Dewatering

Dewatering
The process of grinding and classification involves the use of large quantities of
water.
For instance in the gold industry, the rule of thumb is a ton of water for a ton of ore.
This bulk of water has to be separated or reduced for downstream treatment for
recovery of the mineral in the ore.
Dewatering, or solid-liquid separation, produces a relatively dry concentrate for
shipment.
Partial dewatering is also performed at various stages in the treatment, so as to
prepare the feed for subsequent processes. Dewatering methods can be broadly
classified into four groups:
• Sedimentation/Thickening
• Filtration
• Thermal drying
• Dewatering using Screens
The separation of solids from liquids is usually achieved by gravity sedimentation in
thickeners. For fine particles this is a slow process.
In general, 75–80 % of the water can be separated and removed by thickeners.
For further water removal, filters are used where in excess of 90% of the water can
be removed.
Thickening
Continuous thickening, (by an operation called sedimentation), is the process of
separation of suspended solid particles from a liquid stream by gravity settling.
The primary purpose of thickening is to increase the solids concentration of the feed
stream.
Gravity settling is aided by addition of chemicals called flocculants.
The inlet stream going to a thickener generally is called ‘feed’ or ‘influent’.
Overflow from the unit may be called 'overflow’, ‘effluent’, or ‘supernatant’.
Underflow may be called ‘pulp’, ‘sludge’, ‘slurry’, ‘mud’, etc.
The terminology will depend upon the industry application.
Components and Accessories of Thickeners
A thickener consists of a collection of components, which can be supplied in
a number of variations. A general schematic showing of a thickener.
The basic components are :
• Tank
• Drive Support Structure
• Drive Unit and Lifting Device
• Rake Structure
• Feed Well
• Overflow Arrangement
• Underflow Arrangement
• Instrumentation and Flocculation Facilities
• Various Zones of a Thickener
The solids concentration in a thickener varies from that of the
clear overflow to that of the thickened underflow being
discharged. Although the variation in concentration is
continuous, the concentrations at various depths may be
grouped into four zones,
Flow of Continuous Thickener
In a continuous thickener, the feed pulp is fed into the centre via a feed-well
placed up to 1 m below the surface, in order to cause as little disturbance as
possible.
The clarified liquid overflows a peripheral launder, while the solids which settle
over the entire bottom of the tank are withdrawn as a thickened pulp from an
outlet at the centre.

Within the tank are one or more rotating radial arms, from each of which are
suspended a series of blades, shaped so as to rake the settled solids towards the
central outlet.

The blades also assist the compaction of the settled particles and produce a
thicker underflow than can be achieved by simple settling.

The solids in the thickener move continuously downwards, and then inwards
towards the thickened underflow outlet, while the liquid moves upwards and
radially outwards.

. In general, there is no region of constant composition in the thickener.

Thickener Design
• Thickeners are designed using the basic laws of sedimentation.
• For designing, the chief criterion is to determine the relation between the settling
velocity and the dimensions of the vessel to be used for each particular slurry.
• The settling velocity for a particular slurry can be easily determined in the
laboratory by using small-scale tests.
• The tests consist of determining the downward movement of the boundary of the
clear liquid and the suspension.
• It has been found that this rate is initially constant but the rate decreased as the
particles slowly settled to the bottom and the interface met the sludge zone.
• Concentration of particles progressively increasing with depth.
It is obvious that the deeper the vessel and longer the time given for settling, the clearer will be the supernatant liquid and the
thicker will be the sludge.

The decrease in the settling rate is due to hindrance by increased crowding of the particles as they settle and collect at the bottom
of the vessel.
At the sludge-forming layer, the particles pack down by displacing the
liquid in between. In so doing, the clear liquid level rises.

These considerations apply both to batch and continuous processes, with the difference that in the continuous process a
balance between the flow rate of the overflow stream and the removal rate of the sludge has to be maintained.
Sedimentation Layers Resulting From Particles of Different Size and Density
Design Consideration
• These considerations originally used by Coe and Clevenger are in use extensively.
The quantitative basis for designing the thickener area assumes that
1. Settling rate is a function of concentration;
2. The volume rate of discharge of the clear supernatant liquid is equal to the difference of
the rate of feed of the slurry minus the rate of removal of the thickened layer.
• For determining the thickener area, Coe and Clevenger assumed that the liquid moving
Upwards is always greater than the movement downwards.
• The mass of liquid flowing upwards is given by
• (F - D)QMF t / h (1)
• where F = the feed mass ratio (liquid/solids, also known as the feed dilution)
• D = discharge mass ratio (liquid/solid) and
• QMF = feed capacity by mass (t/h)
• At equilibrium, the upward velocity of liquid equals the downward velocity of the
solids.
• Thus if νS is the velocity of sedimentation, A the cross-sectional area of the tank,
in m2, and ρL the specific gravity of the liquid, then at equilibrium
F−D
• vs = Q MF (2)
AρL

𝐹−𝐷
• 𝐴= 𝑄𝑀𝐹 (3)
𝑣𝑠 𝜌𝐿

In practice, to determine the design value of the thickener area, a number of laboratory sedimentation
tests are run using 2 litre cylinders and determining the value of νS for a range of F values. The
maximum value of A is taken as the design cross-sectional area of the thickener tank.
Dahlstrom and Fitch have analysed each of the settling zones and arrived at a
practical expression similar to the expression of Coe and Clevenger for sizing a
thickener.
Considering that the flow rate in the clear zone should be less than the settling rate
of the smallest particle that has to be removed by settling; they derived the velocity
of sedimentation as
F−D
• vs = Q (4)
ρ
• This equation is similar to Equation (2) by Coe and Clevenger.
• Dahlstrom and Fitch suggested that the actual sedimentation rate must be
multiplied by the areal efficiency factor, AEF to obtain a realistic value. The areal
factor is a function of the tank dimensions (height and diameter) and ranges
between 0.20 and 0.25.
• Equations (3) and (4) are extensively used to determine the cross-sectional areas
of tanks.
• The laboratory estimations are performed at different concentrations of F and D
and the largest value of A is taken as the designed size of the tank as in the Coe and
Clevenger method.
• For practical purposes they suggest a scale-up factor of 1.25–1.5 for thickener
units less than 15.2 m in diameter and 1.3–1.5 for units greater than 15.2 m in
diameter.
Thickener Operation and Control
Thickener control philosophies are usually based on the following idea:
• The underflow density obtained is the most important performance criterion.
• The overflow clarity is also a consideration, but this is generally not as critical.
• Optimization of flocculant usage.

• Protection of the raking mechanism