity in front of the
main wheels?
a) 25 cm
b) 40 cm
c) 57 cm <-- Correct
d) 63 cm
Centre of Gravity (CG) is the point (along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft) through which the
total mass of the aircraft acts.
Assuming there is no nose wheel, the CG will be on the main wheels.
So when the nose wheel is added the CG will move forward. How much will it move can be
calculated from the formula of moving mass:
so
Change of CG = Mass Change / Total Mass x Distance Moved by Mass
Mass Change = Two nose wheels 725 Kg each = 1450 Kg
Total Mass = 4 main wheels 6000 Kg each (24000) + two nose wheels (1450) = 25450 Kg
Distance moved = 10 m
Change of CG = 1450/25450 x 10 = 0.569 m or 57 cm
(Refer to figure 031_8-10)What is the centre of gravity position of the aeroplane in the diagram,
given:Left main:1620 kgRight main:1632 kgNose: 640 kg
a) 24.7" FWD of the Datum <-- Correct

b) 33.1" FWD of the Datum
c) 24.6" AFT of the Datum
d) 13.1" AFT of the Datum
Method 1:
Moment = balance arm x mass
Nose wheel mass (640) x balance arm (150) = (moment arm) 96000
Right main wheel mass (1632) x balance arm (0) = (moment arm) 0
Left main wheel mass (1620) x balance arm (0) = (moment arm) 0
CG = 96000 / 3892 = 24.7" FWD of Datum.
Method 2:
Centre of Gravity (CG) is the point (along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft) through which the
total mass of the aircraft acts.
Assuming there is no nose wheel, the CG will be on the main wheels.
So when the nose wheel is added the CG will move forward. How much will it move can be
calculated from the formula of moving mass:
so
Mass Change = nose wheel of 640 Kg
Total Mass = 2 main wheels (1632+1620) + nose wheel (640) = 3892 Kg
Distance moved = 150"
Change of CG = 640/3892 x 150 = 24.7" FWD of Datum
(Refer to figure 031_8-11)Calculate the centre of gravity for the aeroplane in the diagram
given:Nose wheel weight:7800 kgLeft wheel weight: 11800 kg Right wheel weight: 11400 kg
a) 0.31 m aft of datum

b) 2.8m aft of datum
c) 8.2m aft of datum
d) 3.2m aft of datum <-- Correct
According to the figure nose wheel is forward of the datum and will have a negative moment
whereas main wheels behind the datum will have positive moment.
Positive Moment:
11800 x 6.8 = 80240

11400 x 6.8 = 77520
Total Positive Moment = 157760
Negative Moment:
7800 x -7.5 = -58500
Total Negative Moment = -58500
Total Moment:
157760 - 58500 = 99260
CG = Total Moment / Total Mass = 99260/31000 = 3.2m
Since the value is +ve so CG is 3.2m aft of datum.
The weights measured at the landing gear of an aircraft are as follows:
Nose wheel (55 inches aft of datum): 475 lbs

Right main wheel (121 inches aft of datum): 1046 lbs
Left main wheel (121 inches aft of datum): 1040 lbs
The C of G of the aircraft is:
a) 104.6 in
b) 106.4 in
c) 108.8 in <-- Correct
d) 1046 in
If main wheels are 121" behind the datum and nose wheel is 55" behind the datum then arm
between main and nose wheel is 121-55 = 66"
Change of CG = 475 / 2561 x 66 = 12.24"
12.24" FWD of Main weels at 121" is 121-12.24 = 108.8"
What is the CG as a percentage MAC of the fully loaded aircraft below?
BEM 12000 kg
Arm 3 m
CG 25% MAC
MAC 2 m
Item Balance arm:

Front seats 2.5 m
Rear seats 3 m
Fuel SG 0.74
Fuel 410 litres
Fuel arm 2.5 m
Rear seats Empty
Pilot 80 kg
Passenger 80 kg
Answer: 24%
Solution:
BEM (12000) x Arm (3) = Moment (36000)

Pax Mass (160) x Arm (2.5) = Moment (400)
Fuel Mass (303.4) x Arm (2.5) = Moment (758.5)
Total Mass (12463.4) and Total Moment (37158.5)
CG = 2.981 m
Without Pax and Fuel the CG was at 3m
With addition of Pax and Fuel the CG has moved forward by .019m (3 - 2.981)
With a MAC of 2m and original CG at 25% MAC, the CG is 0.5m from the leading edge (25/100 x
2).
When it moves forward by .019m then from the leading edge it is 0.481m (0.5 - .019)
As a %MAC it will be (0.481/2 x 100) = 24.05 %
(Refer to figure 7-1) The loading for a flight is shown in the attached load sheet, with the
following data applying to the aeroplane:
Maximum take-off mass: 150,000 kg

Maximum landing mass: 140,000 kg
Centre of gravity (CG) Limit:

Forward: 10.5m aft of datum
Aft: 13.0m aft of datum
Estimated trip fuel: 55,000 kg
a) Take-off CG is out of limits at 12.34m aft of datum

b) Landing CG is out of limits at 11.97m aft of datum
c) Landing CG is out of limits at 10.17m aft of datum <-- Correct
d) Take-off CG is out of limits at 10.17m aft of datum
Solution:
At Takeoff, CG = 1771,000/148,000 = 11.96m aft of datum (within limit).
At landing after burning 55,000 Kg of trip fuel, total mass will be 148,000 - 55000 = 93,000 Kg
55,000 Kg of trip fuel at an arm of 15m has a moment of 825,000 which will not be there at
landing so:
Total moment at landing = 1771,000 - 825,000 = 946,000
At Landing, CG = 946,000/93,000 = 10.17m aft of datum (out of limit).
(Refer to Figure 8-13) Without the crew, the mass and longitudinal CG position of the aircraft
are 6000 kg and 4.70m.
The mass of the pilot is 90 kg

The mass of the co-pilot is 100 kg
The mass of the flight engineer is 80 kg
With the crew, the mass and longitudinal CG position of the aircraft are:
a) 6270 kg and 4.796m

b) 6270 kg and 5.012m
c) 6270 kg and 4.61m
d) 6270 kg and 4.594m <-- Correct
Unloaded A/C Moment = 6000 x 4.7 = 28200

Pilot Moment = 184
CoPilot Moment = 204
Flight Engineer Moment = 215
Total Moment = 28803
Unloaded A/C mass = 6000

Pilot mass = 90
CoPilot mass = 100
Flight mass = 80
Total mass = 6270
CG = 28803 / 6270 = 4.594m
Note: You have to take the moments as they are given in the table (the table does not mention
moment x 1000) . e.g. Pilot moment at "A" is 184 and not 90 x 2045 = 184050.
A turbojet aeroplane is parked with the following data:
Corrected Dry Operating Mass: 110 100 kg

Basic corrected index: 118.6
Take-off mass: 200,000 kg
Centre of gravity location: 32% MAC
Distance from reference point:
To leading edge: 14 m
Length of MAC: 4.6 m
Initial cargo distribution:

Cargo 1 = 4000 kg (2.73 m from reference point)
Cargo 4 = empty (21.13m from reference point)
To maximise performance, the captain decides to redistribute part of the cargo load between
cargo 1 and cargo 4, in order to take off with a new centre of gravity location at 35% MAC. After
loading, the new load distribution between cargo 1 and cargo 4 is:
a) 2000 kg in cargo 1; 2000 kg in cargo 4

b) 1000 kg in cargo 1; 3000 kg in cargo 4
c) 2500 kg in cargo 1; 1500 kg in cargo 4 <-- Correct
d) 3000 kg in cargo 1; 1000 kg in cargo 4
Solution:
CG Shift Formula for Moving Mass:
Mass Change / Total Mass = Change in CG / Distance Moved by Mass

or
Mass Change = Change in CG / Distance Moved by Mass x Total Mass
Determine the Values:
1) Change in CG:
Original CG was at 32% MAC i.e at 1.472m (32/100 x 4.6).
New desired CG to be at 35% MAC will be at at 1.61m (35/100 x 4.6).
Change in CG = 1.61 - 1.472 = 0.138m
2) Distance Moved by Mass:
That will be from Cargo 1 at 2.73m to Cargo 4 at 21.13m i.e. a movement of 21.13 - 2.73 = 18.4m
3) Total Mass:
Remains the same as 200,000 since the mass is only shifted and not removed or added.
Putting the Values in the Formula:
Mass Change = Change in CG / Distance Moved by Mass x Total Mass
Mass Change = 0.138 / 18.4 x 200,000 = 1500 Kg
Thus to get the CG from 32% MAC to 35% MAC, 1500 Kg of mass will have to be moved from
Cargo 1 to Cargo 4.
Thus Mass in cargo 1 will be (4000-1500) 2500 Kg and in Cargo 4 it will be 1500 Kg.
Given the following information, calculate the loaded centre of gravity (cg):
STATION MASS (kg) / ARM (cm) / MOMENT (kgcm)
Basic Empty Condition 12045 / 30 / +361350

Crew: 145 / -160 / -23200
Freight 1: 5455 / +200 / +1091000
Freight 2: 410 / -40 / -16400
Fuel: 6045 / -8 / -48360
Oil: 124 / +40 / +4960
a) 56.35 cm aft datum

b) 56.53 cm aft datum <-- Correct
c) 60.16 cm aft datum
d) 53.35 cm aft datum
CG = 1369350/24224 = 56.53 cm at of datum.
Note: Oil is part of the BEM however where oil is consumable (replenished after every trip) it must
be considered separately. Therefore the question gives the oil mass and arm in the table.
Given are the following information at take-off
STATION MASS (kg) / ARM (cm) / MOMENT (kgcm)
Basic Empty Condition ... 12045 / +30 / +361350

Crew .................... 145 / -160 / -23200
Freight 1 ............... 5455 / +200 / +1091000
Freight 2 ............... 410 / -40 / -16400
Fuel .................... 6045 / -8 / -48360
Oil ..................... 124 / +40 / +4960
Given that the flight time is 2 hours and the estimated fuel flow will be 1050 litres per hour and
the average oil consumption will be 2.25 litres per hour, the specific density of fuel is 0.79 and the
specific density of oil is 0.96.
Calculate the landing centre of gravity.
a) 61.26 cm aft of datum

b) 61.28 cm aft of datum <-- Correct
c) 61.27 cm aft of datum
d) 61.29 cm aft of datum
Fuel at Landing = 6045 - 2 hours trip fuel (2100 litres x 0.79 = 1659 Kg) = 4386 Kg
Oil at landing = 124 - 2 hours burn (4.5 litres x 0.96 = 4.32 Kg) = 119.68 Kg
-------------
Total Moment:
-------------
BEM = 361350
Freight 1 = 1091000
Oil = 119.68 x 40 = 4787.2
Fuel = 4386 x -8 = -35088

