FRUITS & VEGETABLES

SUPTA SARKAR
HHM/2013/10
M . S C F N - 1 ST Y R
CONTENT:
1. STRUCTURE & COMPOSITION
OF CELL TISSUE
2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
PLANT MATERIAL
3. FRUITS
4. VEGETABLES
5. CASE STUDIES:
I. Retention of nutrients in green
leafy vegetables on dehydration
II. Evaporative cooling system for
storage of fruits & vegetables
- a review
STRUCTURE & COMPOSITION OF
CELL TISSUE
 Fruits
& vegetables are composed of both
simple & complex cells
 Simple tissue:
-Dermal tissue
-Parenchyma tissue
 Complex tissue:
-Vascular tissue (Xylem & Phloem)
-Collenchyma tissue &
-Sclerenchyma supporting tissue
 COMPONENTS OF
PARENCHYMA CELL
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
PLANT MATERIAL
1.Carbohydrate: (Simple & complex form)
-Complex carbohydrate:
• Starch(α-1,4)
• Cellulose(β-1,4)
• Hemicellulose
• Pectic substances
2. Protein (<1%)
3. Fat (About 5%)
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals
6. Water (80-90%)
7. Phytochemicals
8. Pigments
-Chlorophyll (green pigment)
-Carotenoids (yellow, red or orange)
-Anthocyanin (red, blue or purple)
-Anthoxanthin (white) Flavonoids
9. Flavour compounds:
• Allium
• Brassica Sulphur containing

• Organic acids (Citric acid, malic acid or tartaric

acid)
 TURGOR PRESSURE

A plant’s turgor pressure is

the pressure that water-
filled vacuoles exert on the
cytoplasm & the partially
elastic cell wall.
FRUITS
 FRUITS

• A fruit is a part of a flowering

plant that derives from
specific tissues of the flower, one or
more ovaries, and in some cases
accessory tissues.

• Fruits are the means by which

these plants disseminate seeds.
CLASSIFICATION
1. Berries
2. Citrus fruits
3. Drupes
4. Grapes
5. Melons
6. Pomes
7. Tropical & subtropical fruits
 Fruits are very poor source of protein & fat.
(Exception: Avocado)

 Contain high amount of moisture

 Good source of fibre

 Not very good sources of calories (Exception:

Banana)

 Higher percentage of sugar

  Generally poor source of iron
(Exception is watermelon,
Seethaphul)

 Mangoes are excellent source of

carotenes. Oranges are fairly
good source of carotene.
 Citrus fruits are good source of vitamin C.

 If fruits are bruised, peeled, cooked or exposed to

air, alkali or copper large amounts of vitamin
may be oxidised.

 Apples give fibre to the diet.

 Pigments

Fruits contain different pigments:

1. Chlorophyll
2. Carotenoids
3. Anthocyanins
4. Anthoxanthins
 Anthocyanins
 Enzymes like anthocyanase catalase reactions
that result in the loss of colour of
anthocyanins.
 In addition to heat & oxygen various metallic
ions can cause undesirable change in colour.
 The metal iron precipitates anthocyanin. This
reaction may cause ‘pin-holing’ of cans.
 Effect of canning or preserving: Colour deteriorate
on storage.

 Effect of sulphur dioxide: Antimicrobial

preservative Potassium metabisulphite at high
concentrations 1 – 1.5% causes total irreversible
bleaching.
 Water

Fruits: 70 to 90% water

Found in the vacuoles
Soluble substances: sugar, salts, organic
acids & water soluble pigments.
 CELLULOSE & PECTIC
SUBSTANCES

• The framework of fruit is made of cellulose

• Forms the wall of plant cell
• Pectic substances are also found in cell walls &
between cells.
• Act as cementing substance.
• Pectic substances: protopectin, pectinic acid,
pectic acid.
• Change in solubility is influenced by heat.
• Acid make structures more firm.
• Alkaline disintegrate the fibre.
 Volatile compounds: Esters, aldehydes, acids,
alcohols, ketones & ethers.

 Sugars, tannins, acids & mineral salts also affect

the flavour of fruits.
 Comprised of catechins, leuco-anthocyanins &
hydroxy acids.

 They are present in the tissues of those woody

plants while absent in herbaceous plants.

