MAY 2018 UNIT 01

Q1-A Describe Stress Of A Newtonian Fluid?

A Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which the viscous stresses arising from its flow, at every point, are linearly correlated
to the local strain rate—the rate of change of its deformation over time. That is equivalent to saying those forces are
proportional to the rates of change of the fluid's velocity vector as one moves away from the point in question in
various directions.More precisely, a fluid is Newtonian only if the tensors that describe the viscous stress and the
strain rate are related by a constant viscosity tensor that does not depend on the stress state and velocity of the
flow. An element of a flowing liquid or gas will suffer forces from the surrounding fluid, including viscous
stress forces that cause it to gradually deform over time. These forces can bemathematically approximated
to first order by a viscous stress tensor,
Q1-(b) Explain Path Line Description Of Fluid Motion?
Streamline, pathline, streakline and timeline form convenient tools to describe a flow and visualise it. They
are defined below.

Streamlines

Streamline definition A streamline is one that drawn is tangential to the velocity vector at every point in
the flow at a given instant and forms a powerful tool in understanding flows. This definition leads to the

equation for streamlines where u,v, and

w are the velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively as sketched.

Streamtube Hidden
in the definition of streamline is the fact that there cannot be a flow across it; i.e. there is no flow normal to
it. Sometimes, as shown in Fig.3.7 we pull out a bundle of streamlines from inside of a general flow for
analysis. Such a bundle is called stream tube and is very useful in analysing flows. If one aligns a
coordinate along the stream tube then the flow through it is one-dimensional.

Figure 3.8: Pathlines is the line traced by a given particle. This is generated by injecting a dye into the fluid
and following its path by photography or other means (Fig.3.8). Streakline concentrates on fluid particles
that have gone through a fixed station or point. At some instant of time the position of all these particles are
marked and a line is drawn through them. Such a line is called a streakline (Fig.3.9). Timeline is generated
by drawing a line through adjacent particles in flow at any instant of time. Fig.3.10 shows a typical
timeline.In a steady flow the streamline, pathline and streakline all coincide. In an unsteady flow they can
be different. Streamlines are easily generated mathematically while pathline and streaklines are obtained
through experiments.

Q-1(C) Constitutive Relation Of A Non Newtonian Fluid?

A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid that does not follow Newton's law of viscosity, i.e., constant viscosity
independent of stress. In non-Newtonian fluids, viscosity can change when under force to either more liquid
or more solid. Ketchup, for example, becomes runnier when shaken and is thus a non-Newtonian fluid.
Many salt solutions and molten polymers are non-Newtonian fluids, as are many commonly found
substances such as custard, honey, toothpaste, starch suspensions, corn starch, paint, blood,
and shampoo. A power-law
fluid, orthe Ostwald–de Waele relationship, is a type of generalized Newtonian fluid (time independent
Non-Newtonian fluid) for which the shear stress, τ, is given by the mathematical model for describing
the mechanistic behaviour of a variety of commonly used non-Newtonian fluids is the Power-Law
model which is also known as Ostwald-de Waele model (the name is after the scientist who proposed
it). According to Ostwald-de Waele model

When n = 1, m equals , the model identically satisfies Newtonian model as a special case.
When n < 1, the model is valid for pseudoplastic fluids, such as gelatine, blood, milk etc.
When n > 1, the model is valid for dilatant fluids, such as sugar in water, aqueous suspension of rice starch.
There are some substances which require a yield stress for the deformation rate (i.e. the flow) to be established,
and hence their constitutive equations do not pass through the origin thus violating the basic definition of a fluid.
They are termed as Bingham plastic. For an ideal Bingham plastic, the shear stress- deformation rate relationship is
linear.

Non-Newtonian fluids
Non-Newtonian fluids are the fluids which do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity. For describing Non-Newtonian fluids, let’s recall
the Newton's law of viscosity experiment. There are two long parallel plate situated at distance h to each other. Top plate is

stationary and bottom plate is moving with velocity as shown in Fig. (20.1).

Fig 20.1 Non-Newtonian flow between two parallel plates

If a force, F, is applied to move plate, then ( )

and under steady state conditions when h is small and when

Now, we calculate by repeating experiments for different applied forces and velocity achieved by the bottom plate and
plotting a graph as shown in Fig. (20.2). Depending on the nature of fluid, different types of curves may be obtained.

Fig 20.2 Shear stress vs. shear strain diagram for Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids
If fluid shows the behaviour like curve (1) then it is a Newtonian fluid. Other fluids are non-Newtonian fluids. Curve (2) represents
a Pseudo-plastic fluid, curve (3) represents a Dilatant fluid, and curve (4) represents a Bingham plastic fluid. There are several
Theoretical and empirical models available to describe the rheological behaviour of non-Newtonian fluids. Here, we discuss some
of them, which come under the group of generalized Newtonian models. Basic equation for a generalized non-Newtonian fluid is
given below

Here, is the apparent viscosity, which is clearly a function of shear rate as may be seen from Fig. (20.2). Therefore,

If the apparent viscosity increases with increase in shear rate, , then the fluid is called Dilatant fluid and if it decreases with

increase in shear rate, then fluid is called Pseudo-plastic fluid. Some fluids require a critical shear stress to initiate the
flow. These fluids are called Bingham fluids. Some important rheological models for non-Newtonian fluids are given below.
1 Power Law or Ostwald De Waele model
Power law or Ostwald De Waele model is the most generalized model for non-Newtonian fluids. The expression of this model is
given in Equation (20.3)

Here, apparent viscosity is defined as,

This is a two-parameter model where m and n are the two parameters.

If n = l then =m
where m is similar to the viscosity of the fluid and model shows the Newtonian behaviour .

If n>1, then increases with increasing shear rate and the model shows the Dilatant behaviour.

If n<1, then decreases with increasing shear rate and the model shows the Pseudo-plastic behaviour.
Modulus sign
In power law model, modulus sign can be removed according to the value of shear rate.

1. If is positive, then

2. If is negative, then

Several fluids do not show single type of rheological behaviour. They show Newtonian behaviour for a range of shear stress and
Non-Newtonian behaviour for some other ranges of shear stresses. Several models have been suggested for these types of
fluids. Some popular models like Eyring model, Ellis model, Reiner Philipp off model and Bingham Fluid model are discussed
here.
2. Eyring model
Eyring model is a two-parameter model. The equation of Eyring model is as follow

where A, B are the two parameters.

In Eyring model, if → 0 which means very low shear forces, we have

Therefore, as → 0, the model shows Newtonian behaviour

Here, viscosity =

If is very large, the model shows Non-Newtonian behaviour as shown Fig. 20.3
Fig 20.3 Shear stress vs. shear strain diagram for Eyring model
Therefore, Eyring model may be used for a fluid which shows Newtonian behaviour at low shear rates and non- Newtonian
behaviour at high shear rates.
3. Ellis model
Ellis model is a three-parameter model. The equation of this model is as follows

Here, , and are the three parameters .

Here, we consider some special cases,

1. If then Equation (20.11) reduce to

or

which is same as Newton’s law of viscosity with as the viscosity of the fluid.