Crew = -23200
Freight 2 = -16400
Total = 1457137.2 - 74688 = 1382449.2
---------------
Total Mass:
-------------
BEM = 12045
Crew = 145
Freight 1 = 5455
Freight 2 = 410
Fuel = 4386
Oil = 119.68
Total = 22560.68
CG = 1382449.2 / 22560.68 = 61.276 or 61.28 cm aft of datum.
Calculate the position of the centre of gravity for take-off andlanding from the following
information:
Maximum Take-off Mass: 3400 kg

Maximum Landing Mass: 3000 kg
Burn off: 300 kg fuel
5 kg oil
Centre of gravity range: 2.5 to 3.5 m aft
Station / Mass (kg) / Arm (m) / Moment

Basic mass 2000 2.25 aft + 4500
Fuel 500 3.5 aft + 1750
Oil 20 9 fwd - 180
Crew 150 3.75 fwd -562.5
Passengers 340 4 aft + 1360
Baggage 260 10 aft + 2600
a) take-off 2.6m aft; landing 2.55m aft

b) take-off 2.85m aft; landing 2.9m aft
c) take-off 2.9m aft; landing 2.85m aft <-- Correct
d) take-off 3.1m aft; landing 3.05m aft
takeoff cg = 9467.5/3270 = 2.895 or 2.9m aft
Fuel burn is 300 kg and Oil burn is 5 Kg, so landing mass will be 3270 - 305 = 2965
Remaining 200 Kg fuel on landing will have a moment of 200 x 3.5 = 700
Remaining 15 Kg Oil on landing will have a moment of 15 x -9 = -135
So total moment at landing = 8462.5
landing cg = 8462.5 / 2965 = 2.85m aft
(For this Question use CAP 696 – Figure 3.4)

With respect to a multi-engine piston powered aeroplane, determine the CG location at take off in
the following conditions:
Basic empty mass: 3210 lbs

Basic arm: 88.5 in
One pilot: 160 lbs
Front seat passenger: 200 lbs
Centre seat passengers: 290 lbs (total)
One passenger rear seat: 110 lbs
Baggage in zone 1: 100 lbs
Baggage in zone 4: 50 lbs
Zero Fuel Mass: 4120 lbs

Moment at Zero Fuel Mass: 377751 lbs.in
Block fuel: 100 US Gal

Trip fuel: 55 US Gal
Fuel for start up and taxi (included in block fuel): 3 US Gal
Fuel density: 6 lbs/US Gal
a) 91.92 inches aft of datum <-- Correct

b) 91.69 inches aft of datum
c) 93.60 inches aft of datum
d) 91.84 inches aft of datum
Detailed calculations not really required as ZFM and its moment is already given:
ZFM = 4120
Takeoff fuel is 582 (block - taxi). So:
TOM = 4120 + 582 = 4702
Moment at Zero Fuel Mass = 377751

Moment of takeoff fuel = 582 x 93.6 = 54475.2
Total moment at takeoff = 377751 + 54475.2 = 432226.2
Takeoff CG = 432226.2/4702 = 91.92 (inches aft of datum)
In some question banks there is a typo and ZFM is given as 4210 instead of 4120 however its
moment (377751) is given correct. Just cross check by adding all the masses.
(Refer to figure L235) Using the load and trim sheet attached, calculate the CG at zero fuel
mass.
a) 16.8% MAC <-- Correct

b) 18.4% MAC
c) 13.4% MAC
d) 19.7% MAC
From the first part of the load and trim sheet you'll calculate the zero fuel mass. 44300 in this
case.
From the second part you'll get the CG at the intersection of the horizontal zero fuel mass line and
the vertical line coming from the top.
Dry operating index is given as 45. So in this case you'll come down vertically from 45 and enter
the row for Cpt 1 where there is 600 Kg of mass. Left side of this row shows an arrow which means
that the movement will be towards left. It also shows that 10 small vertical lines represent 1000
Kgs, that means 600 Kg is 6 lines. So distance traveled in the first row (i.e. for Cpt 1) is 6 small
lines towards left.
Then again come down vertically to the second row and do the needful. Since we are determining
the zero fuel mass CG, fuel is not involved and therefore fuel index correction is not required. If it
was then determine the correction from the table in cap696 (or it will be given as a fig in the
question).
(Refer to figure 031_L400)Using the data given in the Load & Trim sheet, determine from the
following the correct values for the take off mass and the position of the centre of gravity at that
mass if the fuel index correction to be applied is given as -0.9.
a) 20.1%
b) 20.3%
c) 22.6%
d) 17.5% <-- Correct
(Refer to figure 031_L404)Using the data given at the appendix to this question, if the fuel
index corrections (from ZFM index) are as follows:
9500 kg -0.9
6500 kg -6.1
3500 kg -4.7
3000 kg -4.3
Which of the following represent the correct values for landing mass of the aeroplane and the
position of the centre of gravity for this condition?
a) 52900 kg and 19%

b) 32900 kg and 21.6%
c) 49130 kg and 21.8%
d) 49130 kg and 19% <-- Correct
Landing Mass = TOM (55630) - Trip Fuel (6500) = 49130
Fuel at landing will be takeoff fuel (9500) - Trip fuel (6500) = 3000
Fuel index correction for 3000 is -4.3
Note: In some question banks the minus sign is missing. With + correction the answer
will be wrong
(Refer to figures 4-13 and 4-14)For an aircraft with a DOI of 50, a DOM of 34100 kg and a bulk
fuel load of 11900 kg, choose the correct statement for its mass and CG as a % MAC.
a) 46000 kg at 14.75% MAC

b) 46000 kg at 15.3% MAC <-- Correct
c) 46000 kg at 16.5% MAC
d) 46000 kg at 17.75% MAC
(Refer to figure 4-14)From the Load & Trim sheet attached for an aircraft with a BEM of 34100
kg and CG at 15% MAC,
select the correct statement after 2000 kg of cargo is loaded into the rear hold.
a) The aircraft gross mass is 34100 kg and the CG is behind the rear limit
b) The aircraft gross mass is 36100 kg and the CG is behind the rear limit <-- Correct
c) The aircraft gross mass is 36100 kg and the CG is before the front limit
d) The aircraft gross mass is 36100 kg and the CG is within limits
First you will need to determine the Dry Operating Index which is not given in the question. Locate
34100 Kg (BEM) on the left side of the graph. Follow to the right till it intersects the 15% CG line.
Below the intersection will be the Dry Operating Index (43 in this case). Rest is simple.
Given the following information, how much mass (to the nearest lb) has to be transferred from
the front hold, the centroid of which is 20 ft forward of the datum, to the rear hold 40 ft aft of the
datum to bring the centre of gravity within limits?
Aircraft mass: 2500 lbs

Total moment: -8000 lb. ft
Centre of gravity range from 0.5 ft to 2.0 ft fwd of datum
a) 50 lbs <-- Correct

b) 112 lbs
c) 1120 lbs
d) 500 lbs
The CG is -8000/2500 = -3.2 i.e. fwd of datum. In some question banks the minus sign in the
moment 8000 is missing. That will give the reading of +3.2 i.e CG aft of datum which does not
make sense because in that case it has to be brough forward and transfer of mass therefore
cannot be from front to rear. So be careful of the typographical error in the question.
The loaded mass of an aircraft is 33,000 lbs, and the centre of gravity is 3 feet aft of the
Datum. How many lbs of freight can be added to the freight hold 1 foot forward of datum to bring
the centre of gravity towards the forward limit of 2 feet aft of Datum for take-off if the maximum
take-off mass is 40,000 lbs:
a) 11,000 lbs
b) 33,000 lbs
c) 4,000 lbs
d) 7,000 lbs <-- Correct
Mass Change / Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance between Mass and Desired CG
Mass Change = Change of CG / Distance between Mass and Desired CG x Total Mass
Mass Change = 1 / 3 x 33,000 = 11,000 lbs
11,000 lbs have to be added to bring the CG to its forward limit but since the Max TOM is 40,000
lbs, only 7000 lbs can be added above 33,000 lbs.
An aircraft has a CG located at 200 cm aft of datum and an AUM of 50,000 kg. If 90 kg of
electrical equipment installed at a position 600 cm aft of datum and 90 kg of electrical equipment
installed 600 cm forward to datum, what will be the new G location?
a) 220 cm aft of datum

b) remain at 200 cm aft of datum
c) 199 cm aft of datum <-- Correct
d) move to the datum
Aircraft Mass 50,000 x Arm 200 = Moment 10,000,000
#1 Electrical Equipment 90 x 600 = 54,000
#2 Electrical Equipment 90 x -600 = -54,000
Total Moment = 10,000,000
Total Mass = 50,180
CG = 10,000,000 / 50,180 = 199.28 cm aft of datum.
(Refer to figure 031_8-5)For the following see-saw to be in balance:
a) Fb = A x Fa/B <-- Correct

b) Fb = A + Fa/B
c) Fb = A x B/Fa
d) Fb = B x Fa/A
In the fig, Fa is the force and A is the moment arm on left side of the fulcrum whereas Fb is the force and
B is the moment arm on right side of the fulcrum.
To be in balance:
Fa x A = Fb x B
So
Fb = Fa x A / b
(Refer to figure 031_8-6)For the following see-saw to be in balance:
a) Fc + 3Fa
b) Fc = Fa/3A
c) Fc = Fa/3 <-- Correct
d) Fc = 3/Fa
In the fig, Fa is the force and A is the moment arm on left side of the fulcrum whereas Fc is the force and
3A is the moment arm on right side of the fulcrum.
To be in balance:
Fa x A = Fc x 3A
So
Fc = Fa x A / 3A or Fa/3
Which one of the following is correct?
a) Arm = Force/Moment
b) Arm = Moment/Force <-- Correct
c) Moment = Force/Arm
d) Arm = Force x Moment
Moment = Force x Arm
Arm = Moment / Force
(Refer to CAP 696 Figures 4-7 & 4-8)From the data sheet for a medium range twinjet determine the
moment effect of 20 passengers without hand baggage located in zon E:
Answer: 1212120 kg force inches
According to the fig, Mass of 1 passenger inncluding hand baggage is 84 so without hand baggae its 78
78 x 20 = 1560 Kg
Balance arm for zone E is 777"
Moment = 1560 x 777 = 1212120 Kg inch
If all the moments are positive when calculating mass (weight) and balance, the position of the datum
would be at the: "nose, or forward of the aircraft"
A load placed aft of the datum: "Has a positive arm and therefore generates a positive moment" and A
load placed forward of the datum: "Has a negative arm and therefore generates a negative moment"
(For this Question use Figures 4.1 and 4.2) For the medium range twin jet the datum point is located:
a) on the nose of the aeroplane