 Tannins affect the colour & flavour

 High amount: skin & seeds

 EFFECTS OF POLYPHENOLS ON FRUIT QUALITY:

• Undesirable astringency in some fruits & desirable

astringency in ciders & wines.
• Brown discolouration due to oxidation .
• Undesirable dark coloured complexes with iron due to
sequestering action in canned food.
• Leucoanthocyanins cause development of pink to pinkish
brown colour.
Bitterness in fruits:

 -Limoninoids(triterpenes) &
-flavanone glycosides
(flavonoids)
 The precursor of limonin in
intact citrus tissue combine
with acidic pH of fruit
 The principal bitter tasting
flavonoid compound: naringin
 Post harvest changes & Storage

 All synthesis of organic compounds halts after harvest

but numerous physiological changes continue during
storage.

 Bulbs, roots, tubers & seeds become relatively dormant

during storage whereas fleshy tissues undergo ripening
after maturation & then continue to senescence.

 Certain biochemical activities occur.

• Respiration rate varies with stage of maturity.

• Based on the rate of respiration prior to

senescence fruits are classified as:
Climacteric & Non-climacteric fruits.

• Non-climacteric fruits are best when ripened

before harvesting.
Classification of climacteric & non-
climacteric fruits:

CLIMACTERIC FRUITS NON- CLIMACTERIC FRUITS

Apple Cherry
Apricot Citrus fruits
Banana Figs
Plum Grapes
Papaya Melons
Mango Pineapple
Tomato Strawberry
Jackfruit
• Cell wall components undergo changes
after harvest due to various enzymes

• Pectin degrade due to pectinesterases &

polygalacturonases.

• Other enzymes: cellulase & hemicellulases.

 RIPENING OF FRUITS
• It is genetically programmed highly coordinated
physiological process

• Changes occur due to enzymes: lipase, pectic

enzymes, invertase, chlorophyllase &
peroxidase

• Breakdown of chlorophyll( colour changes from

green -> yellow or orange red)

• Softening of flesh ( protopectin -> pectin, & in

over ripe fruits: pectin ->pectic acid)
• There is decrese in acidity, increase in sugar,
increase in volatile substances & increase in
essential oil
• The optimum temperature is about 20°C &
relative humidity about 90-95%
 Each fruit must be stored at its own optimum
temperature

 Proper air circulation must be ensured

 Commercial storage: Low temperature close to 0°C &

relative humidity about 85% is preferred

 Home refrigerator: Ventilated covered containers

 Strong flavoured fruits can be stored in tight containers.

 ENZYMATIC BROWNING
 Normally the natural enzymatic
compounds present in intact tissue do
not come in contact with the enzyme
phenol oxidases present in some tissues

 Phenol oxidase enzyme act on

polyphenols, oxidising them to
orthoquinones

 Orthoquinones rapidly polimerise to

form brown pigments.

 The optimum pH is between 5 to 7

Schematic diagram of enzymatic
browning:
Cut fruit containing catechins, tyrosine,
chlorogenic acid , mono & dihydroxy
phenol
O2 polyphenolase

DOPA (Dihydroxy Phenyl

Alanine)

O2 polyphenolase

Orthoquinones

polymerised

Melanins
Prevention of enzymatic browning:

• Either by inactivating the enzyme or cutting

off the oxygen:

• Temperature

• Change in pH

• Use of antioxidants

• Prevention of contact with oxygen

 NON-ENZYMATIC
BROWNING

• Ascorbic acid is responsible for

browning

• Mixture of ascorbic acid & amino

acid develop browning more rapidly.
 VEGETABLES

Vegetables are plants or

parts of plants.
 CLASSIFICATION:

Botanical classification of vegetables:

GROUP EXAMPLES
Roots Carrot, beet root, radish turnip, colocasia
Tubers Potatoes, sweet potato , tapioca
Bulb Garlic, onion, shallots
Leaves Cabbage, lettuce, spinach
Flowers Plantain flower, cauliflower, neem flower,
brocoli
Contd….
 …Contd.

GROUPS EXAMPLE
Fruits Tomatoes, brinjal, lady’s finger, pumpkin, bottle
gourd
Legumes (pods & Peas , beans, bengal gram tender, red gram
seeds) tender
Stems Plantain stem, amaranth stem, celery stem
Fungi Mushroom
Algae Spirulina
Classification based on nutrition:
1. Green leafy vegetables
2. Roots & tubers
3. Other vegetables
 Most of the pigments occur in plastids

 Some of the water soluble pigments are dissolved

in the vacuoles

 The chief pigments:

-Fat soluble
-Water soluble
 WATER INSOLUBLE PIGMENTS
CHLOROPHYLL
• Present in chloroplasts

