BIOLOGY [PRE-FINALS]
Lesson 1: Cell Theory
Cell Theory:
1. All living things are composed of cells
2. Cell is the basic unit of life
3. Cells arise form pre-existing cells
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek – discovered
microorganisms (protozoa, bacteria, sperm)
 Robert Hooke – coined the term “cell” for the
box-like structure he observed when viewing cork
tissue through a lens
 Mathias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann – studied
tissues and proposed the unified cell theory
(Rudolf Virchow made important contributions to
this theory)
 Cell - is the smallest unit of a living thing, a living
thing made up of one or more cell is called an
organism / cells are the basic building blocks of all
organisms
Categories of Cells:
1. Prokaryotic
2. Eukaryotic
 Prokaryotes – pro = before / no membrane-
bound organelles / no nucleus [ex: bacteria and
archaea]
 Eukaryotes – eu = true / has membrane-bound
organelles / has nucleus [animals, plants, protists,
fungi]
Lesson 2: Common Components of All Cells
1. Plasma membrane – outer covering that
separates the cell’s interior from its
surrounding environment
2. Cytoplasm – jelly-like cytosol within the cell in
which other cellular components are found
3. DNA – genetic material of the cell
4. Ribosomes – synthesize proteins
PLASMA MEMBRANE
- All cells have plasma membrane
- Plasma membrane – phospholipid bilayer
with embedded proteins that separates the
internal contents of the cell from its
surrounding environment
- Phospholipid – is a lipid molecule with two
fatty acid chains and a phosphate-containing
group
- Plasma membrane – controls the passage of
organic molecules, ions, water, oxygen /
waste also leave the cell by passing through
PM
- Microvilli – found in plasma membranes that
specializes in absorption / found in small
intestines, absorbs nutrients in digested food
THE CYTOPLASM
- Cytoplasm – entire region of a cell within the
plasma membrane, made up of 70-80% water,
semi-solid consistency that comes from proteins
within it
- Many metabolic reactions, including protein
synthesis, take place in the cytoplasm
- Cytosol – is the liquid or aqueous part of the
cytoplasm
Lesson 3: Prokaryotic VS Eukaryotic Cells
PROKARYOTIC CELL
- Prokaryote – single-celled organism
(unicellular) that lacks a nucleus or any other
membrane-bound organelle
- Nucleoid – central part of prokaryotic cells,
contains prokaryotic DNA
- Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell
wall and many have a polysaccharide capsule
- Cell wall – acts as an extra layer of protection,
helps the cell maintain its shape and prevents
dehydration
- Capsule - enables the cell to attach to
surfaces in its environment
- Flagella – used for locomotion (movement)
- Pili – used to exchange genetic material
during a type of reproduction called
conjugation
- Fimbriae – are used by bacteria to attach to a
host cell
CELL SIZE
- Prokaryotic cells - 0.1–5.0 µm in diameter
- Eukaryotic cells - 10–100 µm in diameter
- The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and
organic molecules that enter them to quickly
spread to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any
wastes produced within a prokaryotic cell
can quickly move out. However, larger
eukaryotic cells have evolved different
structural adaptations to enhance cellular
transport. Indeed, the large size of these cells
 would not be possible without these
adaptations.
- Cell size is limited because volume increases
much more quickly than does cell surface
area. As a cell becomes larger, it becomes
more and more difficult for the cell to
acquire sufficient materials to support the
processes inside the cell, because the relative
size of the surface area through which
materials must be transported declines.
