Portland Cement

It is the most important member of the family of hydraulic cement, i.e.,

cements which harden through chemical interaction with water. The first
patent for Portland Cement was taken out in England in 1824 by Joseph
Aspdin, but it was not a true Portland Cement, the first true Portland
Cements were produced about 20 years later. Since then many
improvement have been made to cement production, that are now so
widely available.

Manufacture of Portland Cement

An intimate mixture of limestone (CaCo3) and clay or salt (iron – bearing

alumino silicates), small amount of iron oxide and some times quartz
(SiO2) is heated in a kiln to a temperature of between 14000C and 16000C,
and the materials react chemically to form calcium silicates, calcium
aluminates and calcium aluminoferrite.

The raw materials which are ground to a fineness of less than 75 m. are
introduced at the top end of an inclined rotary kiln as shown. The kiln is
heated by fuel (natural gas, oil or pulverized coal) that is injected and
burnt at the kiln’s lower end, with the hot gases passing up and as the
row material moves down the temperature rises and the chemical
reactions take place in the hottest part of the kiln (clinkering zone) the
calcium aluminates and ferrites, which have already formed, melt, and
calcium silicates form in this liquid phase. In the final zone of the kiln its
temperature drops rapidly and it emerge from the kiln as clinker dark
colour nodules, about 6 mm. to 50 mm. in diameter. This is then cooled
and is finally inter ground with gypsum (CaSo4.2H2O) to a particle size
 2

of about 10 m. or less. Here, the gypsum is additive and it controls the
early hydration reactions of the cement.

Due to nature of raw materials, there are a number of impurities that are
incorporated into the cement, including MgO (from limestone), Na2O
and K2O (from clay) and SO3 (from the fuel).

The chemical composition of Portland cement is customarily reported in

terms of the oxides of the various elements that are present as given in
table.

Shorthand Notations for the Oxides in Portland Cement

Oxide Shorthand Common Name Typical Weight

Notations % in ordinary
cement

CaO C Lime 63

SiO2 S Silica 22

Al2O3 A Alumina 6

Fe2O3 F Ferric Oxide 2.5

 3

MgO M Magnesia 2.5

K2O K 0.6
Alkalis
N
Na2O 0.4

SO3 Sulfur trioxide 2.0

CO2 Carbon dioxide ––

H2 O H Water ––

Typical compound composition of OPC.

Chemical Formula Shorthand Chemical Name Weight %

Notation

3CaO, S2O2 C3S Tricalcium Silicate 50

2CaO, SiO2 C2S Dicalcium Silicate 25

3CaO, Al2O3 C3A Tricalcium Aluminate 12

4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 C4AF Tetracalcium 8

Aluminoferrite

CaSO4, 2H2O C H2 Calcium Sulfate 305

dihydrate (gympsum)
 4

Contribution of Cement compounds to the Hydration of Portland

Cement.

Compound Reaction Rate Heat liberated Contribution to

Strength

C3S Moderate High High

C2S Slow Low Low initially,

high late

C3A + C H2 Fast Very high Low

C4AF + C H2 Moderate Moderate Low

Approximate chemical composition of the Principal types of Portland

Cement.

Common % by weight Fineness

Name m2/kg
C3 S C2 S C3 A C4AF C H2

Ordinary 50 25 12 8 5 350

Modified 45 30 7 12 5 350

High early 60 15 10 8 5 450

strength

Low Heat 25 50 5 12 4 300

Sulphate 40 40 4 10 4 350
resistant

Only the two calcium silicates are primarily responsible for the strength
that the cement will develop upon hydration.
 5

By making small changes in the relative proportions of raw materials,

one can bring relatively large changes in the properties of the cement.

The hydration of Portland Cement do not involve complete dissolution

of the cement grains, rathe the reactions take place between water and
the exposed surfaces of the cement particles. As a result, the fineness of
the cement will have a considerable effect on its rate of reaction, since this
will determine the surface area exposed to water. So more fine cement
will hydrate more rapidly but give rise to higher rate of heat liberation
during hydration.

