Recent Developments in Steel/Concrete Composite Slabs

Composite floor slabs are of interest to conceptual designers,
architects, engineers and contractors. They combine a variety
of structural and economic advantages with the very real
benefit of providing a stable, secure working platform dur-
ing construction. The JABSE Publications Committee has
assembled a series of articles to give readers an in-depth
state-of-the-art insight into recent developments in the field.
The series will be presented in two parts: three articles in this
issue of Structural Engineering International, and a second
group in SEI 2/96. Authors for this series come from univer-
sities and the steel industry, primarily in Europe, where much
work is currently underway to prepare European-wide
recommendations for composite slab design and construc-
tion, but also from other regions of the world.

Composite Floor Slab Design and Construction

%Iichel Crisinel, Civil Eng.
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne. Switzerland
David O'Leary, Civil Eng.
University of Salford. Salford. UK

The Development
of Composite Slabs
Composite slab systems were first de-
veloped in the late 1930s for use in tall
buildings. At that time, this technique
brought a considerable dead-load re-
duction, and was essentially seen as a
substitute for traditional reinforced
concrete slabs. Because of their effi-
ciency and advantages, composite
slabs were soon applied to a wide
range of construction projects invari-
ably based on structural steel framing
(highrise, lowrise and industrial build-
ings).
In Europe. the first composite slabs
appeared at the end of the 1950s [1].
At that time, the construction was
made using corrugated sheets support-
ed by fabricated steel beams and cov-
ered with a thin concrete slab contain-
ing a wire mesh (Fig. 1). The connec-
tion between the sheet and the con-
crete was provided by pure bond,
except in cases of significantly high
load conditions, where the mesh wires
were welded to the top of the sheet
corrugations.
In the middle of the 1960s. the first
dovetailed profiled sheeting, originally
designed for composite slabs, was in-
troduced from the USA to the Euro-
pean market, especially in Switzer-
land [2]. During the late 1980s, the in-
troduction of fast-track construction
methods brought a new interest in
steel design and consequently in com-
posite flooring. This change in mental-
ity. coupled with a search by manufac-
turers to use composite slabs with oth-
er framing materials, marked a new
period of expansion for the technique.
Steel decking is now used in conjunc-
tion with steel frames, but also is used
in concrete, prestressed concrete and
timber structures.
The initial use of composite decks was
as a substitute for traditional rein-
forced concrete slabs. A composite
floor is essentially an overlay of one-
wav structural elements: the primary
beams, the secondary beams and the
composite slab (Fig. 2). The slab spans
between the secondary beams. which
span transversely onto the primary
beams: the latter in turn span to col-
umns spaced in the range of 6 to 9 m.
This set of load paths lends itself to