b) 540 cm forward on the front spar
c) 540 inches forward of the front spar <-- Correct
d) at the leading edge of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
Using the conversion table, Body Station 540 = 540 + 0" = 540" Balance Arm
FS in the figure means Front Spar which is at 540.
So the datum point is 540 inches forward of the front spar
(Refer to figures 4-1 & 4-2)From the medium range twin jet data sheet give the distance of body
station 727F from the front spar:
a) +540 inches
b) +313 inches <-- Correct
c) +287 inches
d) +187 inches
In ref to the figures for the previous question:
Using the conversion table, Body Station 727F = 727 + 126" = 853" Balance Arm
FS in the figure means Front Spar which is at 540.
So the distance of body station 727F from the front spar is 853-540 = 313"
(Refer to figure 3-1)The reference point for the MEP 1 aircraft is:
a) 108.8 inches aft of the datum

b) 85.5 inches aft of the datum
c) 78.4 inches aft of the datum <-- Correct
d) 25.3 inches aft of the datum
(Refer to figure 031_4-13)Using the data for the MRJT, what would be the fuel index figure for a take-
off fuel of 12455 kg?
a) -8.1 <-- Correct

b) -7.5
c) -7.8
d) -8.7
A mass of 500 kg is loaded at a station which is located 10 metres behind the present Centre of
Gravity and 16 metres behind the datum. The moment for that mass used in the loading manifest is
(Assume: g=10 m/s^2):
a) 30000 nm
b) 50000 nm
c) 80000 nm <-- Correct
d) 13000 nm
Moment = Mass x Arm
The answers are in newton-meter so first convert 500 Kg mass into Newtons i.e. 500 x 10 = 5000N, then
5000N x arm (16m) = 80,000 Nm
Max floor loading = 750 kg per m2. A package of 600 kg is to be loaded. What is the minimum pallet
size?
a) 30 cm x 200 cm
b) 40 cm x 300 cm
c) 40 cm x 200 cm <-- Correct
d) 30 cm x 300 cm
750 Kg is the limit for 1 sq meter
1 Kg ---- 1/750
600 Kg ----- 1/750 x 600 = 0.8 sqmeter
OR
Load Intensity = 750 Kg / sq meter
that means
Load Intensity = Mass / Area
Area = 600 / 750 = 0.8 sq meter
A pallet having the area of 0.8 sq meter is the answer.
Pallet size of 40 cm (0.4 meter) x 200 cm (2 meters) = 0.8 sq meter.
The maximum load per running metre of an aeroplane is 350 kg/m. The width of the floor area is 2
metres. The floor strength limitation is 300 kg per square metre. Which one of the following crates
(length x width x height) can be loaded directly on the floor?
a) A load of 700 kg in a crate with dimensions:1.8m x 1.4m x 0.8m

b) A load of 500 kg in a crate with dimensions:1.5m x 1m x 1m
c) A load of 400 kg in a crate with dimensions:1.4m x 0.8m x 0.8m
d) A load of 400 kg in a crate with dimensions:1.2m x 1.2m x 1.2m <-- Correct
For option (d):
1) Distribution Load:
Over an area of 1.44 sq meter the load is 400 Kg
For 1 sq meter it will be 400/1.44 = 277.7 (within limit)
2) Running Load:
Over a length of 1.2 meter the load is 400 Kg
For 1 meter it will be 400/1.2 = 333.3 (within limit)
Other options do not meet both these limits.
The maximum intensity floor loading for an aeroplane is given in the Flight Manual as 650 kg per
square metre. What is the maximum mass of a package which can be safely supported on a pallet with
dimensions of 80 cm by 80 cm?
a) 416.0 kg <-- Correct

b) 1015.6 kg
c) 41.6 kg
d) 101.6 kg
Max Floor Loading = 650 Kg / Sq Meter
i.e. Load Intensity = Mass / Area
80cm = 0.8m so area is 0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64 sq meter
Mass = 650 x 0.64 = 416 Kg
The floor of the main cargo hold is limited to 4000 N/m2. It is planned to load a cubic container each
side of which measures 0.5m. Its maximum gross mass must not exceed: (assume g=10m/s2):
a) 5000 kg
b) 1000 kg
c) 500 kg
Limit is given in Newtons (4000 N/m2) and the answers are given in Kgs so first convert newtons to Kg.
4000 / 10 = 400
Load Intensity = Mass / Area
Area = 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25
Mass = 400 x 0.25 = 100 Kg
(Refer to CAP 696 Figure 4.9)A pallet having a freight platform which measures 200 cm x 250 cm has
a total mass of 300 kg. The pallet is carried on two ground supports each measuring 20 cm x 200
cm.Using the loading manual for the transport aeroplane, calculate how much mass may be added to, or
must be off loaded from the pallet in order for the load intensity to match the maximum permitted
distribution load intensity for lower deck forward cargo compartment.
a) 28.5 kg must be off-loaded

b) 285.5 kg may be added <-- Correct
c) 28.5 kg may be added
d) 158.3 kg must be off-loaded
The fig shows a limit of 68 kg/sq feet
Convert it into Kg/sq meter i.e.
1 meter is 3.28 feet so 1 foot is 1/3.28 = 0.305m
So 1 sq feet is 0.305 x 0.305 = 0.093 sq meter
If 0.093 sq m has a limit of 68 Kg
Then 1 sq m has a limit of 68/0.093 = 731
Thus maximum floor loading per sq meter is 731 kg/m2
If area in contact with the floor is 1 sq meter then the limit is 731
If area in contact with the floor is more than 1 sq meter then the limit is more than 731 (load spreading
out)
If area in contact with the floor is less than 1 sq meter then the limit is less than 731 (load being
concentrated)
In our case the area in contact with surface is 2 x (20cm x 200cm) = 0.8 sq meter
For 1 sq meter area in contact with the floor the limit is 731
For 0.8 sq meter the limit is 731 x 0.81 = 585 Kgs
Load we have is 300 Kgs
So load that can be added is 585-300 = 285 kgs
(Refer to CAP 696 or figure 031_4-9)A box having dimensions of 1 metre by 1.2 metres by 0.8 metres,
weighing 600 kgs is loaded and secured onto a 4 ft square pallet weighing 30 kg. Using the information
on CAP 696 Figure 4.9 where could the pallet be positioned?
a) In the aft position of the aft cargo compartment

b) In the aft position of the forward cargo compartment
c) In the mid position of the aft cargo compartment
d) In the forward position of the forward cargo compartment <-- Correct
Box = 600 Kg and pallet = 30 Kg, so total mass is 630 Kg.
Area of pallet (which will be in contact with the floor) is 4 x 4 = 16 sq feet.
Distribution Load = Kg/Sq feet = 630 / 16 = 39.375
Running Load = Kg/inch
4 feet = 48 inches
Running Load = 630 / 48 = 13.125
Forward section of both cargo holds meets the "Distribution Load" and "Running Load" Limits, however
out of the avaialbe options the forward position of the forward cargo compartment is the only choice.
Note: Beware of option (b) where the running load limtit is 13.12 and our running load is 13.125. Just a
very small difference to get you wrong.
If a compartment takes a maximum load of 500 kg, with a running load of 350 Kg/m and a distribution
load of 300 kg/m2 max. Which of the following 500 kg boxes can be carried?
1. 100 cm x 110 cm x 145 cm

2. 125 cm x 135 cm x 142 cm
3. 120 cm x 140 cm x 143 cm
4. 125 cm x 135 cm x 144 cm
a) any one of the boxes if loaded with due care as to its positioning
b) any of boxes 2, 3 and 4 in any configuration
c) box 2 with its longest length perpendicular to the floor cross beam or box 3 in any configuration
d) either of boxes 3 and 4 with their longest length parallel to the aircraft longitudinal axis <-- Correct
It depends which side the box is going to stand.
Calculate the running load for each box (Mass/Length)
Box 1 = 500/1 = 500, 500/1.1 = 454.5, 500/145 = 344.8
Thus running load is within limit with only 145cm side.
Similarly calculating for other boxes we find that:
Box 2 does not meet the limit with any side.
Box 3 meets the limit with 143cm side
Box 4 meets the limit with 144cm side
Now check the load intensity
For Box 1:
Area 1 = 1.45m x 1.1m = 1.595 sq meter
Area 2 = 1.45m x 1m = 1.45 sq meter
Load Intensity 1 = 500 / 1.595 = 313.4 (above limit)
Load Intensity 2 = 500 / 1.45 = 344.8 (above limit)
For Box 2:
Box 2 was already ruled out
For Box 3:
Area 1 = 1.43m x 1.4m = 2.002 sq meter
Area 2 = 1.43m x 1.2m = 1.716 sq meter
Load Intensity 1 = 500 / 2.002 = 249.7 (within limit)
For Box 4:
Area 1 = 1.44m x 1.35m = 1.944 sq meter
Area 2 = 1.44m x 1.25m = 1.8 sq meter
Thus Box 3 and 4 are within limits and can be loaded with their longest length parallel to the aircraft
longitudinal axis.
The BEM of an aircraft is the basic/empty weight of an aircraft without crew and items of removable
equipment, it is:
a) Found in the aircraft manual and includes unusable fuel and liquids in closed systems
b) Found in the weighing schedule at the last date of weighing <-- Correct
c) Found in the loading manual and includes unusable fuel
d) Found in the Operations Manual and includes engine oil
An aeroplane must be re-weighed at certain intervals. Where an operator uses fleet masses and
provided that changes have been correctly documented, this interval is:
a) 4 years for each aeroplane

b) 9 years for each aeroplane <-- Correct
c) whenever a major modification is carried out
d) whenever the Certificate of Airworthiness is renewed
Basic Mass Determination and Fleet Averages
An operator has a fleet of 43 aircraft, how many aircraft must be weighed at the same time to
maintain the fleet value?
a) 6
b) 7
c) 8
d) 9 <-- Correct
Formula for a fleet with more than 10 aircraft is (n+51)/10. Where n = number of aircraft in the fleet.
43+51/10 = 9.4 rounded to 9
For details see: Basic Mass Determination and Fleet Averages