2. If , then

which is similar to a Power law model

3. If >1 and is small then the second term is approximately zero and equation reduces to

which is similar to Newton’s law of viscosity.

4. If <1 and is very large, then again, second term is negligible and we have

Which again shows Newtonian behaviour. Therefore, Ellis model may be used for fluids which show Newtonian behaviour at very
low and very high shear stresses, but non-Newtonian behaviour at intermediate value of shear stresses.
Fig 20.4 Shear stress vs. shear strain diagram for Ellis model
This type of behaviour may be shown by some polymer melts
4. Reiner Philipp off model
This is also a three-parameter model. The equation of Reiner Philipp off model is as follows,

where, , and are the three parameters.

In Reiner Philipp off model, if is very large, the equation reduces to,

Or

which is same as the Newton’s law of viscosity,

If is very small then equation reduces to

Or

which is also same as the Newton’s law of viscosity. Therefore, Reiner Philipp off model may be used for a fluid which shows
Newtonian behaviour at very low and very high shear stresses but non-Newtonian behaviour for intermediate values of shear
stress. Here, and represent the viscosity of fluid at very low and very high shear stress conditions respectively.
5. Bingham Fluid model
Bingham fluid is special type of fluid which require a critical shear stress to start the flow.
The equation of Bingham fluid model are given below

if

if
 or
A typical shear stress vs. shear rate diagram for a Binghum model is shown below

Fig 20.5 Shear stress vs. shear strain diagram for Bingham model
Q1-(D) Establish Pressure Relation In A Field Of Gravitation?

Q1-(E) Establish Velocity Profile For A Fluid Flow In Vertical Plane?

See the book for derivation
 DEC-2016 UNIT-01

Q1-(a)Explain the Macroscopic, Microscopic, and Molecular level at which transport phenomena can
be studied?
Macroscopic: Write a set of equations (macroscopic balances) that describe how mass, momentum,
energy and angular momentum in the system change because of the introduction and removal of these
entities. No attempt is made to understand the details of the system.
Microscopic: We examine what is happening to the fluid mixture in a small region. We write a set of
equations called “equations of change” which describe how mass, momentum, energy and angular
momentum in the system change. The aim to get information about velocity, T, p, and concentration profiles
within the system. Molecular level: We seek a fundamental understanding of the
mechanisms of how mass, momentum, energy and angular momentum in the system change in terms of
molecular structure and intermolecular forces. Physicists and Chemists principal concern, but engineers in
many cases need to gain this understanding.

Q1-(b) Define Shear thinning fluid and Shear thickening fluid with examples?
A fluid is shear thickening if the viscosity of the fluid increases as the shear rate increases (see Figure 2).
A common example of shear thickening fluids is a mixture of cornstarch and water.
Fluids are shear thinning if the viscosity decreases as the shear rate increases. Shear thinning fluids, also
known as pseudo-plastics, are ubiquitous in industrial and biological processes. Common examples include
ketchup, paints and blood.

Q1-(C) Page no. 38 1A.7 (R. BYRON BIRD Book)

formula on page no.23 BIRD book

Q1-(D) Establish the expression for laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid in a vertical pipe for the
distribution of momentum flux, average velocity and volumetric flow rate?
ANSWER SEE FROM BODHRAJ BOOK.

Q1-(E) Derive the analog of Hagen- Poiseuille's equation for Ostwald-de-Waele model (Power law?

JUNE-2016
Q1(A)- Describe strain rate of a Newtonian Fluid?
Strain rate describes deformation change over time. How fast can a material deform? How fast can fluid
flow? Rates are concerned with velocity. strain rate—the rate of change of its deformation over time. That is
equivalent to saying those forces are proportional to the rates of change of the fluid's velocity vector as one moves
away from the point in question in various directions.

Q1(B)- Lagrangian description of fluid motion.

The Lagrangian Description is one in which individual fluid particles are tracked, much like the
tracking of billiard balls in a highschool physics experiment.
In the Lagrangian description of fluid flow, individual fluid particles are "marked," and their
positions, velocities, etc. are described as a function of time. In the example shown, particles A
and B have been identified. Position vectors and velocity vectors are shown at one instant of
time for each of these marked particles. As the particles move in the flow field, their postions
and velocities change with time, as seen in the animated diagram. The physical laws, such as
Newton's laws and conservation of mass and energy, apply directly to each particle. If there
were only a few particles to consider, as in a high school physics experiment with billiard balls,
the Lagrangian description would be desirable. However, fluid flow is a continuum
phenomenon, at least down to the molecular level. It is not possible to track each "particle" in a
complex flow field. Thus, the Lagrangian description is rarely used in fluid mechanics.
The Eulerian Description is one in which a control volume is defined, within which fluid flow
properties of interest are expressed as fields.
In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, individual fluid particles are not identified. Instead, a
control volume is defined, as shown in the diagram. Pressure, velocity, acceleration, and all
other flow properties are described as fields within the control volume. In other words, each
property is expressed as a function of space and time, as shown for the velocity field in the
diagram. In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, one is not concerned about the location or
velocity of any particular particle, but rather about the velocity, acceleration, etc. of whatever
particle happens to be at a particular location of interest at a particular time. Since fluid flow is a
continuum phenomenon, at least down to the molecular level, the Eulerian description is usually
preferred in fluid mechanics. Note, however, that the physical laws such as Newton's laws and
the laws of conservation of mass and energy apply directly to particles in a Lagrangian
description. Hence, some translation or reformulation of these laws is required for use with an
Eulerian description.
Q1(C)- Constitutive relation of a Non Newtonian fluid?
Q1(D)- Establish pressure relation in field of gravitation?
Q1(E)- Establish velocity profile for a fluid flow in a inclined tube?
Falling film se kr skte hai concept use kr k .Else go to https://nptel.ac.in/courses/103/102/103102024/
 NOV-DEC. 2015

Q1(C) Explain time-independent fluids with example?

The viscosity of a Non-Newtonian time independent fluid is dependent not only on temperature but also on shear rate.Depending
on how viscosity changes with shear rate the flow behaviour is characterised as:
shear thinning - the viscosity decreases with increased shear rate
shear thickening - the viscosity increases with increased shear rate
plastic - exhibits a so-called yield value, i.e. a certain shear stress must be applied before flow occurs
Shear thinning fluids are also called pseudoplastic and shear thickening fluids are also called dilatant.

Examples of shear thinning fluids: Examples of shear thickening fluids:

• Paint wet sand

shampoo ,slurries ,fruit juice concentrate concentrated starch suspensions

Examples of plastic fluids:

• Quark,tomato paste,tooth paste

• hand cream,some ketchups,grease

Q1(D) Derive an expression for flow of a falling film along an inclined plane. Also find maximum and average velocity
and volumetric flow rate?

Falling film on an inclined flat surface

An inclined surface of length L and width W is situated at an angle Β to the vertical direction as shown in Fig. (11.3). A Newtonian
fluid is freely falling on the surface as a film of thickness δ. Assuming the flow to be laminar, determine the velocity profile, flow
rate and shear force on the surface by the fluid.