Hydration of Portland Cement

The hydration reaction between cement and water are highly complex
since the individual cement grains vary in size and composition. As a
consequence, the resulting hydration products are also not uniform, their
chemical composition and micro-structural characteristics vary not only
with time but also with their location within the concrete. The basic
characteristics of the hydration of cement.

1) as long as the individual cement grains remain separated from

each other by water, the cement parts remains fluid.

2) The products of the hydration reactions occupy a greater volume

than that occupied by the original cement grains.

3) As the hydration products begin to inter grow, setting occurs.

4) As the hydration reactions continue, additional bonds are formed

between the cement grains, leading to strengthening of the system.

Chemistry of Hydration
 6

The main products of the hydration reactions, which are primarily

responsible for the strength of concrete are the calcium silicate hydrates
that make up most of the hydrated cement. They are formed from the
reactions between the two calcium silicates and water as :

2C3S + 7H  C3S2H4 + 3CH

2C2S + 5H  C3S2H4 + CH

Calcium silicate hydrate is largely amorphous material and does not have
the precise composition indicated in above equation. So more aften it is
referred merely as C – S – H. The above reactions are highly exothermic.
These reactions occur first on the surface of the finely divided cement; as
the surface layers react, water must diffuse through the hydration
products to reach still unhydrated material for the reactions to proceed.
The reaction will continue, at an ever-decreasing rate, either until all of
the water available for hydration is used up or until all the space available
for the hydration products is filled.

In the absence of the gypsum, the C3A would react very rapidly with the
water, leading to early setting (few mins.) of the cement, which is highly
undesirable. In the presence of gypsum, however, a layer of ettringite
forms as the surface of the C3A particles, slowing down the subsequent
hydration :

C3A + 3 H2 + 26H  C6A 3H32

tricalcium gypsum water ettringite

alluminate
 7

As the gypsum becomes depleted by this reaction, the ettringite and the
C3A react further.

C6A 3H32 + 2C3A + 4H  3C4A HI2

ettringite monosulpho –aluminate

Monosulphoaluminate is the stable phase in concrete.

The ferrite phase is much less reactive than the C3A, and so it does not
combine with much of the gypsum. Its reaction may be written as

C4AF + 2CH + 18H

ferrite Calcium Water

Hydroxide

 C4 (A, F) H12 + C2 (A, F) H8

tricalcium ferric
aluminate hydrate alumina hydroxide

These hydrates tend to occur in thin hexagonal plates.

Also there may be about 5% of other impurities, as the row materials used
to make cement (K20, Na2O, MgO etc.) atoms also find their way into the
structure of the hydration compounds, so the pure phase represented
above are rarely found. There have little effect on the mechanical
properties of hardened concrete, the impurities may have a considerable
effect on the durability of the concrete and on interaction of cement and
admixture.

Development of Hydration Products

The hydration reactions occur at quite different rates and so the rates of
strength development and the final strength achieved by the various
 8

hydration products varies widely. Most of the strength comes from the
hydration of the calcium silicates. The C3S hydrates more rapidly than
the C2S and so is responsible for most of the early strength gain. The
aluminates and ferrite phases hydrate quickly but contribute little to
strength

The course of the hydration can be described by figure as shown below :

The first stage lasts only a few minutes, the heat liberated is due mostly
to the wetting and early dissolution of the cement grains. In the second
or induction stage lasts for several hours, there is very little hydration
 9

activity and the cement parts remains fluid. The beginning of the
hydration of C3S marks the start of the third. (1)

Types of Cement

i) Ordinary Portland Cement - IS269 – 1976

(Gr. 33)

ii) High Strength O.P.C. - IS8112 – 1976

(Gr 43)

iii) Extra High Strength O.P.C. - IS12269 – 1987

(Gr. 53)

iv) Portland Pazzolana Cement - IS1489 – 1976

(PPC)

v) Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement - IS455 - 1976

vi) High Alumina Cement - IS6452 – 1972

vii) Low Heat Portland Cement - IS12609 – 1989

viii) Rapid Hardening Cement - IS8041 – 1976

ix) Super Sulphated Cement - IS6909 – 1973

x) White Cement - IS8042 – 1976

xi) Hydrophobic Portland Cement - IS8043 – 1976 etc.