An aircraft that is not within a fleet mass evaluation programme must be weighed: "Every fourth year"
The interval between 2 fleet mass evaluations must not exceed: "48 Months".
An aeroplane may be weighed:
a) in an area of the airfield set aside for maintenance

b) in a quiet parking area clear of the normal manoeuvring area
c) in an enclosed, non-air conditioned, hangar <-- Correct
d) at a specified - weighing location - on the airfield
To measure the mass and CG-position of an aircraft, it should be weighed with a minimum of: "3 points
of support"
When preparing to carry out the weighing procedure on an aeroplane, which of the following is not
required?
a) drain all usable fuel

b) drain all engine tank oil <-- Correct
c) drain all chemical toilet fluid tanks
d) removable passenger services equipment to be offloaded
(Refer to figure 031_9-1)The aft centre-of-gravity limit is located at 2.97m. The datum is located in
front of the helicopter. Is it allowed to fly under otherwise identical conditions if a pilot is weighing 10 kg
less as given?
a) Yes, the new centre of gravity is located 1 cm forward of the aft limit, thus still within the allowable
range <-- Marked Correct
b) No, the new centre of gravity is located 1 cm aft of the aft limit, thus outside the allowable range
c) Yes, the reduced mass can only have a positive effect
d) Yes, the new centre of gravity is now located more forward within the allowable range
(Refer to figure 031_9-1)The aft centre-of-gravity limit is located at 2.945 m. The datum is located in
front of the helicopter. Is it allowed to fly under otherwise identical conditions if a pilot is weighing 10 kg
more as given?
a) Yes, the increased mass can only have a positive effect

b) Yes, the new centre of gravity is now located more backward within the allowable range
c) Yes, the new centre of gravity is located 1 cm forward of the aft limit, thus within the allowable range
d) No, the new centre of gravity is located 1 cm aft of the aft limit, thus outside the allowable range <--
Marked Correct
Given:
Basic Empty Mass: 5300 kg

Zero Fuel Mass: 5980 kg
Take-off Mass: 7980 kg
What is the Useful Load:
a) 2680 kg <-- Marked Correct

b) 2480 kg
c) 2000 kg
d) 480 kg
According to CAP 696 Useful Load is calculated by subtracting DOM from TOM. In these questions "useful
load" has been calculated by subtracting BEM from TOM. Probably it has got something to do with
helicopters. This issue is also highlighted here (http://www.atpforum.eu/showthread.php?t=11782).
Other questions with similar problem are as under:
Q.1. The Basic Empty Mass is 4800 kg, the Dry Operating Mass is 5050 kg and the Zero Fuel Mass is
6210 kg. If the take-off mass is 8010 kg the useful load is:
a) 2960 kg
b) 1800 kg
c) 1160 kg
d) 3210 kg <-- Marked Correct
Q.2. The Basic Empty Mass is 4960 kg, the Dry Operating Mass is 5220 kg and the Zero Fuel Mass is
6040 kg. If the take-off mass is 7630 kg the useful load is:
a) 2670 kg <-- Marked Correct

b) 2410 kg
c) 1590 kg
d) 820 kg
The clue to identify these questions in the exam is that all answer options are four digits only. The
aircraft "useful load" questions have their answer options in 5 digits.
(Refer to figures 031_L500 and 031_L502)Contrary to the forecast given in the LOAD and TRIM sheet,
cargo compartment 1 is empty. The take-off centre of gravity in MAC % (Mean Aerodynamic Chord) will
be located at:
a) 32.5% <-- Correct

b) 36 %
c) 26 %
d) 31 %
(Refer to figures 031_L500 and 031_L502). Contrary to the loading sheet forecasts you have:
Cargo compartment 1: empty, passengers in compartment OA: 20

Cargo compartment 2: 1000 kg, passengers in compartment OB: 20
Cargo compartment 3: 3000 kg , passengers in compartment OC: 30
Cargo compartment 4: 2000 kg
Cargo compartment 5: 1000 kg
a) 35.5%
b) 31.5% <-- Correct
c) 24.5%
d) 32.5%
=========================================
Below are questions which have either insufficient data, are marked with wrong answers or I
simply dont know how to solve them. If they turn up in the exam and the proper method
does not solve the purpose then there is no choice but to use the illogical logic of
remembering the answers
=========================================
================
Question with Fig L501
================
(Refer to figures 031_L500 and 031_L501). A turbojet aeroplane has a planned take-off mass of
190000 kg. The cargo load is distributed as follows:
Cargo 1: 3000 kg
Cargo 4: 7000 kg
Once the cargo loading is completed, the crew is informed that the centre of gravity at takeoff is located
at 38% MAC (Mean Aerodynamic Chord) which is beyond the limits. The captain decides then to re-
distribute part of the cargo load between cargo 1 and cargo 4 in order to obtain a new centre of gravity
location at 31% MAC. Following the transfer operation, the new load distribution is:
a) cargo 1: 5000 kg: cargo 4: 4000 kg

b) cargo 1: 4000 kg: cargo 4: 5000 kg
c) cargo 1: 6000 kg: cargo 4: 4000 kg
d) cargo 1: 4000 kg: cargo 4: 6000 kg
(c) marked correct.
Remembering the Answer
The question is about redistributing the load so toal cargo mass remains the same (i.e. 10,000)
Total mass in option (a) and (b) is 9,000 so these are out.
Now the choice is out of (c) and (d)
Option (c) shows that 3000 Kg has been transfered from cargo 4 to 1
Option (d) shows that 1000 Kg has been transfered from cargo 4 to 1
CG change required is 7% (from 38 to 31).
7% is a significant change and 1000 Kg is not sufficient for this change to take place.
So option (c) with 3000 Kg from cargo 4 to 1 making 6000 Kg in cargo 1 and 4000 Kg in cargo 4 is the
answer.
================
Questions with Fig L502
================
Q.1. (Refer to figures 031_L500 and 031_L502)The planned take-off mass of an aeroplane is 190000
kg, with its centre of gravity located at 29% MAC (Mean Aerodynamic Chord). Shortly prior to engine
start, the local staff informs the flight crew that an additional load of 4000 kg must be loaded in cargo 4.
After loading this cargo, the new centre of gravity location will be:
a) 25%
b) 27%
c) 31%
d) 33%
d) marked correct.
Q.2. (Refer to figures 031_L500 and 031_L502)The planned take-off mass of a turbojet aeroplane is
190,000 kg, with its centre of gravity located at 29% MAC (Mean Aerodynamic Chord). Shortly prior to
engine start, the local staff informs the flight crew that 4000 kg must be unloaded from cargo 4. After
the handling operation, the new centre of gravity location in % MAC will be:
a) 31%
b) 25%
c) 33%
d) 27%
b) marked correct.
Q.3. (Refer to figures 031_L500 and 031_L502)The planned take-off mass of a turbojet aeroplane is
180,000 kg with its centre of gravity located at 26% MAC (Mean Aerodynamic Chord). Shortly prior to
engine start, the local staff informs the flight crew that 4000 kg must be unloaded from cargo 4. After
the handling operation, the new centre of gravity location in % MAC will be:
a) 23.0%
b) 21.8%
c) 20.0%
d) 30.2%
b) marked correct.
Q.4. (Refer to figures 031_L500 and 031_L502) A turbojet aeroplane is parked with the following data:
Corrected dry operating mass: 110,100 kg


Cargo 1: 4000 kg
Cargo 2: 2000 kg
Cargo 3: 2000 kg
Other cargo compartments are empty

Centre of gravity (CG) location: 32%
For performance reasons, the captain decides to re-distribute part of the cargo loading between cargo
compartments, in order to take off with a new CG, location of 34%. He asks for a transfer of:
a) 1000 kg from cargo 1 to cargo 4
b) 500 kg from cargo 1 to cargo 3
c) 1000 kg from cargo 3 to cargo 1
d) 500 kg from cargo 3 to cargo 1
a) marked correct
Q.5. (Refer to figures 031_L500 and 031_L502) A turbojet aeroplane is parked with the following data:
Corrected Dry Operating Mass: 110,100 kg


Centre of gravity location: 32% MAC

Cargo 1: 4000 kg
Cargo 2: 2000 kg
Cargo 3: 2000 kg
Cargo 4: Empty
Cargo 5: Empty
To maximise performance, the captain decides to re-distribute part of the cargo load between cargo 1
and cargo 4, in order to take off with a new centre of gravity location at 35% MAC. After loading, the new
load distribution between cargo 1 and cargo 4 is:
a) 3000 kg in cargo 1: 1000 kg in cargo 4

b) 1000 kg in cargo 1: 3000 kg in cargo 4
c) 2500 kg in cargo 1; 500 kg in cargo 4
d) 2000 kg in cargo 1; 2000 kg in cargo 4
c) marked correct
Q.6. (Refer to figures 031_L500 and 031_L502)Just prior to departure, you accept 10 passengers
additional on board who will be seated in compartment OC and you have 750 kg unloaded from cargo
compartment 5.The takeoff centre of gravity in MAC % (Mean Aerodynamic Chord) will be located at:
a) 27.8%
b) 30.5%
c) 28.5%
d) 23.1%
a) marked correct whereas (c) seems to be closer to the correct value. (a) is correct without applying fuel
index correction, but fuel index correction needs to be applied.
Remembering the Answers:
Clue (except for Q.5.): 1% CG shift per 1000 Kg of mass movement e.g. 4000 Kg of mass movement will
cause 4% cg shift.
For Q.1.
4000 Kg to be loaded in cargo 4. That means CG will shift aft. CG was at 29%. So it will shift to 29+4 =
33%.
For Q.2.
4000 Kg to be unloaded from cargo 4. That means CG will shift forward. CG was at 29%. So it will shift to
29-4 = 25%.
For Q.3.
4000 Kg to be unloaded from cargo 4. That means CG will shift forward. CG was at 26%. So it will shift to
26-4 = 22% (closest option 21.8 )
For Q.4.
CG shift required is 2% (from 32 to 34). That means mass will have to shift from Fwd to Aft. That rules
out option (c) and (d) in which mass is shown to shifted from cargo 3 (aft) to cargo 1 (forward). Applying
the clue, 2% CG shift requires a mass movement of 2000 Kg. Out of the remaining options (a) and (b)
the closest is (a) with 1000 Kg which is marked as the correct answer.
For Q.5.
Dont apply 1% CG shift per 1000 Kg clue for this question as you'll end up with ticking
option (b) as the answer
Clue for this one is that there is a typographical error in option (c). According to option (c) (after mass
transfer) Cargo 1 has 2500 Kg. That means 1500 Kg has been removed from it (i.e. 4000-1500 = 2500).
Putting 1500 Kg in Cargo 4 (which was empty) makes 1500 Kg in Cargo 4 and not 500 Kg as mentioned
in option (c).
======================
Questions with Fig L504 and L505
======================
(Refer to figures 031_L500, 031_L503 and 031_L504) Knowing that:
Dry operating mass: 110000 kg