Solution

Fig 11.3 Laminar flow on an inclined surface

Assumptions

▪ Constant density, viscosity

▪ Steady state
▪ Laminar flow (simple shear flow)
▪ Fully developed flow
▪ Newton's law of viscosity is applicable

Assume velocity profile

The fluid is flowing in the z direction, hence only the z component of velocity is non-zero. Thus, we may assume

We may further assume that vz does not depends upon y coordinate. Since the flow is steady, vz does not depend on time. Thus,
Using the equation of continuity in the cartesian coordinates for constant fluid density, we have

which reduces to

Equation (11.11) indicates that vz does not depend on the z coordinate. Thus,

There are nine components of the shear stress as shear force or momentum flux, namely

Since vz is only the non-zero velocity, and also it is the function of x coordinate , is the only significant component of shear
stress and we need to write momentum balance only in z direction. Because the pressure is same at both ends of the inclined
plane, there is no pressure force on the fluid. Now, we can solve this problem by assuming shear stress as a shear force or shear
stress as momentum flux.

Assuming as momentum flux

Draw a control volume of length L, width W and differential thickness dx.

Fig 11.3 Control volume for falling film problem

Momentum balance in x direction

Rate of momentum flux entering CV due to viscous transport at

Rate of momentum flux leaving CV due to viscous transport at

Gravity force acting on fluid in z direction

Rate of momentum flux entering in CV due to convective transport

Rate of momentum flux leaving from CV due to convective transport

Now, when above terms are substituted for z-momentum balance, we obtain

Since the velocity vz does not depends on z coordinate, the first two terms cancel out and we obtain

Dividing Equation (11.19) by volume of the control volume (LWΔx), we have

As Δx→0 , The Equation (11.20)simplified to

The Newton’s law of viscosity (here, shear stress is defined as momentum flux) is given by
By integrating the Equation (11.25), we have

or

The above equation requires two boundary conditions for determining c1 and c2.

Boundary conditions

1 At x=0 the liquid surface is in contact with air where the shear stresses at both gas liquid phases should be equal. Thus,

Since both may be assumed Newtonian fluids, we have

where ρg is the density and µg is the viscosity of air. Thus

Since, µg and ρg is much smaller than µ and ρ, and Equation (11.30) may be approximately written as

Substituting above boundary condition in Equation (11.26), we obtain

2. At x=δ no slip boundary condition may be applied, i.e.,

at

Thus, from Equation (11.27), we get

 Or

Finally the velocity profile is obtained as

Or

Q1(E)-Explain theory of viscosity of gases at low density and also write the chapman enskog
equation?
Chapman–Enskog theory provides a framework in which equations of hydrodynamics for a gas can be
derived from the Boltzmann equation. Chapman–Enskog theory constitutes an important step in the
passage from a microscopic, particle-based description to a continuum hydrodynamical one.The theory is
named for Sydney Chapman and David Enskog, who introduced it independently in 1916 and 1917.
The viscosity (in units of g/cm/s) of a pure monatomic gas is predicted by Chapman-Enskog

theory, and is given by Equation:

where: T is the absolute temperature in K ,M is the molecular weight in g/mol
sigma is a Lennard-Jones parameter in Angstroms ,Omegamu is a dimensionless function of
(KT/epsilon)
Chapman-Enskog theory has been further extended to include multicomponent gas mixtures
- and generally the formula of Wilke is used. :

where: n is the number of chemical species

xi and xj are mole fractions of two species
mui and muj are viscosities of two species in g/cm/s at the specified temperature and
pressure
Mi and Mj are the molecular weights of two species in g/mol
 UNIT -02

NOV-2018

Q2(A)- Write velocity distribution equation in laminar flow of falling film?

Angle beta(B)=0 For vertical plane.

Q2(B)- Define laminar flow with example?

Laminar Flow: the flow of a fluid when each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, paths which never
interfere with one another. One result of laminar flow is that the velocity of the fluid is constant at any point
in the fluid.
Turbulent Flow: irregular flow that is characterized by tiny whirlpool regions. The velocity of this fluid is
not constant at every point.
Typical examples of both Laminar and Turbulent flows can be observed in the cigarette smoke .

Q2(c)- Compare velocity distribution in rectangular pipe and circular pipe?

For answer see solved paper of NOV-2018.

Q2(D)- A Newtonian fluid with a viscosity of 30 cP is placed between two large parallel plates separated
by a distance of 40 mm. Each plate has an area of 2m^2. The upper plate moves in the positive x-
direction with a velocity of 1 m/s. while the lower plate is kept stationary. Calculate the steady force
applied to the upper plate?

Q2(E)-Develop the velocity distribution equation for laminar flow over an inclined plane?

MAY-2018

Q2(A)- Write and explain Eulerian motion of fluid.?

Q2(B)- write and explain loss in a sudden contraction devices?
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement:- Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe. Due to sudden enlargement in
diameter from d1 to d2, the liquid flowing from smaller pipe is not able to follow the sudden change of boundary and
turbulent eddies are generated as shown in the figure resulting in loss of head. This head loss due to sudden
enlargement is given by he= (V1 – V2) 2 /2g.
Loss of head due to sudden contraction:- An abrupt contraction is geometrically the reverse of an abrupt enlargement
(Fig. 14.3). Here also the streamlines cannot follow the abrupt change of geometry and hence gradually converge
from an upstream section of the larger tube. However, immediately downstream of the junction of area
contraction, the cross-sectional area of the stream tube becomes the minimum and less than that of the smaller pipe.
This section of the stream tube is known as vena contracta, after which the stream widens again to fill the pipe.The
velocity of flow in the converging part of the stream tube from Sec. 1-1 to Sec. c-c (vena contracta) increases due to
continuity and the pressure decreases in the direction of flow accordingly in compliance with the Bernoulli’s
theorem.In an accelerating flow,under a favourable pressure gradient, losses due to separation cannot take place.
But in the decelerating part of the flow from Sec. c-c to Sec. 2-2, where the stream tube expands to fill the pipe,
losses take place in the similar fashion as occur in case of a sudden geometrical enlargement. Hence eddies are
formed between the vena contracta c-c and the downstream Sec. 2-2.The flow pattern after the vena contracta is
similar to that after an abrupt enlargement, and the loss of head is thus confined between Sec. c-c to Sec. 2-2.
Therefore, we can say that the losses due to contraction is not for the contraction itself, but due to the

expansion followed by the contraction.

 the loss of head in this case can be written as
where Ac represents the cross-sectional area of the vena contracta, and Cc is the coefficient of contraction defined

by

Q2(C)- Explain rheological plot of a fluid?

Q2(D)- Establish differential form of continuity equation?

The Differential Continuity Equation
Continuity equation which is based on principle of mass conservation states that for a flow that is
incompressible, the rate of mass entering the system will always be equal to the mass flow rate leaving the
system.
Consider a cubical element having a volume of dx · dy · dz in a flow as depicted in the figure below.

According to continuity equation,

 Similarly,

Mass accumulation rate in y-direction

Mass accumulation rate in z-direction

Total accumulation rate,

The above equation is the differential form of continuity equation in Cartesian co-ordinates.

Q2(E)- Establish Euler form of fluid equation?