xii) Coloured Cement

OPC (Gr 33, 43 & 53)

 10

Gr33, is by far the most common cement used in general concrete

construction. Over the years, there have been changes in the
characteristics of OPC and modern cement have a higher C3S content and
greater fineness than 40 years ago. In consequence, modern cements
have a higher 28 days strength than in the past, but the later gain in
strength is smaller. A practical consequence of this is that one can not
expect improvement with age. Since construction specifications are
usually related to the 28 days strength of concrete, it is possible to use
leaner mix with higher W/C ratio in case of high early strength cement.
However, it will have an inadequate durability.

PPC

These amounts are made by inter grinding or blending pozzolans with

O.P.C. Pozzolana is a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material which
in itself possesses little or no cementitious value but will in finely divided
from and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with lime
(liberated by hydrating Portland cement) at ordinary temperatures to
form compounds possessing cementitious properties.

As a rule, Portland – Pozzolan cements gain strength slowly and

therefore require curing over a comparatively long period, but the long
term strength is high.

Pozzolans may often be cheaper than the Portland cement that they
replace but their Chief advantage lies in slow hydration and therefore
low rate of heat development. So it is suitable for mass concrete
construction. Common pozzolanic materials are – natural materials as
diatomaceous earth, opaline, cherts and shales, tuffs, volcanic ashes and
punicites. Artificial pozzolanic are calcination of soil and fly ash. The
 11

use of pozzolan in cement produces less heat of hydration and offers

greater resistance to the attack of aggressive waters then OPC. It reduces
leaching of calcium hydroxide when used in hydraulic structures.

It is produced either by grinding together Portland cement clinker and

pozzolana with gypsum or by intimately and uniformly blending
Portland cement and fine pozzolana.

Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement

This type of cement is made by intergrinding or blending Portland

cement clinker with granulated blast furnace slag. Slag contains lime,
silica and alumina.

The hydration of slag is initiated when lime liberated in the hydration of

Portland cement provides the correct alkalinity, however hydration does
not depend on lime. The amount of slag should be limited to 25 and
65%.

Its strength gain is similar to P.P.C. Its uses are in mass concrete as P.P.C.
due to lower heat of hydration and in sea water construction because of
better sulphate resistance (due to lower C3A content).

High Alumina Cement

It was developed at the beginning of twentieth century to resist sulphate

attack but it was used as very rapid hardening cement.

HAC is manufactured from lime stone/chalk and bauxite. It is more

expensive due to high cost of raw material and high hardness of clinker.
However, during 1930’s many structures were built in Europe using this
cement, but due to collapse of roof beam in UK during 1974 built using
this cement, initiated debates and researches as this cement and find that
 12

if the W/C ratio is more than 0.5, the strength loss due to conversion of
monocalcium aluminate decahydrate (CAH10) to tricalcium alumina
hexahydrate (C3AH6) is more in the presence of long term wetness and
also the strength loss has been observed due to rise in temperature during
early period of curing. However, it is one of the foremost material for
making refractory concrete. It can be used for temperature upto 16000C.

Low Heat Portland Cement

This cement was developed in USA during 1930 for use in large gravity
dams. In this cement the content of C3S and C3A are low resulting in
slower gain of strength. It is achieved by changing the quality of raw
material. However, the ultimate strength will be same as OPC.

Rapid Hardening Cement

This is obtained my intergrinding calcium chloride with rapid hardening

Portland cement. CaCl2 content should not exceed 2% by weight of the
Cement. The setting and hardening time of this cement is very much less
than other cements. The acceleration of setting, hardening and evolution
of this large quantity of heat in the early period of hydration makes the
cement very suitable for concreting in cold weather.

Super Sulphate Cement

It is made by intergrinding or blending granulated blast furnace slag, 80

– 85% and calcium sulphate (in the form of dead burnt gypsum or
anhydrite) 10 to 15% and about 5% of Portland Cement Clinker. This
cement has low heat of hydration.