Basic index: 119.1
Number of passengers: 185
Distributed as shown in the annex (75 g per Pax)
Cargo load + luggage: 14000 kg
Distributed as shown in the annex
Fuel: 42000 kg
Stages (1) to (7) and (11) having already been calculated, the centre of gravity in % MAC (Mean
Aerodynamic Chord) for zero fuel mass is located at:
a) 29.3%
b) 28.3%
c) 30.5%
d) 32.3%
(c) marked correct whereas in my workout its coming close to 28.3 i.e option (b)
(Refer to figures 031_L500, 031_L503 and 031_L504)Knowing that:Dry operating mass:110000

kgBasic index: 119.1Number of passengers: 185Distributed as shown in the annex (75 kg per Pax)Cargo
load + luggage: 14000 kgDistributed as shown in the annexFuel: 42000 kgStages (1) to (7) and (11)
having already been calculated, the centre of gravity in % MAC (Mean Aerodynamic Chord) at take-off is
located at:
a) 30.5%
b) 32.5%
c) 28.0%
d) 31.5%
(d) marked correct whereas in my workout its coming around 25

Basic index 119.1
Distributed as shown in the annex (75 kg per Pax)
Cargo load + luggage: 9500 kg distributed as shown in the annex
Fuel: 40000 kg
Stages (1) to (7) and (11) having already been calculated, the centre of gravity in % MAC (Mean
Aerodynamic Chord) for zero fuel mass is located at:
a) 30.5%
b) 27.4%
c) 29.3%
d) 28.0%
(d) marked correct whereas in my workout its coming around 27 i.e option (b)

Basic index: 119.1
Distributed as shown in the annex (75 kg per Pax)
Cargo load + luggage: 9500 kg
Distributed as shown in the annex
Fuel: 40000 kg
States (1) to (7) and (11) having already been calculated, the centre of gravity in % MAC (Mean
Aerodynamic Chord) at take-off is located at:
a) 30.5%
b) 28.0%
c) 29.3%
d) 27.4%
(c) marked correct whereas in my workout its coming around 23
Remembering the Answers
For Questions with Fig L504:
1) Arrange the option numbers in a sequence from low to high
2) The second highest figure is the answer
Incase of ZFM CG (28.3, 29.3, 30.5, 32.3) 30.5 is the answer
Incase of TOM CG (28.0, 30.5, 31.5, 32.5) 31.5 is the answer

For Questions with Fig L505:
1) Arrange the option numbers in a sequence from low to high
2) Choose the middle two values
3) ZFM CG is the lesser of the two and the higher one is the TOM CG.
Incase of ZFM CG (27.4, 28.0, 29.3, 30.5) 28.0 is the answer
Incase of TOM CG (27.4, 28.0, 29.3, 30.5) 29.3 is the answer
For a conventional, nose tricycle gear aircraft configuration, the higher the take-off mass:
1. Manoeuvrability is reduced
2. Range will decrease
3. endurance will increase
4. Gliding range will reduce.
a) All statements are correct

b) Statement 3 only is correct
c) Statements 1 and 4 are correct
d) Statement 4 is correct
c) marked correct whereas the properly phrased question (according to some other database) is as
under:
For a conventional, nose tricycle gear aircraft configuration, the higher the take-off mass:
1) Manoeuvrability is reduced.
2) Range will decrease but endurance will increase.
3) Gliding range will reduce.
4) Stalling speed will increase.
a) All statements are correct

b) Statement 3 only is correct
c) Statements 1 and 4 are correct <- Correct
d) Statement 4 only is correct
The term useful load as applied to a light aircraft includes:
a) the revenue-earning portion of load only

b) the revenue-earning portion of load plus usable fuel
c) Pilot(s), operating items, passengers, baggage, cargo and usable fuel
d) traffic load and usable fuel only
c) marked correct, maybe because of "light aircraft" otherwise (d) is generally the case, as also
mentioned in other questions:
Q.1. Define the useful load.
a) Traffic load plus dry operating mass

b) Traffic load plus usable fuel mass <-- Correct
c) Dry operating mass plus usable fuel load
d) The part of the traffic load which generates revenue
Q.2. The useful load is:

a) TOM - fuel mass
b) BEM plus fuel load
c) TOM minus the DOM <-- Correct
d) TOM minus the operating mass
Q.3. The difference between the Traffic Load and the Useful Load is:
a) Non-revenue load
b) Total mass of passengers and baggage
c) Freight or cargo load
d) Usable fuel <-- Correct
With respect to aeroplane loading in the planning phase, which of the following statements is always
correct? LM = Landing Mass TOM = Take-off Mass MTOM = Maximum Take-off Mass ZFM = Zero Fuel
Mass MZFM = Maximum Zero Fuel Mass DOM = Dry Operating Mass
a) LM = TOM - Trip Fuel

b) MTOM = ZFM + maximum possible fuel mass
c) MZFM = Traffic load + DOM
d) Reserve Fuel = TOM - Trip Fuel
d) marked correct whereas (a) is correct
For the purpose of completing the Mass and Balance documentation, the Dry Operating Mass is
defined as:
a) The total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type of operation excluding all usable fuel and
traffic load
b) The total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type of operation excluding all usable fuel
c) The total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type of operation excluding all traffic load
d) The total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type of operation excluding crew and crew
baggage
d) marked correct whereas (a) is correct. This question is probably the only one with the wording "Dry
Operating Mass is defined as"
(Refer to CAP 696 figure 4-14)The following data relates to a planned flight of an aeroplane:Dry
Operational mass:60520 kgPerformance limited take-off mass:72250 kgPerformance limited landing
mass:72230 kgMaximum Zero Fuel mass:67530 kgFuel on board at take-offTrip fuel:12500
kgContingency and final reserve fuel 2300 kgAlternate fuel: 1700 kgUsing this data, as appropriate,
calculate the maximum traffic load that can be carried.
a) 7730 kg
b) 11730 kg
c) 15730 kg
d) 7010 kg
d) marked correct however the data given in the question is not correct. According to another database
the correct figures for Perf limited TOM is 92750 and Perf limited LM is 72250 Kg. With these figures the
answer is 7010.
Given are:
Maximum structural take-off mass: 72000 kg

Maximum structural landing mass: 56000 kg
Maximum zero fuel mass: 48000 kg
Taxi fuel: 800 kg
Trip fuel: 18000 kg
Final reserve fuel: 2000 kg
Determine the actual take-off mass:
a) 74000 kg
b) 69600 kg
c) 72000 kg
d) 70400 kg
b) marked correct. However (b) is the maximum TOM not the actual TOM.
An aeroplane is to depart from an airfield where the performance limited take-off mass is 89200 kg.
Certificated maximum masses are as follows:
Ramp (taxi) mass: 89930 kg

Maximum Take-off mass: 89430 kg
Maximum Landing mass: 71520 kg
Actual Zero fuel mass: 62050 kg
Fuel on board at ramp:

Taxi fuel 600 kg
Trip fuel 17830 kg
Contingency, final reserve and alternate 9030 kg
If the Dry Operating Mass is 40970 kg the traffic load that can be carried on this flight is:
a) 21500 kg
b) 21080 kg <-- Correct
c) 21220 kg
d) 20870 kg
Actual Zero Fuel Mass (62050) - DOM (40970) = Traffic Load (21080)
However 21080 is the actual traffic load that is present.
With wordings like "traffic load that can be carried" I think Max zero fuel mass limit needs to be given.
Since it is not given I assume actual ZFM to be Max ZFM.
Given an aeroplane with:
Maximum Structural Landing Mass: 68000 kg

Maximum Structural Take-off Mass: 78200 kg
Dry Operating Mass: 4
Scheduled trip fuel is 7000 kg and the reserve fuel is 2800 kg
Assuming performance limitations are not restricting, the maximum permitted take-off mass and
maximum traffic load are respectively:
a) 77200 kg and 22200 kg

b) 75000 kg and 20000 kg
c) 77200 kg and 19400 kg
d) 75000 kg and 17200 kg <-- Correct
A typo in the question. DOM = 48000 not 4