• 2 chlorophylls:
-Chlorophyll-a: Intense blue green
-Chlorophyll-b: Dull Yellow green

• Occurs in the ratio: 3a:1b

 CAROTENOIDS

• Groups of yellow, orange, red & fat soluble

pigments

• They are present as α-carotene, β-carotene,

γ-carotene, xanthophyll & cryptoxanthin

• β-carotene is valuable in the synthesis of

vitamin A
 WATER SOLUBLE PIGMENTS
• Flavonoids:
-Anthocyanin: Red to purple
-Anthoxanthins: Colourless or white

ANTHOCYANIN:
• In the vacuoles
• Anthocyanidins are anthocyanins without sugar in their
structure
• They are pelargonidin(red), cyanidin(reddish blue),
delphinidin(blue).
 ANTHOXANTHINS

Anthoxanthins

Flavones Flavonols Flavonones Flavanols

Leuco-
Rutinol Kaempferol Naringin Catechins
anthocyanins

Leuco-
Gallocatechins
cyanidins
 ORGANIC ACIDS
 Formic, Succinic, Citric, Acetic, Malic, Fumaric,
Tartaric & Benzoic acid

 The concentration is lower in vegetables than fruits

 Tomatoes & vegetables with concentration of acid

have pH 4 - 4.6

 Most vegetables have pH of about 5 – 5.6

 ENZYMES

• Composed of protein

• Destroyed by heat & chemicals

• 2 types of enzymes:
-Hydrolytic enzymes
-Oxido Reductases

Example: Papain, Anthocyanase, Peroxidases,

Phenolases, Glycosidases
 FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS

• The natural flavours of vegetables are due to

mixture of aldehydes, alcohol, ketones, organic
acids& sulphur compounds

• Astringent taste is due to phenolic compounds &

tannins.

• Strong flavour due to sulphur containing

compounds as in Allium & Cruciferae vegetables
 Flavour components in sulphur
containing vegetables
Vegetables Precursor Reaction with treatment Final volatile compound
Garlic Alliin S-2- Cutting/ crushing results Disulphide further
propenyl (allyl) in allicin formation. decomposes to a
cysteine This undergoes non- complex mixture of
sulphoxide enzymatic mono-sulphide & tri-
decomposition to sulphide –characteristic
disulphide & flavour
thiosulphinate
Onion S-1-propenyl Cutting/ crushing results Thiopropanal-S-oxide-
cysteine in formation of sulphenic lachry matory factor
sulphoxide acids which is unstable &
undergoes
rearrangement
Brassica S-methyl- Cooking Dimethyl sulphides &
family- cysteine isothiocyanates- give
cabbage, sulphoxide & off-flavour
cauliflower thioglucosides
 CHANGES DURING COOKING

1. Water content
2. Carbohydrates
(Cellulose & pectic
substances)
3. Protein
LOSS OF NUTRIENTS DURING COOKING

• Mechanical losses
• Solvent action of water
• Oxidation & chemical
decomposition
1.CHLOROPHYLL

 Effect of putting in hot

water
 Effect of prolonged cooking
& acid
 Effect of canning
 Effect of sodium
bicarbonate
 Effect of freezing
 Effect of copper
 Effect of calcium salt
2.CAROTENOIDS

Effect of heat & oxidation

Effect of cooking in fat
 FLAVONOIDS
1.ANTHOCYANINS:

 Effect of pH
 Effect of metal
 Effect of method of cooking
 Effect of tap water
 Effect of pickling
2. BETALAINS
 Effect of pH

3.ANTHOXANTHINS
 Effect of pH
 Effect of metal
 Effect of cooking on sulphur containing vegetables
 Bitter compounds in vegetables
 STORAGE OF VEGETABLES
 Loss of moisture

 Flavour gets impaired because of enzyme action &

conversion of sugar to starch

 Maturevegetables deteriorate less in storage than

immature vegetables

 STORAGE:
In covered containers
or plastic bags in refrigerator
 FACTORS AFFECTING STORAGE LIFE

• Loss of water

• Respiration

• Microbial spoilage
 FUNGI
MUSHROOM:
• Umbrella shaped with a
central stalk & a cap called
pileus.
• Devoid of chlorophyll
• Low calorie
• Rich in protein
• Less fat
 ALGAE

SPIRULINA:
• Nutrient dense food
• Rich in protein, B-
carotene & γ-
linolenic acid
• Better than 1 soya
protein, egg protein
or milk protein.
CASE STUDIES:
1. RETENTION OF NUTRIENTS IN
GREEN LEAFY VEGETABLES ON
DEHYDRATION