It is highly resistance to sea water, sulphate attack as well as acids and

oils. However, this cement requires attention as its rate of strength gain
 13

is highly dependent on atmospheric temperature. This cement has to be

stored in very dry condition. It requires more water for reaction. It is not
commonly used in construction.

White Cement

White cement is made from China clay, which contains little iron oxide
and manganese oxide together with chalk or limestone free from
specified impurities. In addition special precautions are required during
the grinding of the clinker so as to avoid contamination. In this, oil or
gas is used as fuel to avoid the contamination with coal/ash. The fusion
temperature of white cement is high due to absence of flux. However,
cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride) is added as a flux to help in
burning. For these reasons the cost of white cement is high. The grey
colour of O.P.C. is due to iron oxide. Most of the properties of white
cement is same as O.P.C.

Hydrophobic Cement

Hydrophobic cement is obtained by grinding O.P.C. clinker with water

repellant film forming substance such as oleic acid, and stearic acid. The
water repellant film formed around grain reduces the rate of
deterioration of the cement during long storage or transport or under
unfavourable conditions. However, the film breaks when the cement and
aggregate are mixed together at the mixer exposing the cement particles
for normal hydration. The water repellant material during mixing
entrain certain amount of air in the body of concrete. However, the rest
of the properties are same as O.P.C. This is suitable for storing in humid
atmosphere i.e. during rainy season and in certain places throughout the
year like in Assam, Shillong etc.
 14

Coloured Cement

For manufacturing various coloured cements either white or grey cement

is used as base. With the use of grey cement only red or brown/black
cement could be produced but with white cement wide range of colours
can be obtained.

Coloured cement consists of base cement with 5 to 10% of pigment.

Aggregates

Approximately ¾ of the volume of concrete is occupied by aggregate. Its

quality is of considerable importance. They give body to the concrete,
reduce shrinkage, and effect economy. Originally aggregate was viewed
as an inert material dispersed throughout the cement paste so as to
 15

produce a large volume of concrete. In fact aggregate is not truly insert

because its physical, thermal and sometimes chemical properties
influence the performance of concrete.

Natural aggregates are formed by the process of weathering and abrasion

or by artificially crushing a larger parent mass. So the properties of the
aggregate depend on the properties of the parent rock e.g. chemical and
mineral composition, petrographic classification, specific gravity,
hardness, strength, physical and chemical stability, pore structure, colour
etc. In addition, other properties of the aggregate which are absent in the
parent rock are : particle shape and size, surface texture and absorption.
All these properties have a considerable influence on the quality of fresh
or/and hardened concrete.

Classification of Aggregate

- Depending upon weight :

- Normal
- Light
- Heavy

Generally for this particular course normal weight aggregate is of

importance. Normal weight aggregate is further classified as natural and
artificial.

Natural Sand, granite, crushed Artificial

rock such as granite quartzite, Broken bricks
Basalt, Sandstone. Air cooled slag.

Aggregates can also be classified on the basis of size : as coarse aggregate

and fine aggregate. The size of aggregate bigger than 4.75 mm. is
 16

considered as coarse aggregate and smaller than 4.75 mm. is considered

as fine aggregate.

Size

The largest maximum size of aggregate practicable to handle under a

given set of conditions should be used. Perhaps 80 mm. size is the
maximum size that could be conveniently used for concrete making.
Using of largest possible maximum size will result in (i) reduction of the
cement content (ii) reduction in water requirement, (iii) reduction of
drying shrinkage. However, the maximum size of aggregate that can be
used in any given condition may be limited by the following conditions:

i) thickness of section
ii) Spacing of reinforcement
iii) Clear Cover
iv) Mixing handling and placing techniques

Generally the max–m size of aggregate should be as large as possible

within the limits specified, but in any case not greater than ¼ to 1/8 of
the minimum thickness of the member. Rubbles of 160 mm. size or upto
any reasonable size may be used in plain concrete. Such concrete is
known as plum concrete and the quantity of rubble upto 20% by volume
of the concrete can be used. For heavily reinforced concrete member the
nominal max–m, size is 5 mm. less than the minimum clear cover and or
distance between main bars.