An aircraft is loaded with 27960 litres of JET A which has a specific gravity of 0.81. If the Zero Fuel
Mass is 165000 lbs the Operating Mass will be:
a) 214825 lb
b) 226512 lb
c) 240941 lb
d) 187648 lb
a) marked correct. Probably there is a typo in the question. Instead of "Zero fuel mass" it should be "dry
operating mass" becuase OM = DOM + Useable Fuel.
27960 litres x 0.81 = 22647.6 Kg.
22647.6 Kg x 2.204 = 49915.31 lbs
DOM (165000) + Fuel (49915.31) = OM (214915)
What centre of gravity movement may be expected on gear retraction?
a) CG moves forward
b) CG moves rearward
c) no significant change to CG position
d) CG moves far rearward
d) marked correct. According to some other database the correct answer is (c).
(refer to figure 031_8-7)For the following boom to be in balance:
a) B + Fa x A/Fb <-- Correct

b) B + Fb x A/Fa
c) B + -(Fa x A/Fb)
d) B + Fb + A/Fa
A typo in the question. In the options instead of "=" a + sign is given:
In the fig, Fa is the force and A is the moment arm on right side of the fulcrum whereas Fb is the force
and B is the moment arm also on right side of the fulcrum.
To be in balance:
Fa x A = Fb x B
So
B = Fa x A / Fb (Its not B + Fa x A / Fb)
(Refer to figure 031_L403) From the data given at the appendix and assuming a fuel index shift of 5.7
from the ZFM loaded index, determine which of the following is the correct value (percentage MAC) for
the position of the centre of gravity at Take Off Mass:
a) 18%
b) 19%
c) 15%
d) 14%
a) marked correct whereas there seems to be some error in the question. See the trim sheet below. You
cant continue after a point.
(Refer to Figures 8-14)The weight and balance sheet is available and contrary to the forecast, cargo
compartment 1 is empty.The zero fuel weight centre of gravity in MAC% (Mean Aerodynamic Chord) is
located at:
a) 31.5%
b) 26%
c) 35.5%
d) 32%
(c) marked correct but fig 8-14 is not relevant to this question. However with Fig L502 its coming around
34.3%
(Refer to figures 031_4-4 and 031_4-9)The Taxi mass of the aircraft is 62,500 kg and the centre of
gravity is calculated at 20% MAC. A load weighing 1000 kg is moved from the forward section of the aft
cargo compartment to the aft section of the forward cargo compartment. The new centre of gravity
position is:
a) 10% MAC
b) 12% MAC
c) 15% MAC
d) 25% MAC
d) marked correct whereas (c) is the correct answer. Clue to identify this question is the wording "Taxi
mass of the aircraft is 62,500 kg".
(Refer to figure 031_8-12)The loaded mass of the aircraft represented below is 5250 lbs and the
centre of gravity is 21" aft of the datum. An additional load of 80 lbs is carried, 45lbs in hold A and 35 lbs
in hold B. The new centre of gravity position will be:
a) 21.24"aft of the datum

b) 20.52" aft of the datum
c) 20.52" forward of the datum
d) 20.84" aft of the datum
a) marked correct whereas (d) is correct
CG = Moment/Mass
Original Moment = CG (21) x Mass (5250) = 110250
New moment (A) = 45 x -25 = -1125
New moment (B) = 35 x 56 = 1960
Net Moment = 1960-1125 = 835
New Total Moment = 110250+835 = 111085
New Total Mass = 5250 + 80 = 5330
New CG = 111085/5330 = 20.84

The maximum floor loading on a baggage compartment floor is 120 lb per square foot. If the surface
area in contact with the floor is 4 ft x 2 ft x 6 inches and the mass of the total load is 1220 lb, the actual
floor loading on this aircraft is:
a) 120 lb per square foot

b) 122 lb per square foot <-- Marked Correct
c) 10 lb per square foot
d) 11 lb per square foot
There is typo in the question. Surface area is 4ft x 2ft 6 inches i.e. 10 sq ft and not 4 x 2 x 6.
Loading = 1220/10 = 122 lb/sq ft
(Refer to figure L_303)The weight and balance sheet is available and contrary to the forecast, cargo
compartment 1 is empty The zero fuel weight centre of gravity in MAC % (Mean Aerodynamic Chord) is
located at:
a) 26.8%
b) 23.5%
c) 33.9%
d) 31%
(c) marked correct however actual zero fuel mass is not given so you cant determine the ZFM CG. Option
(a) is valid assuming a Max ZFM, however its not mentioned. This is probably the only question related
to Fig L_303.
EASA certification specifications cover the design and maintenance of aircraft and stipulate the
performance requirements.
• CS 25 for jets and turboprops not in the commuter category with a maximum take off mass greater
than 5700 kilograms.
• CS 23 for the following:
1) All aircraft with 9 passenger seats or less and a take-off mass less than 5700 kilograms.
2) Commuter category propeller twins with a maximum take-off weight of 8618 kilograms or less and 19
passenger seats or less.
FAR 25 and 23 is equivalent to CS 25 and 23 respectively.
Stress and Fatigue
Civil airliners are designed to be damage tolerant (fail safe design).
Crack-arrest features and parallel load paths allow the structure to fail to some extent allowing the
operation to be continued until a periodic inspection time.
The inspection reveals the failure and repares can be made at that time.
Ultimate Load:
It is a vertical force or 'g' loading where the structure of the aircraft will fail.
Limit load:
Aircraft are operated within a load envelope which is less than the ultimate load. The edges of this
envelope is the limit load.
Safety Margin:
A safety factor of 1.5 separates the limit and ultimate loads.
e.g. if g "Limit Load" is +2.5g then the "Ultimate Load" is 2.5 x 1.5 = +3.75g.
The structure may not fail between limit and ultimate load but can can lead to permanent deformation.
Wing Loading
A wing can experience three types of loads:
1) Bending (that includes tension and compression) Loads:
The main loads on a wing are bending loads.
Normal loads tend to bend the wing upwards.
On landing and in turbulence the wing flexes downwards.
So the spar takes the bending loads in both directions.
Bending loads are controlled by observing 'g' and loading limits (Maximum Zero Fuel Weight).
Fuel in the outboard tanks helps balance the lift and reduce the fatigue loads at the wing root.
2) Shear Loads:
Shear loads are present on the centre section of the main spar (particularly if half span spars are bolted
to a centre box section).
Shear loads are controlled by observing 'g' and loading limits (Maximum Zero Fuel Weight).
3) Torsional (twisting) Loads:
Torsional loads are caused by shifts in CG and CP and by control surface deflection.
All three loads can be high if the wing or control surfaces suffer from aerodynamic flutter.
A lighter wing is more susceptible to flutter.
So fuel should be retained in the outboard tanks to reduce the onset of flutter apart from reducing stress
on the spar.
The position of the engines forward of the wing can also reduce flutter by acting as a mass balance.
Specific Gravity
A volume of fuel typically weighs about 70-80% of the equivalent volume of water.
e.g. 100 litres of water is 100 Kg but 100 litres of aviation fuel is 100 x 0.8 = 80 Kg
The factor of 0.8 in the above example is called the specific gravity (SG) of fuel and is a measurement of
the relative density.
Relative density (SG) = Mass of a given volume of fluid / Mass of an equal volume of water
Conversions:
1 US gallon = 3.78 liters.
1 UK (Imperial) gallon = 4.54 liters.
1 IG = 1.2 USG (4.54/3.78 )
1 Kg = 2.2 pounds
1 litre of water = 1 Kg
e.g. Convert 4300 USG of fuel at SG 0.79 into pounds.
For fuel conversions remember that fuel is lighter than water.
4300 USG = 4300/1.2 = 3583 IG
3583 IG = 3583 x 4.54 = 16268 litres
16268 litres = 16268 x 0.79 = 12852 Kg
12852 Kg = 12852 x 2.2 = 28274 lbs.
Floor Loading Limits
There are two limits which must be observed:
• Distribution Load Intensity (or area or floor load):
It is calculated as the weight of the object divided by the area it occupies.
• Floor Running Load (or linear load):
It is calculated as the weight of the object divided by the distance it covers along the aircraft's length.
Calculating Distribution Load Intensity:
It is calculated by dividing the load by the area it covers.
If a mass of 50 kg is spread over 1 square metre, the distribution load is 50/1 = 50 kg/sq meter.
Converting square feet into square meters:
e.g. 16 square feet means each side of the squre is 4 feet (square root of 16).
1 meter = 3.28 feet
4 feet = 4 / 3.28 = 1.22 meters
Square of 1.22 (1.22 x 1.22) = 1.48 square meters
If a mass of 50 kg is spread over 16 square feet, then distribution load is 50/16 = 3.12 kg/sq ft or
50/1.48 = 33.78 Kg/sq meters
Converting Kg into Newtons:
Floor loads and aircraft weights are sometimes given in Newtons.
Weight is the force on an object due to gravity and is therefore measured in Newtons (N).
Weight = mass x gravity
Thus a Newton is a unit of force.
The value of g = 9.8 m/sec square.
So 1 Kg is 9.8N under normal gravitational conditions.
Example
If floor loadig limit is 5000 N/m sq and mass is 300 Kg. What is the area over which this mass can be
distributed? (g=10m/sec sq)
Limit = 5000 N/m sq or 5000/10 = 500 Kg/sq m
For 500 Kg -- 1 sq meter
For 1 Kg -- 1/500
For 300 Kg -- 1/500 x 300 = 300/500 = 0.6 sq meter
or
Limit = Mass / Area
Area = Mass / Limit = 300/500 = 0.6 sq meter
Sometimes the question asks for dimensions of the base of a pallet. In this case the options given as
answers are dimensions e.g.
a) 300 cm x 20 cm
b) 200 cm x 40 cm
Just get the area in square meters and match it with the area which you calculated.
In this example option (a) is correct.
300/100 = 3 m and 20/100 = 0.2 m
3 x 0.2 = 0.6 sq meters
Calculating Floor Running Load

The floor running load is calculated by dividing the weight by the length of the load along the aircraft's
fore and aft axis.
e.g. A pallet of cargo weighing 1500 kg is 120 inches long by 60 inches wide. Assuming the base of the
pallet is entirely in contad with the cargo hold floor the running load will be:
1500/120 = 12.5 Kg/inch
Note: Width is not to be taken into account while calculating the floor running load.
Centre of Gravity
Centre of Gravity (CG) is the point (along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft) through which the total
mass of the aircraft acts.
It is a point where the sum of the weight moments acting on the aircraft is zero.
On Ground:
On ground CG should be between Nose and Main gear.
The further aft the CG the heavier the weight near the main gears. Same is true for forward CG and nose
gear.
So strength of main and nose gear is a consideration when calculating CG limits at Maximum Take-Off
Mass (MTOM).
A CG too far aft will also make the nosewheel steering ineffective especially with underwing engines that
creates a pitch up moment with increase in thrust.
Longitudial Stability:
The relative positions of CG and CP affect the aircraft's longitudinal stability.
Transport aircraft usually have CG just forward of CP for better stability.
However there is a downside in putting the CG ahead of CP as this requires a down force from the
elevator to balance the tail up pitching effect from the wings.
The extra down force on the elevator effectively adds to the aircraft weight and requires the lift from the
wing to be increased to counter it.
More lift means more drag.
The aft limit is usually just in front of the wing's centre of pressure.
For fuel efficiency the optimum centre of gravity position is near the aft limit.
Forward limit is controlled by the increasing stability, elevator authority and higher stalling speeds of the
aircraft.
Effects of Forward CG Position:
Even when the CG remains within the allowable limit, the effects of a foward limit are:
• Increase in longitudinal static stability
• Increase in stall speed