Coaching notes or https://www.slideshare.net/GhulamMurtaza98/eulers-equation-69812037

DEC.-2016

Q2(A)- Define Couette Flow?

In fluid dynamics, Couette flow is the flow of a viscous fluid in the space between two surfaces, one of
which is moving tangentially relative to the other. The configuration often takes the form of two parallel
plates or the gap between two concentric cylinders. The flow is driven by virtue of viscous drag force acting
on the fluid, but may additionally be motivated by an applied pressure gradient in the flow direction. The
Couette configuration models certain practical problems, like flow in lightly loaded journal bearings, and is
often employed in viscometry and to demonstrate approximations of reversibility.

Q2(B)- Write down the basic mechanism of losses due to sudden enlargement.?
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement: This is the energy loss due to sudden enlargement. Sudden enlargement in
the diameter of pipe results in the formation of eddies in the flow at the corners of the enlarged pipe (Fig.1). This
results in the loss of head across the fitting. Loss of head due to sudden contraction: This is the energy loss due to
sudden contraction. In reality, the head loss does not take place due to the sudden contraction but due to the sudden
enlargement, which takes place just after vena-contracta.

Q2(C)- Derive differential form of continuity equation by application of reynolds transport theorem?
Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT) An analytical tool to shift from describing the laws governing fluid motion
using the system concept to using the control volume concept. (SEE THE PDF RTHM)

Q2(D)- A Newtonian fluid is confined between two parallel and vertical plates. The surface on the left is
stationary and the other is moving vertically at a constant velocity VO. Assumed that the flow is laminar, solve for
the velocity profile.

H
Q2(E)- Establish the Navier Stokes equation for y- component by application of reynolds transport theorem?
See in Xerox copy. (Page no.4.8 &4.9)

JUNE-2016

Q2(A)- Write and explain Integral form of equation of continuity?

Continuity Equation
Continuity equation is simply conservation of mass of the flowing fluid. Consider fluid flowing through the pipe. It is
really not possible that fluid entering from one end of pipe vanishes while coming out of other end of the pipe(Except
if its magical fluid, just kidding). This is a same thing which continuity equation tells us. That mass of flowing fluid is
conserved.Let 'm' be the Mass of the fluid ; 'V' be the Volume of the fluid ; 'ρ' be the Density of the fluid
As we know Density is equal to ration of mass and volume ; hence ρ = m/V …… (1) , So mass becomes,m = ρ x V
Volume can be written as Area times thicknessi.e V = A x t…..(3)Where, 'A' is Cross section are of pipe ; 't' is
thickness of fluid column in pipe
So Mass becomes,m = ρ x A x t….. (4) To find of mass flow rate, differentiation above equation with respect to time
'M' be the mass flow rate, HenceM = ρ x A x v …. (5) (Differentiation of t with respect to time gives velocity of the
fluid Considering mass flow rate we got is for small section of fluid ;So to find mass flow rate for entire fluid .We will
write mass flow rate from equation (5) in integral form
From equation (2) we know that
m = ρ x V ;So taking Elemental volume '∀' instead of 'V'
\m = ρ x ∀…. (6)
To find mass flow rate integrating equation (6) with respect to time, we get

Equating both the mass flow rate equations we get,

using gauss divergence theorem,

Since the volume∀ does not change with time, the sequence of differentiation and integration in the first term of can
be interchanged. Therefore

This is integral form of continuity equation

We can also write it as,

Q2(B)-(C)-(D) SAME AS PAPER FOR MAY2018 .

NOV DEC-2015

Q2-(A) Which of the following sets of equation represents possible two-dimensional incompressible flows?
(i)u x+y , v=x-y (ii) u= xt +2y, v=x2-yt2 .
Q2(B)-What do you understand by Exit loss?
Exit Loss -The exit loss is associated with liquid flow from a pipe into a large tank as shown in Figure 4.4. As
the liquid enters the tank, its velocity is decreased to very nearly zero. Similar to entrance loss, the exit loss can
be calculated as

EXIT LOSS= K(V2/2g) Generally, K = 1.0 is used for all types of pipe
connection to a tank .

Q2©-Establish differential form of continuity equation by application of reynold transport theorem?

Q2(D)- A fluid is flowing between two infinite parallel plates separated by a distance ‘b'. The bottom plate is stationary
and the top plate is moving with constant velocity ’U'. Derive expressions for velocity distribution and shear stress at
the wall? For answer see notes of FM (EII) or directly use Navier stokes equation.

Q2(E)- Derive the Eulerian form of equation of motion for x- component by application of reynolds transport theorem?

APRIL-2015

(ALL QUESTION ARE ALREADY DISCUSSED ABOVE)

 OCT-NOV 2018 UNIT-03

Q3(A) Write Navier Stokes equation for rectangle coordinate system for X- component?
Xerox Page no. 4.9.

Q3(B) What is continuity equation? SOLVED ABOVE.

Q3(C) Write with basic assumptions the transport equation for change of mass in one dimension?
Answer- write the general equation of navier stokes OR SEE XEROX PAGE NO. 4.8 & 4.9

Q3(D) Develop heat transport equation in cylindrical system? APPLY GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATES THAN USE THIS.

MAY-2018

Q3(A) Explain average velocity in a turbulent flow?

The (average!) velocity profile in a turbulent flow is more flattened than the parabolic profile in a laminar flow. The
velocity profile for turbulent flow is fuller than for the laminar flow whereas a relationship between the average and
axial velocities ū/u0 depends on the Re number, being about 0.8 at Re = 104 and increasing as Re rises. With the
laminar flow, the ratio is constant and equal to 0.5. A general specific feature of the near-wall turbulent flows is the
presence, on the wall, of a thin viscous sublayer, wherein molecular viscosity forces are dominant and the velocity
distribution is linear (δw

Q3(B) Explain importance of instantaneous velocity?

Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of an object in motion at a specific point in time. This is determined
similarly to average velocity, but we narrow the period of time so that it approaches zero. If an object has a
standard velocity over a period of time, its average and instantaneous velocities may be the same. The formula
for instantaneous velocity is the limit as t approaches zero of the change in d over the change in t.

Q3(C) Describe extra stress tensor?

The stress tensor can be written as: σij=−pδij+σ′ij ,where σ′ij is called the extra stress tensor. Stress Tensor τij The stress
(force per unit area) at a point in a fluid needs nine components to be completely specified, since each component of the stress
must be defined not only by the direction in which it acts but also the orientation of the surface upon which it is acting.

Q3(D) Establish Renold average relation of a fluid motion?

The Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (or RANS equations) are time-averaged[a] equations of motion
for fluid flow. The idea behind the equations is Reynolds decomposition, whereby an instantaneous quantity is
decomposed into its time-averaged and fluctuating quantities, an idea first proposed by Osborne Reynolds.[1] The
RANS equations are primarily used to describe turbulent flows. These equations can be used with approximations
based on knowledge of the properties of flow turbulence to give approximate time-averaged solutions to the Navier–
Stokes equations. For a stationary flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid, these equations can be written
in Einstein notation in Cartesian coordinates as:

The left hand side of this equation represents the change in mean momentum of fluid element owing to the
unsteadiness in the mean flow and the convection by the mean flow. This change is balanced by the mean body
force, the isotropic stress owing to the mean pressure field, the viscous stresses, and apparent stress owing to the
fluctuating velocity field, generally referred to as the Reynolds stress. This nonlinear Reynolds stress term requires
additional modeling to close the RANS equation for solving, and has led to the creation of many different turbulence
models. The time-average operator is a Reynolds operator.
Q3(E) What is prandtl mixing length theory?
Prandtl’s mixing length theory is a 2-Dimensional model attempting to describe the momentum transfer within a turbulent fluid
flow.Mixing length is defined as that distance in the transverse direction which must be covered by a lump of fluid particle
travelling with its original mean velocity in order to make the difference between its velocity and the velocity of the new layer
equal to the mean transverse fluctuation in the turbulent flow.
OR simply It can be defined as the average distance that a small mass of fluid will travel before it exchanges its momentum with
another mass of fluid.
The concept of mixing length is similar to the mean free path used in kinetic theory of gases. Prandtl proposed that when there is
mixing between two fluid elements; there is complete exchange of momentum.The turbulent shear stress can only be calculated
when the fluctuating components (u^' 〖,v〗^') are known. But since they are very difficult to measure Prandtl presented the mixing
length theory which can measure turbulent shear stress in terms of measurable quantity.Consider two fluid masses separated by
mixing length (l).The lower mass has an instantaneous velocity u̅u̅and a velocity fluctuationv'.The upper mass has an
instantaneous velocity u̅+u′u̅+u′but it does not have any velocity fluctuation in the Y direction.By virtue of velocity fluctuation v'
the lower mass moves towards the upper mass and exchanges its momentum completely.
For the lower mass:
The initial velocity= u̅u̅
The initial momentum = (ρAv′)u̅(ρAv′)u̅
The final momentum of the same mass =(ρAv′)(u̅+u′)(ρAv′)(u̅+u′)
The change in momentum = (ρAv′)(u̅+u′)−(ρAv′)u̅(ρAv′)(u̅+u′)−(ρAv′)u̅
∴Shear force =ρAv′v′ρAv′v′
∴Shearstress= shearingforceshearingarea=ρAu′v′A=ρu′v′shearingforceshearingarea=ρAu′v′A=ρu′v′
This is called Turbulent Reynolds stress.

∴Shearstress=ρu′v′=ρl2(dudy)2

NOV-DEC. 2016
Q3(A) What is equation for viscosity of a pure monatomic gas of molecular weight M?
The viscosity (in units of g/cm/s) of a pure monatomic gas is predicted by Chapman-Enskog theory, and is given by Equation

where: T is the absolute temperature in K

M is the molecular weight in g/mol
sigma is a Lennard-Jones parameter in Angstroms
Omegamu is a dimensionless function of (KT/epsilon)

Q3(C) A liquid with a constant density ρ (kg/m3)is flowing at an unknown velocity v1 (m/s) through a horizontal pipe
of cross-sectional area A1 (m2)at a pressure P1 (N/m2), and then it passes into a section of pipe were the area
gradually reduces to A2 and a pressure P2. Assuming no friction losses, calculate the velocities v1 and v2 if thE
pressure difference (P1 - P2) is known.?

Q3(E) Derive expression for heat conduction with an electrical heat source?
PAGE NO. 9.2 XEROX

JUNE 2016 (SAME AS MAY 2018)

NOV-DEC. 2015

Q3(B) Explain boundary layer theory in short?

Boundary Layer Theory-When a real fluid flows over a solid body, the velocity of fluid at the boundary will be zero. If
boundary is stationary. As we move away from boundary in perpendicular direction velocity increases to the free stream

velocity. It means velocity gradient will exist. Note: Velocity gradient does not exist outside the
boundary layer as outside the boundary layer velocity is constant and equal to free stream velocity.Development of
Boundary Layer: Development of boundary layer can be divided in three regions: laminar, transition, turbulent.
Reynolds number

For laminar boundary layer -(Re)x < 5 × 105 (For flat plate) and
5
if (Re)x > 5 × 10 Then, flow is turbulent.
Here, x is distance from leading edge in horizontal direction.

Boundary Layer Thickness (δ): It is the distance from the boundary to the point where velocity of fluid is approximately
equal to 99% of free stream velocity. It is represented by δ.

Displacement Thickness (δ*): It is observed that inside the boundary layer velocity of fluid is less than free stream
velocity hence, discharge is less in this region. To compensate for reduction in discharge the boundary is displaced
outward in perpendicular direction by some distance. This distance is called displacement thickness (δ*).

Momentum Thickness (θ): As due to boundary layer reduction in velocity occurs so, momentum also decreases.
Momentum thickness is defined as the distance measured normal to boundary of solid body by which the boundary should

be displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum of flowing fluid.

Energy Thickness (δ**): It is defined as distance measured perpendicular to the boundary of solid body by which the
boundary should be displaced to compensate for reduction in kinetic energy of flowing fluid (KE decreases due to formation

of boundary layer)
Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profile: Boundary conditions are as

Laminar Flow: A flow in which fluid flows in layer and no intermixing with each other is known as laminar flow. For circular

pipe, flow will be laminar. Where, ρ = Density of fluid, v = Velocity of fluid, D = Diameter of pipe,
μ = Viscosity of fluid. For flat plate flow will be laminar .

Where L is length of plate.

Turbulent Flow: In this flow, adjacent layer of fluid cross each other (particles of fluid move randomly instead of moving in stream line
path), for flow inside pipe. If Re > 4000, the flow is considered turbulent, for flat plate, Re > 5 × 105.Von Karman Momentum Integral
Equation

where, θ = momentum thickness

Shear stress: Where, U = Free stream velocity; ρ = Density of fluid.

Local Coefficient of Drag (C*D):It is defined as the ratio of the shear stress τ0 to the quantity

It is denoted by

Average Coefficient of Drag (CD):It is defined as the ratio of the total drag force to

Where, A = Area of surface, U = Free stream velocity, ρ = Mass density of fluid.

Blassius Experiment Results For laminar flow,

Coefficient of drag

Average coefficient of drag

For turbulent flow,

where x = Distance from leading edge Rex = Reynold number for length x. Rex = Reyonold number at end of plane

Coefficient of drag

Average coefficient of drag

For laminar flow

f = Boundary layer thickness,

 τ0 = Shear stress at solid surface ,x = Distance from where solid surface starts. Velocity profile for turbulent boundary layer
is

Conditions for Boundary Layer Separation: Let us take curve surface ABCSD where fluid flow separation print

S is determined from the condition .

If the flow is separated

If

the flow is on the average of separation

If the flow will not separate or flow will remain attained

Methods of Preventing Separation of Boundary Layer: Suction of slow-moving fluid by a suction slot.

• Supplying additional energy from a blower.

• Providing a bypass in the slotted
• Rotating boundary in the direction of flow.
• Providing small divergence in a diffuser.
• Providing guide blades in a bend.
• Providing a trip wire ring in the laminar region for the flow over a sphere.