Limits of Deleterious Materials

F.A. C.A.
 17

Substance Uncrushed Crushed Uncrushed Crushed

Coal & Lignite 1 1 1 1

Clay Lumps 1 1 1 1

Soft fragments - - 3.0 -

Material passing 75 3 3 3 1.0

mm.

Shale 1.0 - - -

Sum of the % of all deleterious material shall not exceed 5%.

Grading :

Coarse Aggregate comprises about 55% of the volume of mortar and

about 85% volume of mass concrete. Mortar contains aggregate of size
of 4.75 mm. and less and concrete contains aggregate upto a maximum
size of 150 mm.

The way particles of aggregate fit together in the mix is influenced by the
gradation, shape and surface texture and has an important effect on the
workability and finishing characteristic of fresh concrete and properties
of hardened concrete.

Good grading implies that a sample of aggregate contains all standard

fractions of aggregate in required proportion such that the sample
contains minimum voids. A sample of the well graded aggregate
containing minimum voids will require minimum paste to fill up the
 18

voids in the aggregate. Minimum paste i.e. less quantity of cement and
less quantity of water i.e. higher strength lower shrinkage and greater
durability.

The grading for max–m density gives the highest strength Abrams
introduced a parameter known as fineness modulus for satisfactory
grading. Any sieve analysis curve of aggregate that will give the same
F.M. will require the same quantity of water to produce a mix of the same
plasticity and of same strength. The F.M. is an index of the coarseness or
fineness of an aggregate sample but different grading can give the same
F.M. so it does not define the grading (IS : 383).
 19

Testing of Aggregates :

Flakiness Index

This test is applicable to size more than 6.3. It is the percentage by weight
of particles in it whose least dimension (thickness) is less than 3/5 x of
their mean dimension.

This test is conducted by using a metal thickness gauge, of Approx. 200

pieces of any fraction is tested.

Elongation Index

% by weight of particles whose greatest dimension is greater than 1.8

times their mean dimension. It is not applicable to size smaller than 6.3
mm.

This test is conducted by using metal length gauge.

Stage 1, during which both initial set and final set occur, owing to the
production of the hydration products and the development of a solid
micro-structural skeleton. Stage 4 is marked by the hydration of C 3A
after the depletion of the gypsum. Finally on stage 5 there is a slowing
rate of reaction as long as water is present during which the skeleton
developed in stage three is filled in and densified by the additional
hydration products.

Mechanical Properties of Hydration Products

 20

As a continuous matrix of C-S-H is formed, there is a reduction in the

porosity of the system and this reduction is porosity is responsible for the
gain in strength with an increasing degree of hydration. In addition to
the C-S-H, the hardened matrix also contains unhydrated residues of the
cement grains, large crystals of calcium hydroxide and
monosulfaluminate crystallites but the latter two are important for
durability than for strength considerations.

Pores exist in hydrated cement over a wide range of sizes and classified
as

micropores < 0.0025 m.

mesopores 0.0025 m. to 0.1 m.
macropores > 0.1 m.

Performance of Different Cements in Concrete

The composition of cements vary widely from cement to cement, due to

variations in locally available raw materials, kiln design, burning
conditions and so on. Thus fineness may also be quite variable as a result
the cementitious properties may also vary widely. Most cement contain
about 75% by weight of calcium silicates and undergo the same hydration
reactions with different rates, their ultimate performances in concrete are
similar having major difference in the rate of strength gain and in the heat
of hydration.