• Increase in drag
• Increase in stick forces
• Rotation and flare are more difficult
• Take-off distances are increased
• V1, VR and V2 increased
• Landing distance is increased
• VREF increased
• Increase in thrust required
• Increase in fuel burn
• Decrease in range and endurance
• Decrease in rate of climb
• Decrease in climb gradient
Effects of Aft CG Position:
For an aft CG the effects are opposite of forward position.
If the CG is outside the aft limit then:
• Nose may lift before VR
• Risk of tail strike
• Aircraft will be aerodynamically unstable
Directional Stability:
Directional stability improves with a forward CG (long moment arm).
Minimum control speeds are calculated with an aft CG i.e. the worst case scenario (short moment arm).
Effect of Mass:
Increasing the aircraft mass also affects most of the factors associated with a forward CG, particularly
fuel consumption and stalling speed.
An increased weight requires an increased lift, more lift equals more drag, more drag means higher fuel
consumption.
Increasing mass also affects the stall speed.
The stalling speed is roughly proportional to the square root of the weight.
e.g. An aircraft with a mass of 120,000kg has a landing reference speed of 130kt, calculated as 1.3Vs.
What would the landing reference speed be at 135,000kg?
Increase in the aircraft weight = 135000/120000 = 1.125
The stalling speed is roughly proportional to the square root of the weight.
Square root of 1.125 = 1.06
Thus stalling speed and VRef will increase by 1.06
New speed = 130 x 1.06 = 138 kts
Speeds like VR and V2 are based on the stalling speed so they also increase as aircraft weight increases.
V1 also increases as mass increases (subject to field length limits).
Effect of Gear and Flap Position:
Main gear retracts sideways thus creates no change to CG position
Nose gear retracts either forvards or backwards so causes the CG to move in that direction but the effect
is negligible.
On a light aircraft flaps will only change the CP.
On a transport aircraft the flaps are usually fowler flaps. These move forwards and backwards during
retraction and extension respectively.
Thus alongwith CP, CG position will also be affected.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord:
In straight winged aircraft CG is usually expressed as a distance relative to a datum or reference point.
In swept wing aircraft (for aerodynamic reasons) CG position is related to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord
(MAC) of a wing.
The Mean Aerodynamic Chord is the chord at the Aerodynamic Centre of the wing.
The CG is expressed as a percentage of its position along the MAC from the leading edge (%MAC).
Most swept wing aircraft generally have acceptable handling characteristics if the CG is 15 to 25% MAC.
Moments:
A moment is a turning force created by mass acting over a distance or lever arm.
Moment = Arm x Mass
Its metric units are kg force metres (kg m).
Large numbers are divided by a constant to produce a moment index, which is without units.
Datum:
Reference point from which all the lever arm measurements are taken is called the datum.
Moments forward of the datum are negative and aft of the datum are positive.
Datum can be ahead or behind, on the nose or within the aircraft as decided by the manufacturer.
Sometimes datum is located by measuring from a fixed point on the aircraft called the reference point.
e.g. MRJT1 Datum in CAP696 is 540" forward of the front spar.
CG Position:
CG position = Total Moments divided by Total Mass
Q.1. An aircraft has a mass of 1800 kg and a CG position 2.43 m aft of the datum. If an additional mass
of 200 kg is added at an arm of –2.0 m, find the new location of the CG?
Original Moment = 1800 x 2.43 = 4374
An additional mass of 200 kg at an arm of -2.0m (i.e. forward of the datum) has a moment of 200 x -2 =
-400
New total moment will be 4374-400 = 3974
New total mass will be 1800+200 = 2000
New CG = 3974/2000 = 1.99m (positive sign means the CG is aft of the datum).
Q.2. An aircraft has a mass of 1704 kg and a CG position 3.1 m aft of the datum. 60 kg of freight is
removed from the aft hold, 4.7 m aft of the datum. Calculate the new CG position.
Original Moment = 1704 x 3.1 = 5282.4
Removing a mass of 60 kg from an arm of 4.7m aft of datum, makes its moment -60 x 4.7 = -282
New total moment will be 5282.4-282 = 5000.4
New total mass will be 1704-60 = 1644
New CG = 5000.4/1644 = 3.04m (positive sign means the CG is aft of the datum).
Formulas for Calculating CG Shift:
Adding Mass:
Mass Change / New Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance from Mass to Old CG
Removing Mass:
Mass Change / Old Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance from Mass to New CG
Moving Mass:
Mass Change / Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance Moved
Example of Adding Mass:

An aircraft has a total mass of 54,000 kg and a CG position 580" aft of the datum. If 3000 kg is added to
the front hold, 320" aft of the datum, what would the new CG position be?
Mass Change / New Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance from Mass to Old CG
or Change of CG = Mass Change / New Total Mass x Distance from Mass to Old CG
Mass Change = 3000
New Total Mass = 57000
Mass position being at 320" and old CG being at 580", the Distance from Mass to Old CG = 580-320 =
260
So Change of CG = 3000/57000 x 260 = 13.7"
New CG = 580-13.7 = 566.3" aft of datum.
An Alternate Method:
Original Moment = 54000 x 580 = 31320000 or 31.32
An additional mass of 3000 kg at an arm of 320" has a moment of 3000 x 320 = 960000 or 0.96
New total moment will be 31.32+0.96 = 32.28
New total mass will be 54000+3000 = 57000 or 0.057 (i.e. 57000/1000000)
New CG = 32.28/0.057 = 566.3" aft of datum
Example of Removing Mass:
An aircraft has a total mass of 32,000 kg and a CG 28" aft of the datum. Assuming the CG envelope is
from 26" aft to 42" aft how much freight would need to be removed from a hold with a centroid (central
position of freight hold) 60" aft of the datum to bring the CG to its forward limit?
Mass Change / Original Total Mass = Change of CG / Distance from Mass to New CG
or
Change in Mass = Change of CG / Distance from Mass to New CG x Original Total Mass
Original CG was at 28" and to bring it to its forward limit of 26" the change will be 2"
Location of mass is 60" and new CG position is 26" so distance from mass to new CG will be 60-26 = 34"
So change in mass = 2/34 x 32000 = 1882 Kg.
Example of Moving Mass:
Q.1. An aircraft has an all up mass of 28,000 kg and a CG 50" aft of the datum. Find the new CG position
if 500 kg is moved from a position 80" aft of the datum to 10" forward of the datum
or Change of CG = Mass Change / Total Mass x Distance Moved
Mass Change = 500

Total Mass = 28000
Distance Moved = 90" (from 80" aft of datum to 10" forward of datum).
So Change of CG = 500/28000 x 90 = 1.6"
Original CG was at 50"
New CG = 50 - 1.6 = 48.4" aft of datum
An Alternate Method:
Original Moment = 28000 x 50 = 1400,000
Movement of mass means removing from one place and adding to another. For simplicity this can be
done in two steps:
Removing a mass of 500 kg from an arm of 80" aft of datum makes its moment -500 x 80 = -40,000
Adding the same mass of 500 kg at an arm of 10" forward of datum has a moment of 500 x -10 = -5000
New total moment will be 1400,000 - 40,000 - 5000 = 135,5000
New total mass will be 28000 (total weight remains same as the mass only changed its position, only
moment changes).
New CG = 135,5000/28000 = 48.4" aft of datum.
Q.2. An aircraft with an all up mass of 65,000 kg has a CG 30" aft of the datum. If the CG envelope is
from 28" to 43" aft of the datum how much mass must be moved from hold 2 to hold 1 to move the CG
to the forward limit?
Hold 1 = 260" aft of datum
Hold 2 = 475" aft of datum
Solution:
or Mass Change = Change of CG / Distance Moved x Total Mass
Original CG is 30" and Forward limit is 28" so change of CG = 2"
Distance moved is from Hold 2 (475" aft of datum) to Hold 1 (260" aft of datum) i.e. 475-260 = 215"
So Mass Change = 2/215 x 65,000 = 605 Kg
Misc Problems:
For the data given below, the safe range of the CG is between 45" and 50" aft of the datum. During the
flight 410 kg of fuel and 15 kg of Oil will be used. State whether or not the CG will be within limits for the
flight.
Total Weight = 4705 Kg
Total Positive Moment = 224,680
Total Negative Moment = -3100

Fuel is 52" aft of datum
Oil is 3" forward of datum
Solution:
Takeoff CG = Total Moment / Total Weight
Total Moment = 224680-3100 = 221,580
Takeoff CG = 221580/4705 = 47.09"

(within limit).
410 Kg of fuel 52" aft of datum has a moment of 410x52 = 21320
With loss of this fuel due to fuel burn the Positive Moment becomes 224680-21320 = 203360
15 Kg of oil 3" forward of datum has a moment of 15x-3 = -45
With loss of this oil due to oil consumption the Negative Moment becomes 3100-45 = 3055
After 410 Kg of fuel burn and 15 Kg of oil consumption:
Total Moment = 203360-3055 = 200305
Landing weight is Takeoff weight - Fuel and oil weight.
In this case 4705 - 425 = 4280
So Landing CG = Total Moment / Total Weight
= 200305/4280 = 46.8" (within limit).
Body Stations
Position of equipment in large aircraft is given as a Body Station (Stn) number.
The datum is Stn 0.
Stations forward of the datum are negative and aft of the datum are positive.
Station datum need not be in the same place as the CG datum.
Station datum is often located at the front of the jig on which the aircraft was built and the CG datum is
placed at the forward bulkhead.
Regarding B737 the station datum is 152" in front of the CG datum.
Thus it is possible to find the balance arm if the body stations are given (and are not labelled out of the
numerical sequence).
e.g. if the body station for an equipment is given as 300" then balance arm to the CG datum will be 300
- 152 = 148"
Station Datum ------- CG Datum ------ Body Station

............ 0 --------------- 152 -------------- 300
Conversion between Datum and % MAC