Q3(C) Define reynolds stress and also write the time smoothed equation of continuity and motion for a fluid with constant density and
viscosity?
In fluid dynamics, the Reynolds stress is the component of the total stress tensor in a fluid obtained from the
averaging operation over the Navier–Stokes equations to account for turbulent fluctuations in fluid momentum. FOR
SMOOTHED EQUATION SEE BODHRAJ EQN. OR PDF PAGE NO. 10.5 XEROX
Q3(D) A oil is flowing in laminar region in a 1.27 x 10- m diameter tube at the rate of 22.72 lit/min. The oil viscosity is 300 cp and its
density is 960.6 kg/m .Calculate
a) Pressure drop per meter of pipe length b) The wall stress, N/m c) The velocity at the centre of the tube d) Radial position at which
velocity is equal to average velocity .

Q3(E) Establish the equation of efflux time for tank with exit pipe, Neglect the entrance loss and assume the flow in the tube is
always laminar?
Principle and Theory Consider a vertical, cylindrical tank such as that contains a Newtonian liquid up to the level
h above the bottom of the tank. The top of the tank as well as the bottom of the drain pipe are exposed to the
atmosphere. Thus, the liquid drains from the tank under the influence of gravity. A model of the draining process is
sought in order to predict the rate at which the tank empties. First, one may write a macroscopic mass balance for the
liquid in the system, which is defined as the entire liquid volume from the top surface to the outlet of the pipe. The
total mass of liquid in the system is mtot =  ( R02 L + R 2 h) (E-1)
where  is the density of the liquid, R is the radius of the tank, R0 is the pipe radius, and L is its length
d
mtot = −   R02 v (E-2) where v=v2 is the average velocity out of the bottom of the pipe. There is no v1 term
dt
because there is no flow into the top of the tank.Taking the density to be constant and substituting Equation 1 into
2
dh R 
Equation 2, one obtains = −  0  v (E-3)This equation may be integrated from the initial liquid level h1 to a
dt  R
subsequent level h2 to obtain the corresponding efflux time te. That is,
2
te  R  h2 dh
t e =  dt = −    (E-4)In order to perform the desired integration, one must know the velocity v as a
0  R 0  h1 v
function of liquid level h. That relationship comes from the macroscopic mechanical energy balance.
 UNIT-04

Q4(A)- Explain in brief nature and intensity of turbulence?

In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is fluid motion characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow
velocity. It is in contrast to a laminar flow, which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption
between those layers.[1]Turbulence is commonly observed in everyday phenomena such as surf, fast flowing rivers,
billowing storm clouds, or smoke from a chimney, and most fluid flows occurring in nature or created in engineering
applications are turbulent.[2][3]:2 Turbulence is caused by excessive kinetic energy in parts of a fluid flow, which
overcomes the damping effect of the fluid's viscosity. For this reason turbulence is commonly realized in low viscosity
fluids. In general terms, in turbulent flow, unsteady vortices appear of many sizes which interact with each other,
consequently drag due to friction effects increases. This increases the energy needed to pump fluid through a pipe.
Turbulence can be exploited, for example, by devices such as aerodynamic spoilers on aircraft that "spoil" the
laminar flow to increase drag and reduce lift.
The turbulence intensity, also often refered to as turbulence level, is defined as:

,where is the root-mean-square of the turbulent velocity fluctuations and is the mean velocity (Reynolds
averaged).If the turbulent energy, , is known can be computed as:

can be computed from the three mean velocity components ,

and as:

Q4(D) Draw and discuss the temperature and concentration profiles for conductive and convective transport in fluids?

MAY-2018
Q4(A)- Explain fouriers second law of heat conduction?
The fundamental law that governs conduction heat transfer is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction, it is an empirical
statement based on experimental observations and is given by: QX=-KA (dT/dX ) In the above equation, Qx is the rate of heat
transfer by conduction in x-direction, (dT/dx) is the temperature gradient in x-direction, A is the cross-sectional area normal to
the x-direction and k is a proportionality constant and is a property of the conduction medium, called thermal conductivity. The
‘-‘ sign in the above equation is a consequence of 2nd law of thermodynamics, which states that in spontaneous process heat
must always flow from a high temperature to a low temperature (i.e., dT/dx must be negative) . From the second law of
thermodynamics, it is known that heat is transferred over the boundary of the system in the direction of decreasing
temperature.
Q4(B)- Importance of brinkman number?
Brinkman number is a measure of the importance of the viscous heating relative the conductive heat transfer. This number is
important in cases where large velocity changes occurs over short distances such as lubricant flow (perhaps, flow in the gate). In
die casting this number has small values indicating that practically the viscous heating is not important.
Q4(c)TEMPRATURE PROFILE IN A FLAT PLATE AT STEADY STATE?
Heat transfer through a plane slab

Figure 16.4: Temperature boundary conditions for a slab

For this configuration (Figure 16.4), the area is not a function of , i.e. .

Equation (16.15) thus becomes

Equation (16.16) can be integrated immediately to yield

(16..17)

and

(16..18)

Equation (16.18) is an expression for the temperature field where and are constants of integration.
For a second order equation, such as (16.16), we need two boundary conditions to determine and .
One such set of boundary conditions can be the specification of the temperatures at both sides of the slab

as shown in Figure 16.4, say ; .

The condition implies that . The condition implies

that , or . With these expressions for and the temperature

distribution can be written as

(16..19)

This linear variation in temperature is shown in Figure 16.5 for a situation in which .

Figure 16.5: Temperature distribution through a slab

 The heat flux is also of interest. This is given by

Q4(D)-QUANTIFY AND DEDUCE REYNOLDS ANALOGY EQUATION. Nst= f/2 ?

GIVEN IN EII NOTES

Q4-(E) ESTABLISH BIOT NO. AND FOURIER NO. FOR HEAT TRANSFER?
Unsteady (Transient) Conduction
If the energy balance equation is developed for a case with no generation, constant
properties, and conduction (molecular transport) as the only flux term, it becomes

which is sometimes called the Fourier Field Equation. When further limited to one-dimensional
transport:

The "alpha" term in these equations is the thermal diffusivity

Solution of this PDE is complex, depending on the geometry, boundary conditions, etc., and is the
subject of entirre books. In this course, we will look at a few simplified applications.
By convention, the Fourier Number is given by:

where L is a characteristic length of the system. The Biot Number is:

The characteristic length depends on the shape of the system. Typically, we use the radius of a cylinder
or a sphere and the "semithickness" of a slab (so MSH use s in their equations).
The Fourier number is the dimensionless time for a temperature change to occur. The Biot number
represents the ratio of heat transfer resistance in the interior of the system (L/k) to the resistance
between the surroundings and the system surface (1/h). Therefore, small Bi represents the case were
the surface film impedes heat transport and large Bi the case where conduction through and out of the
solid is the limiting factor.
"Lumped" Model We'll begin by looking at the limiting case where the Biot number approaches zero. This
applies to systems where the rate of heat transfer is determined by the resistance between the system
surroundings and the outer surface of the object. Inside the object, there is very little resistance (1/k =
0), so the entire object may be treated as a single "lump" of uniform temperature. These "lumped"
models treat solid objects in the same way a perfectly- mixed fluid system would be, and the entire
object heats and cools at once.
The energy balance is:

The volume/surface area ratio depends on the specific geometry, but will always have dimensions of
length:

The left hand side of the energy balance can be expressed in terms of the Biot number

and then the balance equation can be rearranged and integrated

The resulting lumped model for heating and cooling may be used when Bi is very small.
 NOV-DEC.-2016

Q4(A)- What is temperature and pressure dependence of thermal conductivity? XEROX PAGE NO. 8.2

Q4(B)- Difference between biot no. and nusselt no.?