However, it should be noted that the major differences between cements

are more likely to be manifested in their durability and their
compatibility with various admixtures, rather than in their strength
because durability and admixture compatibility are much more affected
by minor constituents in cement rather than by calcium silicates.
 21

Water

Water is an important ingredient of concrete. Typically, 150 to 200 kg/m3

of water is used per m3 of concrete. The old rule of thumb for water
quality is ‘if you can drink it you can use it in concrete’. However good
quality concrete can be made with water which may not be potable and
more bad quality by using too much drinkable water then by using right
amount of undrinkable water. The tolerable limits for various common
impurities in mixing water are as listed :

Impurities Max–m Concentration Remarks

ppm

Suspended matter 2000 Silt, Clay, Organic

(turbidity) matter

Algae 500 – 1000 Entrainair

Carbonates 1000 Decrease setting times

Bicorbonates 400 – 1000 - - - do - - -

Sodium Sulphate 10,000 reduce later strength

Magnesium sulphate 40,000 - - - do - - -

Sodium Chloride 20,000 Decrease setting

Calcium Chloride 50,000 times, increase early
strength, reduce
Magnesium Chloride 40,000 ultimate strength and
lead to corrosion

Sugar 500 Affects setting

behaviour & time

Water – Cement Ratio

 22

For cementitious systems, the strength has been found to be inversely

proportional to the porosity.

fc = fco e–kp
fco = intrinsic strength at zero porosity
p = porosity
k = constant

This equation do not consider the pore size distribution, the pore shape,
and whether the pores are empty or filled with water. However, for
ordinary concrete for the same degree of cement hydration, the strength
depend primarily upon the porosity. Since the porosity in turn depends
mostly upon the original W – C ratio, mix proportion for normal strength
concrete is based on a large extent on the W – C ratio law articulated by
Abrams, in 1919. ‘For given materials, the strength depends only on one
factor – the ratio of water to cement’ –

K1 and K2 are constant and W/C is W – C ratio.

Given the variability of raw material from concrete to concretes, the W –

C ratio law is a family of relationship for different mixtures as stated by
Gilkey (1961).

‘For a given cement and acceptable aggregates, the strength that may be
developed by a workable, properly placed mixture of cement, aggregate,
and water (under the same mixing, curing and testing conditions) is
influenced by the a) ratio of cement to mixing water, (b) ratio of cement
to aggregate (c) grading surface texture, shape, strength and stiffness of
 23

aggregate particles and (d) maximum size of aggregate. So simple

reliance on the W/C ratio law may lead to serious errors.

Also many modern concrete contain one or more mineral admixture,

which are in themselves cementitious to a greater or lesser degree. So it
is becoming common to use the term water/cementitious material to
reflect this fact rather than simpler water/cement.

However, for ordinary concrete W/C ratio law works well for a given set
of raw materials, since the aggregate strength is generally much greater
than the paste strength. However for high strength concretes, in which
strength limiting factor may be the aggregate strength, or the strength of
the interfacial zone between the cement and the aggregates, the W/C law
is more problematic because W/C versus strength relationship is not as
straight forward as it is for normal concrete.

Durability :

If concrete is properly designed placed and cured, it should last for many
decades without costly repairs. This is particularly true for modern High
Performance Concrete (HPC). However, concrete is potentially
vulnerable to both chemical and physical attack.

The single parameter that has the largest influence on durability is the
porosity of the concrete which is governed by the W/C. A dense well
cured concrete has a permeability similar to that of low porosity rocks,
despite the much higher porosity of the paste, because in such concrete
the porosity is discontinuous. This can be further reduced by mineral
admixtures as silica fume, fly ash or blast furnace slag.

Leaching and Efflorescence :

 24

Efflorescence due to leaching of calcium hydroxide from concrete and its

subsequent carbonation to CaCO3 on the concrete surface, is frequently
seen as white deposits on the underside of slabs. The leaching results
into an increase in porosity and permeability.

Sulfate Attack :

Chemical attack by sulfates occurs when sulfate ions penetrates into the
concrete and react to form gypsum. This is followed by the formation of
ettringite which is a accompanied by volume expansion sufficient to
cause cracking of the concrete. To prevent this, permeability of the
concrete has to be reduced by reducing W/C and/or by using
slag/pozzolanic minerals as admixture. Also the use of sulfate resisting
cement will prevent the formation of ettringite.