•Q
Pbyu K.Haroon » Mon May 14, 2012 3:32 pm
o
oQ.1. Find the location of CG as a % MAC. CG is located at +Stn 1500. Le Mac is located at +Stn
t
s1450. Te Mac is located at +Stn 1550. All stations in inches.
te
MAC = 1550-1450 = 100"
CG at 1500 is 50" aft of Leading edge.
CG as %MAC = 50/100 = .5 x 100 = 50%
Q.2. Aircraft CG is located at 27% MAC. Le MAC is at Stn 1400 and the Te MAC at Stn 1530. All
stations are in inches. Determine the CG position in inches relative to the station datum.
MAC = 1530-1400 = 130"
CG is at 27% MAC i.e. 27/100 of 130 = 35.1
LE is at 1400" from datum and CG is 35.1" aft of LE
So CG in inches relative to station datum is:
1400 + 35.1 = 1435.1"
Variable Load: It consists of the crew, their baggage and any removable equipment that is required for
that flight, for instance catering and passenger service equipment food and beverages, potable water
and lavatory chemicals. It is also referred to as "operational items".
Dry Operating Mass (DOM): It is the total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type of operation
excluding usable fuel and traffic load. The mass includes items such as:
i) Crew and crew baggage.

ii) Catering and removable passenger service equipment.
iii) Potable water and lavatory chemicals.
iv) Food and beverages.
DOM = Basic Mass + Variable Load
Operating Mass (OM): It is the DOM plus takeoff fuel but without traffic load. It can be thought of as
Wet Operating Mass as opposed to DOM.
OM = DOM + Takeoff Fuel
Traffic Load: It is the total mass of passengers, baggage and cargo, including any ’non-revenue’ load
(like spare parts etc).
Traffic Load = Disposable Load - Fuel
Useful Load: It is the total mass of the passengers, baggage and cargo, including any non-revenue load
and usable fuel. It is the difference between the Dry Operating Mass and the Take-Off Mass.
Useful Load = TOM - DOM
Zero Fuel Mass (ZFM): It is DOM plus traffic load but excluding fuel.
ZFM = Basic Mass + Variable Load + Traffic Load
Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM): It is the maximum permissible mass of an aeroplane with no
usable fuel.
All Up Mass (AUM): The total mass of the aircraft at a particuar time.
AUM = DOM + Disposable Load
Maximum All Up Mass (MAUM): Maximum mass that an aircraft can be loaded to. MAUM and
Maximum Taxi Mass describe the same mass.
Taxi Mass: It is the mass of the aeroplane at the start of the taxi (at departure from the loading gate).
Sometimes referred to as Ramp Mass.
Maximum Structural Taxi Mass: It is the structural limitation of the mass of the aeroplane at
commencement of taxi.
Take-Off Mass (TOM): It is the mass of the aeroplane including everything and everyone contained
within it at the start of the take-off run.
Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass (MSTOM): It is the maximum permissible total aeroplane mass
at the start of the take-off run. It is usually the Maximum Taxi Mass minus the standard taxi fuel.
Performance Limited Take-Off Mass (PLTOM): It is the take-off mass subject to departure aerodrome
limitations such as runway length, obstacles, temperature and altitude.
Regulated Take-Off Mass (RTOM): It is the lowest of the "performance limited" TOM and "structural
limited" TOM.
Landing Masses: It is the mass of the aircraft as it crosses the threshold on landing.
Maximum Structural Landing Mass (MSLM): It is a structural limit and is the maximum permissible
total aeroplane mass on landing in normal circumstances.
Performance Limited Landing Mass (PLLM): It is the mass subject to the landing aerodrome
limitations.
Regulated Landing Mass (RLM): It is the lowest of the "performance limited" landing mass and
"structural limited" landing mass.
Centre of Gravity (CG): It is that point through which the force of gravity is said to act on a mass.
Datum (relative to an aeroplane): It is that point on the longitudinal axis (or extension thereof) from
which the CGs of all masses are referenced.
Balance Arm (BA): It is the distance from the datum to the CG of a mass.
Moment: It is the product of the mass and the balance arm.
Basic Mass Determination and Fleet Averages
Basic mass is determined by the manufacturer by weighing the aircraft.
Operators may work out a single average DOM and CG position if they have a fleet of aircraft that meet
certain criteria laid down in EU and JAR OPS.
Individual aircraft must be weighed every 4 years.
Fleet masses must be recalculated every 4 years.
Aircraft which form part of a fleet must be weighed at least every 9 years.
If "n" is the number of aeroplanes in the fleet using fleet values, the operator must at least weigh, in the
period between two fleet mass evaluations, a certain number of aeroplanes as mentioned below:
Number of Aeroplanes in Fleet ----------------- Minimum Number of Weighings

2 or 3 ------------------------------------------------- n
4 to 9 ------------------------------------------------- (n+3)/2
10 or more ------------------------------------------- (n+51)/10
In choosing the aeroplanes to be weighed, aeroplanes in the fleet which have not been weighed for the
longest time must be selected.
The operator has to account for and document the accumulated effects of modifications and repairs
between weighings.
The accumulated effects of these modifications can lead to a change of the DOM or shift in the CG.
An aircraft can only be considered as part of a fleet mass calculation if:
a) Its DOM is within 0.5% of the maximum structural landing mass from the established dry operating
fleet mass.
b) Its CG position is within 0.5% of the MAC position for the fleet.
If condition (a) described above is not met then that aeroplane must be omitted from that fleet.
(Separate fleets may be established each with differing fleet mean masses).
If condition (a) is satisfied but condition (b) is not met then the aeroplane may still be operated under
the applicable dry operating fleet mass but with an individually calculated CG position.
To use fleet masses the CG must be expressed as %MAC. Aeroplanes for which no mean aerodynamic
chord has been published must be operated with their individual mass and CG position values or must
be subjected to a special study and approval.
If an individual aeroplane has an accountable difference (e.g. galley or seat configuration) compared to
other aeroplanes of the fleet (which causes exceedance of the fleet tolerances) then this aeroplane may
be maintained in the fleet provided that appropriate corrections are applied to the mass and/or CG
position.
Aircraft Weight Categories
• Normal: Angles of bank of less than 60°. No acrobatic manoeuvres.
• Utility: Angles of bank in excess of 60°. Chandelles and lazy eights.
• Acrobatic: Fully acrobatic.
Air transport aircraft belong to the normal category.
Traffic Load
Traffic load is the total mass of passengers, baggage, cargo and any non-revenue load.
The mass of passengers and their baggage can be found by using actual weights or standard masses.
The mass of the cargo and non-revenue load must be determined by weighing.
• Standard masses for passengers include an allowance for their hand baggage (including allowance for
infants not having a separate seat).
• Infants under two who have their own seat and children aged 2 to 12 count as "Children".
• Standard mass values can be varied by negotiation.
• Different standard masses are used depending on the number of passenger seats installed on the
aircraft.
• When standard masses are not used passenger weight can be determined by weighing or by asking
each passenger to state his/her weight. In such cases this weight is increased by a pre-determined
amount to account for clothing and/or hand baggage.
• If standard masses are not used all baggage other than hand baggage must be weighed.
The Index System
For large aircraft it is convenient to use an Index to represent the large numbers involved and to simplify
the calculations.
Three types of index are defined:
Loading Index (LI): It is a non-dimensional figure that is a scaled down value of a moment.
Dry Operating Index (DOI): It is the index for the position of the CG at the Dry Operating Mass.
Loaded Index: It is the index value at either the ZFM, the TOM or the LM.

Mass and Balance

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Mass and Balance

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

MASS AND BALANCE

a) the stick force required on rotation will be lighter <-- Correct

a) V1 will be reached sooner than expected

Weight increment = 135000/120000 = 1.125

Stall speed is proprtional to square root of weight

Square root of 1.125 is 1.06

180 x 1.06 = 191 kts

a) maximum certificated take-off mass

a) maximum certificated taxi (ramp) mass <-- Correct

The mass displacement caused by landing gear extension:

a) does not create a longitudinal moment

The Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass is:

The Allowable TOM is the lower of the following three:

i) Max Structural TOM Limit

a) The maximum zero fuel mass plus the take-off mass

a) Maximum landing mass

These questions can be understood from an example. If:

The Maximum traffic load that can be loaded is MZFW-DOM = 20,000 Kg

i.e. TOM = 100,000 + 15,000 + 25,000 = 140,000 (within limit).

Which of the following statements is correct?

The maximum taxi (ramp) mass is governed by: "structural considerations"

If the maximum structural landing mass is exceeded:

a) the aircraft will be unable to get airborne

a) Maximum landing mass augmented by fuel on board at take-off

its about box B

The maximum aircraft mass excluding all usable fuel is:

a) fixed and listed in the Aircraft Operating Manual <-- Correct

The aircraft basic mass and CG position is found in:

a) rupture of one or more structural components

a) an increased risk of stalling due to a decrease in tail-plane moment <-- Correct

Which of the following statements is correct?

a) The need to minimise drag forces and so improve efficiency

A forward C of G would result in:

a) A reduced rate of climb

If the CG is aft of the neutral point it results in:

a) increased stability with increased elevator trim

An aeroplane is said to be NEUTRALLY STABLE. This is likely to:

a) Be caused by the CG towards the forward limit

What determines the longitudinal stability of an aeroplane?

a) The dihedral, angle of sweepback and the keel effect

The effect of operating an aeroplane with a CG too far forward is to experience:

a) Inability or difficulty in trimming when flaps are retracted

a) Improvement in nose wheel steering

Which of the following statements is correct?

The centre of gravity of a body is that point:

a) which is always used as datum when computing moments

a) Lowering the landing gear

a) always parallel to the aeroplane's vertical axis

Loads must be adequately secured in order to:

a) allow steep turns

Take-off mass is described as:

a) The take-off mass subject to departure airfield limitations

The maximum zero-fuel mass:

2. is calculated for a maximum load factor of +3.5 g

a) MTOM minus fuel to destination minus fuel to alternative airfield

Operating mass = DOM + Useable Fuel

The zero fuel mass of an aeroplane is always:

Beware of the term "Maximum"

The actual Zero Fuel Mass is equal to the:

a) Operating Mass plus all the traffic load

Allowed traffic load is the difference between:

a) operating mass and basic means

What is the zero fuel mass?