Study conducted by Sheetal Gupta, B.S.Gowri, A.Jyothi

Lakshmi, Jamuna Prakash
Journal of Food Science & Technology
September- October 2013
Vol 50, Issue 5
PP 918-925
 OBJECTIVE

To investigate the influence of dehydration on

nutrient composition of Amaranthus gangeticus,
Chenopodium album(bathua), Centella asiatica
(centella), Amaranth tricolor(tampala) &
Trigonella foenum graecum(fenugreek)
 STUDY METHODOLOGY

The GLV were were steam blanched for 5 min &

dried in an oven at 60°C for 10-12hrs.

The fresh & dehydrated samples were analysed for

selected proximate constituents, vitamins,
minerals, antinutrients & dialyzable minerals
 FINDINGS

Dehydration seems to have little effect on the

proximate constituents, vitamins, minerals,
antinutrient content of the GLV

Among the vitamins, retention of ascorbic acid was

1-14%, thiamin 22-71%, total carotene 49-73% & β-
carotene 20-69% of their initial content.
Dialyzable iron & calcium in the fresh vegetables
ranged between 0.21-3.5mg & 15.36-81.33 mg/100g
respectively which reduced to 0.05-0.53mg & 6.94-
58.15mg/100g on dehydration.
 CONCLUSION

Proximate principles were least affected

Calcium & total iron content decreased slightly
Dialysability of minerals decreased significantly
Among the vitamins, ascorbic acid, total & B-
carotene were lost significantly while thiamine was
retained moderately
Changes in the antinutritional factor was not
significant.
CASE STUDY 2
EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEM FOR
STORAGE OF FRUITS & VEGETABLES
- A review

 Study conducted by: Amrat lal Basediya,

D.V.K.Samuel, Vimala Beera
 Journal of Food Science & Technology
 May- June 2013
 Vol.50, Issue 3
 PP 429-442
EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEM

 Evaporative cooling is a well-known

system to be an efficient & economical
means for reducing the temperature &
increasing the relative humidity in an
enclosure & this this effect has been
extensively tried for increasing the shelf
life of horticultural produce in some
tropical & subtropical countries.
PRINCIPLE OF EVAPORATIVE
COOLING

 The wet-bulb temperature as

compared to air’s dry-bulb
temperature, is a measure of potential
for evaporative cooling.

 The greater the difference in the

temperature, the greater is the cooling
effect.
METHOD OF EVAPORATIVE
COOLING

Direct cooling system

Indirect evaporative cooling
Two stage system
Evaporative cooling system for short
duration:
(Scientific storage system)

ZERO ENERGY COOLING SYSTEM:

 Developed at IARI, New Delhi
 By Roy & Khurdiya (1986)
 Based on the principle of evaporative cooling
 ADVANTAGE OF
EVAPORATIVE COOLED
STORAGE
 Most suitable for rural application
 Size can be fitted to the need
 Better marketablity
 Retain nutritive value
 Environment friendly
 Reduce energy use by 70%
 Extends shelf life (Reduces surrounding air
temperature & increases moisture content)
 Less expensive & easy to install, operate &
maintain.
 DISADVANTAGE:

 Requires a constant water supply to wet

pad
 Space required outside home
 Water high in mineral leave mineral
deposit
 High humidity decreases the cooling
capability
 No dehumidification
 CONCLUSION

 Approximately 23-35% of horticultural produce goes

waste due to improper post harvest operation &
storage
 Evaporative cooling system is well suited where
temperature is high, humidity low, water can be
spared & air movement available
 Zero energy cool chamber could be used for short
duration storage in hilly regions.
CONCLUSION
 REFERENCE

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Vaclavik,V.A., Christian,E.W., Essentials of

Food Science, Third Edition, Springer.

2. Srilaksmi, Food Science, Third Edition, 2003,

New Age International Publisher, New Delhi.
 JOURNALS

1. Gupta,S., Gowri,B.S., Lakshmi,A.J., Prakash,J.,

2013, Retention of nutrients in green leafy
vegetables on dehydration, Journal of Food
Science & Technology, Vol.50(5), PP 918-925

2. Basediya,A.L., Samuel,D.V.K., Beera,V., 2013,

Evaporative Cooling System for Storage of fruits
& vegetables, Journal of Food Science &
Technology, Vol.50(3), PP 429-442