Both are dimensional numbers used to reduce the number of total variables in heat transfer equations designated by
hl/k ,but both are completely different.
Nusselt no. is used to calculate the heat transfer rate in Convection Flows. Suppose a flat plate is kept at
temperature T1 and fluid is flowing at temperature T2 on it. So, Nusselt no. is the ratio of heat transfer by
convection( assuming fluid to be moving) to the heat transfer by conduction by the fluid ( assuming the fluid to be
stationary)
Nu = h* A*(T2-T1)/K*A*(T2-T1)/L =hL/k. Here, k is thermal conductivity of fluid, L is the characteristic length of
plate( in this case it will be x from starting), h is the convection heat transfer coefficient of fluid. Nusselt no. = 1
shows that heat transfer rate is equal both in convection as well as comduction, however this is highly unlikely as
convection heat transfer is always more than conduction. In Designing of heat exchanger, Nusselt no. is mostly used.

In Biot number, the focus goes on the body. It is used in Transient Analysis. Suppose a body( sphere) is kept in a
liquid. It is the ratio of heat transfer by convection to the heat transfer in conduction in the body or conduction
resistance to convective resistance. Bi = hl/k. But here k is thermal conductivity of body. l is the characteristic length
of body given by Volume/ Area. Biot number is used to determine whether a body can be taken as a lumped system
(body having same temperature throughout, temperature changes with time but uniformly in whole body). Taking,
body as a lumped system simplifies the analysis.

Q4(e)- Evaporation loss from an oxygen tank, PAGE NO. 326 BIRD BOOK
liquefied gases are sometimes stored in well insulated sphericalcontainers vented to the atmosphere. Develop an expression for
thesteady state heat transfer rate through the walls of such acontainer with the radii of the inner and outer walls beingr o and
r1 respectively, and the temperaturesat the inner and outer walls being To and T1.The thermal conductivity of the insulation varies
linearly withtemperature form ko at To to k1 atT1. SOLUTION IN SOLUTION MANUAL OF BIRD PAGE NO. 289

NOV-DEC-2015

Q4(A) Explain how thermal conductivity of gases varies with temperature.? XEROX PAGE NO. 8.2

Q4(B)- Define lumped heat capacity system, also define Biot and Fourier number?

Q4©- Establish the equation for heat production through the plate/rectangular wall at steady state?

Q4(D)- BIRD BOOK QUESTION NO. 10B.1 ….. (SOLUTION IN SOLUTION MANUAL BIRD PAGE 268)

Q4(E)- Write and quantify fourth postulate of energy transfer to get fourior field equation and find the temperature
profile for heat penetration into semi-infinite medium?
 OCT-2018 UNIT -05

Q5(A) WRITE any one analogy for heat and mass transfer.? (EII HEAT TRANSFER NOTES)

Q5(B) What are constant and variable flow area systems?

Q5©- Explain flow through bend with suitable equations and figure.?
The main feature of flow through a bend is the presence of a radial pressure gradient created by the centrifugal force
acting on the fluid. Because of this, the fluid at the center of the pipe moves towards the outer side and comes back
along the wall towards the inner side. This creates a double spiral flow field shown schematically in Figure 1. If the
bend curvature is strong enough, the adverse pressure gradient near the outer wall in the bend and near the inner
wall just after the bend may lead to flow separation at these points, giving rise to a large increase in pressure losses.
Even for fairly large-radius bends, the flow field in the bend will be severely distorted as illustrated by the data of
Rowe (1970) shown in Figure 2.
The pressure losses suffered in a bend are caused by both friction and momentum exchanges resulting from a change
in the direction of flow. Both these factors depend on the bend angle, the curvature ratio and the Reynolds Number.
The overall pressure drop can be expressed as the sum of two components: 1) that resulting from friction in a straight
pipe of equivalent length which depends mainly on the Reynolds number (and the pipe roughness); and 2) that
resulting from losses due to change of direction, normally expressed in terms of a bend-loss coefficient, which
depends mainly on the curvature ratio and the bend angle. The pressure loss in a bend can thus be calculated as:
(1)

where fs is the Moody friction factor in a straight pipe; ρ, the density; u, the mean flow velocity; R b the bend radius;
D, the tube diameter; θ, the bend angle; and kb, the bend loss coefficient obtained from Figure 3. Extensive data on loss
coefficient for bends are given by Idelchik (1986).

Q5(D) PAGE NO. 545 BIRD BOOK (18.2) whole concept

Q5(E) Develop the equation to determine the time for emplying of vessel Consider suitable assumptions
Consider a cylindrical tank with a cross-sectional area of ‘A’, liquid filled to a height ‘h’. It has a drain line of
cross-sectional are ‘a’. The tank is being drained under gravity, how much time will it take to drain the tank
(ignoring effects due to friction and viscosity)?

Solution: The key to solve the problem is to equate the drain flow rate to the level drop in the tank. But the trick
is that the drain flow rate depends on the level.
Drain flow rate = cross-sectional area x velocity

= Velocity is obtained by equating potential energy to kinetic energy as it is freely falling

under gravity,

Rate of volume drop in the tank = cross-sectional area x rate of infinitesimal level drop in the tank

Equating both, we have

Solving which, we get:

 JUNE2018

Q5(A) Explain Fin efficiency?

The fin efficiency is defined as the ratio of the heat transfer to the fin to the heat transfer to an ideal fin. Fin efficiency is defined as
the ratio of actual heat flow of the fin to that which would be obtained with a fin of constant temperature uniformly equal to
the base surface temperature, that is, one with infinite thermal conductivity.

Q5(B) Explain composite block heat transfer at steady state? (see notes) SEE XEROX PAGE 9.14

Q5©- Explain boundary layer flow for heat transfer?