- *As a cell grows larger, it becomes less
efficient. One way to be more efficient is to
divide; another way is to develop organelles
that perform specific tasks / this’ll lead to the
development of eukaryotic cells
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
- Have membrane-bound organelles
- Numerous membrane-bound organelles
- Several rod-shaped chromosomes
- Has “true nucleus” because the nucleus is
surrounded by a membrane
- Organelle – “little organ”
ORGANELLES
1. Nucleus
- Most prominent organelle in a cell / houses
cell’s DNA and directs the synthesis of
ribosomes and proteins
a) Nuclear Envelope
- Double-membrane structure that constitutes
the outermost portion of the nucleus
- Phospholipid bilayers
- Punctuated with pores that control the
passage of ions, molecules, and the RNA
between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
- Nucleoplasm – semi-solid fluid inside the
nucleus, where we find the chromatin and
the nucleolus
b) Chromatin and Chromosomes
- Chromosomes – are structures within the
nucleus that are made up of DNA / are only
visible and distinguishable from one another
when a cell is getting ready to divide
- PROKARYOTES: single circular chromosomes
- EUKARYOTES: linear structure of
chromosomes
- Chromatin – unwound protein-chromosome
complexes / material that makes up the
chromosome both when condensed and
decondensed
c) The Nucleolus
- Nucleus – directs the synthesis of ribosomes
- Nucleolus – darkly straining area within the
nucleus that aggregates the ribosomal RNA
with associated proteins to assemble the
ribosomal subunits that are transported
through pores in the nuclear envelope to the
cytoplasm
2. Ribosomes
- Ribosomes - are cellular organelles
responsible for protein synthesis
- They may be attached to the cytoplasmic side
of the plasma membrane or the cytoplasmic
side of the endoplasmic reticulum and the
outer membrane of the nuclear envelope
- Polyribosomes – clusters of ribosomes
- Ribosomes receives “orders” for protein
synthesis from the nucleus where the DNA is
transcribed into messenger RNA
- The mRNA travels to the ribosomes, which
translate the code provided by the sequence
of the nitrogenous bases in the mRNA into a
specific order of amino acids in a protein
- Ribosomes are found in every cell
- Pancreas – responsible for creating several
digestive enzymes, and the cells that produce
these enzymes contain many ribosomes
3. Mitochondria
- Mitochondria – power house or energy
factories of the cell / responsible for making
adenosine triphosphate or ATP
- ATP – represents the short-term energy of the
cell
- Cellular respiration – the process of making
ATP using the chemical energy found in
glucose and other nutrients
- Cellular respiration in mitochondria – uses
oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as waste
product
- Muscle cells have very high concentration of
mitochondria that produce ATP
- Lactic acid - is produced when your cells
don’t get enough oxygen, small ATP is
produced
- Mitochondria – oval-shaped, double-
membrane organelles that have their own
ribosomes and DNA
- Cristae – folds within the inner layer of
mitochondria
- Mitochondrial matrix – area surrounded by
the folds
4. Peroxisomes
- Peroxisomes – are small, round organelles
enclosed by single membranes
- they carry out oxidation reactions that may
break down fatty acids and amino acids
- they detoxify many poisons that may enter
the body
- Many of these oxidation release hydrogen
peroxides which are damaging to the cells but
peroxisomes confined this reaction and break
down hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygen
- Alcohol - is detoxified by peroxisomes in the
liver
- Glyoxysomes – specialized peroxisomes in
plants that is responsible for converting
stored fats into sugar
5. Vesicles and Vacuoles
- Are membrane-bound sacs that function in
storage and transport
- Vesicles – can fuse with either plasma
membrane or other membrane systems
within the cell
- Vacuole – does not fuse with the membranes
of other cellular components
6. The Endomembrane System
- Endo = within
- Endomembrane System – group of
membrane and organelles in eukaryotic cells
that works together to modify, package and
transport lipids and proteins
- Includes: Nuclear envelope, lysosomes,
vesicles, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
Apparatus / plasma membrane
- Mitochondria or chloroplasts are not part of
the endomembrane system
7. Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Endoplasmic Reticulum – is a series of
interconnected membranous sacs and
collectively tubules that modifies protein and
synthesizes lipids
- RER – modifies protein
- SER – synthesizes lipids
A. Rough ER
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) – has
ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface
- Ribosomes transfer their newly synthesized
proteins to the lumen of the RER where they
undergo structural modifications such as:
folding or the acquisition of side chains.