Acid Attack :

Concrete is an alkaline material (pH  12.5) it is susciptible to attack by

acids. The problem is severe when the acidity is high (pH < 4) and there
is water flow. Any acid that forms soluble calcium salts on contact with
concrete is particularly aggressive (HCl, H2SO4, nitric, acetic, and lactic).
For acids that form an insoluble salt (phosphoric, tannic) the precipitation
of their salt within the capillary pores will slow or even prevent further
deterioration.
 25

Fresh Concrete/Green Concrete :

Long term properties of hardened concrete : Strength, volumes, stability

and durability are seriously affected by its degree of compaction. It is
vital that the workability of the fresh concrete be such that the concrete
can be properly compacted and also that it can be transported, placed
and finished sufficiently easily without segregation.

Workability :

It is the amount of useful internal work necessary to produce full

compaction. Useful internal work is a physical property of concrete alone
and is the work or energy required to overcome the internal friction
between the individual particles in the concrete.

The strength of concrete is adversely and significantly affected by the

presence of voids in the compacted mass so it is vital to achieve a
maximum possible density. This requires a sufficient workability for
virtually full compaction to be possible using a reasonable amount of
work under the given condition because strength is directly proportional
to density.
 26

Density Ratio

So the presence of voids in concrete reduces the density and hence

strength and 5% voids can lower the strength by 30%. Voids in hardened
concrete are either bubbles of entrapped air or spaces left after excess
water has been removed. The volume of the voids due to excess water
depends upon W – C ratio of the mix whereas entrapped air is governed
by the grading of the fine particles in the mix and the fact is that the
bubbles are more easily expelled from a wetter mix than from a dry mix.
So for any given method of compaction there may be an optimum water
content of the mix.

Factors affecting workability

Workability depends on a number of interacting factors :

- Water content

- aggregate type

- aggregate grading
 27

- aggregate cement ratio

- admixture

The main factor is the water content of the mix since by simply adding
water the inter-particle lubrication is increased. So to achieve optimum
conditions for minm voids or for maxm density with no segregation, the
influences of the aggregate type and grading has to be considered.

Finer particles and irregular shape with rougher texture of an angular

aggregate demand more water than round and coarser aggregate.
Porosity or water absorption capacity of aggregate is also important.
Lighter weight aggregate tends to lower the workability because it is
governed by the volumetric proportions of particles of different sizes.
For constant W/C, the workability increases as the aggregate/cement
ratio is reduced because amount of water relative to the total surface of
solids is increased.

High ratio of coarse aggregate to fine aggregate result in segregation and

in a lower workability and mix becomes harsh and can not be easily
finished. High ratio of fine to coarse aggregate leads to higher
workability but this oversanded mix makes less durable concrete.

Admixture also affects the workability. Fineness of cement is of minor

influence but finer amount needs large quantity of water.

The other two factors are time and temperature. Freshly mixed concrete
stiffness with time, due to the reason that some of the mixing water is
absorbed by the aggregate, some is lost by evaporation and due to initial
chemical reactions. This (stiffening) is measured by loss of workability
with time known as slump loss, which depends on richness of mix, type
 28

of cement, temperature and initial workability. However the concrete

should be used before initial setting time.

Cohesion and Segregation

The concrete should be cohesive for full compaction is to be achieved.

Segregation – is seperation of the constituents of a heterogeneous mixture

so that their distribution is no longer uniform.

Two types of segregation :

- Coarse particles tend to separate out from mortar.

- Seperation of grout (cement + water) from the mixture.

First type of segregation occurs if the mixture is dry and when mixture is
very wet the second type of segregation occurs.

- grading of aggregate and handling of mixture is important reason.

Dropping of concrete from height, passing along chute with change in
direction etc. are the reason of segregation.

This can be reduced by proper grading and use of air entraining

admixture.

Bleeding

A type of segregation known as water gain. In this, water in the mixture

tends to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete. This is due to the
inability of the solid constituents to hold the water when this settle
downward. Due to this top of every lift becomes too wet.

This is some time useful also. However, it can be avoided by using more
cement or finer cement. So rich mixes are less prone to bleeding.

Workability Test
 29

- Slump test
- Compaction factor
- Flow table
- Vebe test
- Ball penetration test.

As per Naville – ‘Concrete and water are the two materials most used by
mankind, water being the leader and the concrete the runner up.

*****