The time-averaged differential equation for energy in a given flow field is linear in the temperature if fluid properties
are considered to be independent of temperature. Thus, the concept of a Heat Transfer Coefficient arises such that
the heat transfer rate from a wall is given by:
(1)

where the heat transfer coefficient, α, is only a function of the flow field. Tw is the wall temperature and Tr, the
recovery or adiabatic wall temperature. The above is also true of the Boundary Layer energy equation, which is a
particular case of the general energy equation. When fluids encounter solid boundaries, the fluid in contact with the
wall is at rest and viscous effects thus retard a layer in the vicinity of the wall. For large Reynolds Numbers based on
distance from the leading edge, these viscous layers are thin compared to this length.
When the wall is at a different temperature to the fluid, there is similarly a small region where the temperature
varies. These regions are the velocity and thermal boundary layers. In 1905 Prandtl showed that this thin region could
be analyzed separately from the bulk fluid flow in that pressure variation normal to the wall may be neglected and
the pressure is given by that impressed by the free stream. Velocity normal to the wall is also of order, of the
thickness of the boundary layer, the characteristic velocity being that of the free stream and the length being the
distance from the leading edge. Thus, the boundary layer equations for steady incompressible laminar flow in two
dimensions may be approximated to be:
(2)

(3)

(4)

p, T, u and v are the flow pressure, temperature and velocities along and perpendicular to the surface, respectively.
λ, μ, cp and ρ are similarly the thermal conductivity, viscosity, specific heat and density. x and y are Cartesian
coordinates along and perpendicular to the surface.
The classical laminar solution to the momentum equation was provided by Blasius for the case of a semi-infinite flat
plate aligned with uniform flow. The velocities normalized by the free-stream value u0 are plotted in Figure 1 vs. the
nondimensional quantity η = y/xRex−1/2 Rex is the Reynolds number based on distance from the leading
edge of the plate.
 Q5(D) Establish Temperature profile in a circular wire? (SEE EII NOTES HT)

Q5(E) Establish brinkman number in free convection?

The Brinkman number (Br) is a dimensionless number related to heat conduction from a wall to a flowing viscous
fluid, commonly used in polymer processing. It is named after the Dutch mathematician and physicist Henri
Brinkman. There are several definitions; one is

• μ is the dynamic viscosity;

• u is the flow velocity;
• κ is the thermal conductivity;
• T0 is the bulk fluid temperature;
• Tw is the wall temperature;
• Pr is the Prandtl number
• Ec is the Eckert number[1]
It is the ratio between heat produced by viscous dissipation and heat transported by molecular conduction. i.e., the
ratio of viscous heat generation to external heating. The higher its value, the slower the conduction of heat produced
by viscous dissipation and hence the larger the temperature rise.[2][3]
In, for example, a screw extruder, the energy supplied to the polymer melt comes primarily from two sources:
viscous heat generated by shear between elements of the flowing liquid moving at different velocities;
direct heat conduction from the wall of the extruder.
The former is supplied by the motor turning the screw, the latter by heaters. The Brinkman number is a measure
of the ratio of the two

NOV-DEC. 2016

Q5(a)- FACTORS TO CAUSE DIFFUSION TO OCCUR?

Diffusion is a passive process of transport. A single substance tends to move from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration until the concentration is equal across a space. You are familiar with diffusion of substances through
the air. For example, think about someone opening a bottle of ammonia in a room filled with people. The ammonia gas is
at its highest concentration in the bottle; its lowest concentration is at the edges of the room. The ammonia vapor will
diffuse, or spread away, from the bottle; gradually, more and more people will smell the ammonia as it spreads. Materials
move within the cell ‘s cytosol by diffusion, and certain materials move through the plasma membrane by diffusion.
Diffusion expends no energy. On the contrary, concentration gradients are a form of potential energy, dissipated as the
gradient is eliminated.
FACTORS xtent of the concentration gradient: The greater the difference in concentration, the more rapid the diffusion.
The closer the distribution of the material gets to equilibrium, the slower the rate of diffusion becomes.
Mass of the molecules diffusing: Heavier molecules move more slowly; therefore, they diffuse more slowly. The reverse is
true for lighter molecules.
Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the energy and therefore the movement of the molecules, increasing the rate
of diffusion. Lower temperatures decrease the energy of the molecules, thus decreasing the rate of diffusion.
Solvent density: As the density of a solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. The molecules slow down because
they have a more difficult time getting through the denser medium. If the medium is less dense, diffusion increases.
Because cells primarily use diffusion to move materials within the cytoplasm, any increase in the cytoplasm’s density will
inhibit the movement of the materials. An example of this is a person experiencing dehydration. As the body’s cells lose
water, the rate of diffusion decreases in the cytoplasm, and the cells’ functions deteriorate. Neurons tend to be very
sensitive to this effect. Dehydration frequently leads to unconsciousness and possibly coma because of the decrease in
diffusion rate within the cells.
Solubility: As discussed earlier, nonpolar or lipid-soluble materials pass through plasma membranes more easily than polar
materials, allowing a faster rate of diffusion.
Surface area and thickness of the plasma membrane: Increased surface area increases the rate of diffusion, whereas a
thicker membrane reduces it.
 Distance travelled: The greater the distance that a substance must travel, the slower the rate of diffusion. This places an
upper limitation on cell size. A large, spherical cell will die because nutrients or waste cannot reach or leave the center of
the cell. Therefore, cells must either be small in size, as in the case of many prokaryotes, or be flattened, as with many
single-celled.eukaryotes.

Q5(B)- Explain the Temperature end Pressure dependence of mass diffusivity by Battery Bird Equation? XEROX13.3
Q5©- Xerox page no. 13.9 problem 13.1
Q5(D)- A droplet of substance A is suspended in a stream of gas B. The droplet radius is r1. We postulate that there is a
spherical stagnant gas film of radius r2. the concentration of A in the gas phase is xA1 at r = r1 and xA2 at r = r2. Answer in the
pdf named (chapter 4 ya 5)
Q5(E) What are various analogies hetween heat and mass transfer? Discuss in details. (SEE NOTES EII HT)

Q5(E) GRASHOFF NO. IN FREE CONVECTION?

Grashof Number is a non-dimensional number used both in fluid mechanics and heat transfer. This number is
frequently used in cases where natural convection is involved. It is named after a German engineer Franz Grashof.
Grashof Number is use where buoyancy force is predominant. Mathematically Grashof number is the ratio
of buoyancy force to viscouS force.

Matheatical Representation of Grashof Number – g = gravitational acceleration ,β

= coefficient of thermal expansion ,Ts = surface temperature ,T∞ = bulk temperature ,L = vertical length ,ν =

kinematic viscosity ( = dynamics viscosity / density ) Physical Significance of Grashof Number

The most common use of grashof number is to check the fluid flow behaviour around a new prototype to ensure its
use in the practical field. Most of the times scaled models of the desired prototype is tested under similar
environment. Grashof numbers comes handy when buoyancy and viscous forces are very important.
• It represents how dominant is the buoyancy force which is responsible for the convection comparing to the viscous
forces.
• Grashof number is very similar to the reynold’s number . Only difference is that Reynolds Number is used for
forced convection cases where GrashoFF number is used for natural convection phenomenon.
• Nusselt Number is a function of Prandtle Number and Grashof Number.
• Reynolds umber Categorizes the flow as laminar. transition and turbulent flow in forced convection cases. Grasfof
number does the same in natural convection.
• Grashof number is a fnction of buoyayncy force, inertia force and viscous force.

NOV-2015
Q5(A) Define the important dimensionless numbers used in mass transfer.? NOTES AND XEROX
Q5(B) Write the Sllatery-Bird Equation and also write the formula for convective mass transfer coefficient. XEROX
PAGE 13.3
Q5©- Discuss the theory of ordinary diffusion in gases at low density? XEROX PAGE 13.5
Q5(D)- What are various analogies between heat and mass transfer? Discuss in details (EII NOTES H.T)
Q5(E)- XEROX KI PDF TOPIC 14.4