These modified proteins will be incorporated
into cellular membranes or secreted from the
cell
- Cellular membranes – the membrane of the
ER or those of other organelles
- RER – also make phospholipids for cellular
membranes / engaged in modifying proteins
- Cells of the liver - has a lot of RER because
they modify protein
B. Smooth ER
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) –
continuous with the RER but has few or no
ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface
- Functions: synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids,
and steroid hormones, detoxification of
medications and poisons and storage of
calcium ions
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum – specialized SER in
muscle cells, responsible for the storage of
the calcium ions that are need to trigger the
coordinated contractions of the muscle cells
8. Golgi Apparatus
- Golgi apparatus – responsible for the sorting,
tagging and packaging and distribution of
lipids and proteins / a series of flattened
membranes
- Cis face – receiving side of the Golgi apparatus
- Trans face – opposite side
- PROCESS: the vesicles travel to the cis face
then empty their contents into the lumen of
the GA, as they travel, they undergo further
modifications that allow them to be sorted
(addition of short chains of sugar molecules
- Cells that engage in secretory activities
(salivary glands that secrete digestive
enzymes AND cells of the immune system that
secrete antibodies) have an abundance of
Golgi
- Extra role of GA: synthesizing polysaccharides
9. Lysosomes
- Lysosomes – use their hydrolytic enzymes to
destroy pathogens that might enter the cell /
gets rid of non-functioning organelles
- Macrophages of white blood cells – through
phagocytosis / endocytosis, the section of
the plasma membrane of the macrophage
invaginates (folds in) and engulfs a pathogen
10. Cytoskeleton
- Cytoskeleton – network of protein fibers that
maintains the shape of the cell, secure
organelles in specific positions, allow
cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell
and enable cells within the multicellular
organisms to move
- 3 Types of Fibers within the Cytoskeleton:
Microfilaments, intermediate filaments &
microtubules
I. Microfilaments
- Microfilaments – narrowest tissue of
cytoskeleton that functions in cellular
movement / about 7nm in diameter and is
made up of two intertwined strands of
globular proteins called actin
- Microfilaments are also called actin filaments
- Actin – powered by ATP to assemble its
filamentous form, which serve as the track
movement of a motor protein called myosin
- Myosin – enables actin to engage in cellular
events requiring motion (cell division in
animal cells and cytoplasmic streaming –
circular movement of the cell cytoplasm in
plant cells
- Muscle cells – have a lot of actin and myosin /
when actin and myosin filaments slide past
another, muscles contract
- Microfilaments – provides rigidity and shape
to the cell / they depolymerize and reform
quickly
- White blood cells – can move to the site of
infection and phagocytize the pathogen
II. Intermediate Filaments
- Intermediate Filaments – made up of several
strands of fibrous proteins that are wound
- together / 8 to 10 nm / between
microfilaments and microtubules
- They have no role in cell movement, their
function is purely structural
- FUNCTIONS: They maintain the shape of cell
because of the tension they bear / they
anchor the nucleus and other organelles in
place
- Intermediate Filaments – most diverse group
of cytoskeletal elements / fibrous proteins are
found in IF
- Keratin – fibrous protein that strengthens
your hair, nails and epidermis of the skin
III. Microtubules
- Microtubules – are small hollow tubes
- the wall of the microtubule is made of
polymerized dimers of a-tubulin and b-
tubulin (two globular proteins)
- Microtubules are the widest components of
cytoskeleton (25 nm)
- Microtubules help the cell resist compression,
provide a track along which vesicles move
through the cell, and pull replicated
chromosomes to opposite ends of a dividing
cell
- Microtubules are also the structural elements
of flagella, cilia and centrioles
IV. Flagella and Cilia
- Flagella – long, hair-like structures that
extend from the plasma membrane and are
used to move an entire cell
- Cilia – many of them extend along the entire
surface of the plasma membrane / they are
short, hair-like structures that are used to
move entire cells (Paramecia) or substances
along the outer surface of the cell
- Both flagella and cilia share a common
structural arrangement of microtubules called
“9 + 2 array” / a single flagellum or cilium is
made of a ring of nine microtubule doublets,
surrounding a single microtubule doublet in
the center
Lesson 4: Plant Cell VS Animal Cell
Animal Cell: Centrosome & Lysosome
Plant Cell: Cell Wall, Chloroplast & Vacuole
 Centrosome – microtubule-organizing center found
near the nuclei of animal cells / contains a pair of
centrioles
- Centrioles – cylinder of nine triplets of
microtubules / has a role in pulling the
duplicated chromosomes to opposite ends
of the dividing cell
- Centrosomes – the organelles where all
microtubules originate
 - Cells that had their centrosome removed
can still divide, and plant cells with no
centrosomes can divide
 Lysosomes – cell’s “garbage disposal”
 Cell Wall – structure external to the plasma
membrane / rigid covering that protects the cell ,
provides structural support and gives shape to the
cell
- Fungi and protist have cell wall
- Prokaryotic cell – peptidoglycan
- Cell wall – cellulose
 Chloroplasts – plant cell organelles that carry out
photosynthesis
- Thylakoids – set of interconnected and
stacked fluid membrane sacs
- Granum – stack of thylakoid
- Stroma – stack of inner membrane that
surrounds the grana
- Chlorophyll – green pigment / captures the
light energy that drives photosynthesis
 Central Vacuole – plays a key role in regulating
the cell’s concentration of water in changing
environmental conditions
- Cell grows larger when the central vacuoles
holds more water

Prepared by: Adato, Yamille M.

God Bless!