/r ituconcrcte
structural concrete

mesh reinforcement
// corrugated steel sheet

fusion welds

steel beam

Fig. 1: Earh' composite slab Fig. 2: Composite floor

Structural Engineering International 1/96 Reports 41

 4 x 150 = 600 rectangular grids, and it is feasible to
increase the span in at least one direc-
tion to 12, 15 or even 20 m and more.
I I
The overall depth of composite slabs
4 x 150 = 600
generally varies between SO and 250
miii, with a bare metal thickness of
steel sheet between 0.7 and 1.5 mm.
The robustness of composite floors
55 ÷ 4 x 150 + 95 = 750 identifies them for the construction of
thin slabs (80 mm to 120 mm) with
moderate loading or medium span
requirements. Thicker types of slabs
4 x 183 = 732 (130 mm to 250 mm) correspond to
high loading or long span require-
ments.
Purpose-designed decking to be used
iruLnr%
5 x 176 = 880
in combination with concrete for com-
posite slabs is available and recom-
mended (Fig. 3). It is not advisable to
use cladding or roofing profiles as
4 x 183 = 732
-
composite slab decking.
A thin layer of galvanising is the nor-
mal protection against corrosion of
decking. This is generally sufficient for
4 x 200 = 800
A
the most common applications of com-
posite floor slabs: in a dry interior at-
mosphere. For more severe environ-
ments, other types of protection are
4 x 150 = 600
available and must be provided.
Structural Behaviour
3 x 190 = 570
Construction Stage
At the construction stage, when the
concrete is wet, the decking alone re-
3 x 104 = 312
sists the external loads. Its behaviour is
then comparable to the behaviour of
the profiles for roofing.
The decking is subjected mainly to
Fig. 3: Examples of decking used in com- bending and shear. Compression due
posite slabs to bending of the profile may arise in
Fig. 4: Tvpicalforn of connection in composite slabs
42 Reports
either the flanges and/or in parts of the
webs. Shear essentially occurs near the
supports. The thin component plate
elements which make up the decking
may buckle prior to yield under these
compressive and shear stresses. there-
by reducing the deckings load carry-
ing capacity and stiffness.
The current design procedures rely on
the concept of effective width to pro-
vide a method for the calculation of
this type of thin-walled member.
Clearly, the effective width of the com-
pression flange depends upon the
maximum stress imposed on the
flange, which in turn depends on the
location of the neutral axis of the cross
section. As the ineffective area of the
flange increases under increasing
bending moment, the neutral axis of
the profile is lowered and the extreme
fibre stresses will change accordingly.
Iterative design becomes necessary for
strength and serviceability calcula-
tions. It is also possible to determine
design characteristics and methods by
tests.
Permanent Stage
The behaviour of composite slabs dif-
fers from that of other similar forms of
composite construction, such as rein-
forced concrete and composite beams
of steel and concrete. In reinforced
concrete, composite action is achieved
by the adhesion capacity of the rein-
forcement due to the special profile of
the bars used. This adhesion capacity,
verified by tests. is the same as the ulti-
mate resistance of the reinforcement
and corresponds to the resistance in
tension, assuming that the slab can al-
ways develop full resistance to bend-
ing. In composite beams, composite ac-
tion is achieved by connectors fixed to
the top flange of the steel beam. The
design of such connectors is based on
the assumption that the beam attains
ultimate bending resistance (full con-
nection). If there are fewer connectors
than required for full connection, then
the connection is partial. In this case,
the ultimate resistance to bending
essentially depends on the number of
connectors. the span of the beam and
the method of construction.
The behaviour of composite slabs with
decking has elements in common with
both reinforcement and beam systems:
decking with embossments or anchor-
ages (Fig. 4 compares to reinforce-
ment, whereas the decking itself is an
element with bending rigidity similar
to steel beams. The difference results
Structural Engineering International 1/96
from the fact that decking, and similar-
ly the embossments. can be deformed.
Also. unlike reinforcement, decking
does not benefit from being totally em-
bedded in concrete. The deformation
depends on numerous parameters.
which makes the analysis of the actual
behaviour of composite slabs more
complicated.
In normal loading conditions. a com-
posite slab usually behaves as a
cracked structure bending in the longi-
tudinal direction of the sheet:
— When loads are small, the slab
might be uncracked. The composite
action between the parts is full, and
the stresses of the sheet and con-
crete are linearly dependent on the
strains.
— With an increase in load, the con-
crete cracks in tension, which re-
duces the stiffness of the structure.
This results in greater deflections of
the slab compared to the uncracked
state. The adhesion between the
sheet and the concrete is capable of
transferring the shear force between
the cracks. It is possible that adhe-
sion will fail at the ends of the slab.
— When a composite slab is experi-
mentally or accidentally subjected
to loads higher than the design
loads, its behaviour greatly depends
on the type of the steel sheet. In all
composite slabs some relative slip
takes place between the steel and
concrete because the shear stresses
between them exceed the strength
of the connection or adhesion.
— Composite slabs have different fail-
ure modes depending not only on
the sheet type but also on the geom-
etry of the structure. There are
sheet types which fail quickly if the
load increases beyond the first slip
load (brittle or non-ductile behav-
iour). Some types of sheet can expe-
rience large deflections before fail-
ure as the loads are gradually in-
creased, although the relative slip
increases at the same time (ductile
behaviour). The failure of a com-
posite slab can occur at the interface
between the steel sheet and the con-
crete as a shear bond failure or as
material failure in one section.
When the slab has been supported by
props during construction, it will im-
mediately deflect on the removal of
the props. This initial loading can
cause cracking in the concrete. Moving
permanent and transient loads on the
slab again causes an instant increase in
Structural Engineering International 1/96
Fig. 5: Two typical behaviour modes of composite slabs
deflection. Concrete will creep over a
period of several years. which gradual-
ly increases the deflections of the slab.
The way in which a composite slab be-
haves during a loading test provides
the basis for a design method for a par-
ticular type of the sheet. As a conse-
quence of the great variety of the sheet
types and of the lack of common ana-
lytical formulae, all sheet types must
be studied experimentally. Two modes
of behaviour can be described using
Fig. 5, based on a loading test where
the load was gradually increased by
displacement-controlled jacks. Initially
the load-deflection curve is linear for
all types of slabs which correspond
to the behaviour of a homogeneous
material bonded together by surface
effects. namely, chemical adhesion and
friction.
After this initial load, the behaviour
of the slab is characterised by the two
following modes:
Mode 1: Brittle Behaviour
The load suddenly decreases at the
point where the bond is broken and
slip occurs. All the shear force must
now be taken up by friction and em-
bossments. The drop-off of load de-
pends on the efficiency of the mechan-
ical embossments. With further de-
formation of the slab, the load again
increases slightly, without ever reach-
ing the level of the initial phase. The
mechanical connection between the
elements is incapable of achieving a
composite effect superior to that of
simple surface adhesion. It should be
noted that the decrease of the load is
not due to the sudden opening of ten-
sion cracks in the concrete — because
this is prevented by the decking — but
by the relative slip between the con-
crete and the decking.
deflection [mm]
Mode 2: Ductile Behaviour
The mechanical connection is capable
of transferring the shear force until
failure occurs. Failure is produced
either by bending. corresponding to
total connection, or by longitudinal
shear, corresponding to partial con-
nection.
The behaviour may be classified as
ductile if the failure load exceeds the
load causing the first recorded end slip
by more than 10%. If the maximum
load is reached at a midspan deflection
exceeding L150. the failure load shall
be taken as the load at the midspan
deflection of L/50.
Otherwise, the behaviour is classified
as brittle (or non-ductile). The ductile
or non-ductile behaviour of a compos-
ite slab max' be taken into account by
means of different partial safety fac-
tors applied to the failure load or to
the load at a deflection of L150.
Design Considerations
Decking and composite slabs predomi-
nantly carry imposed vertical loads in
bending and shear. Because both the
decking and the composite slab do not
have the same geometry in each direc-
tion (non-isotropic) a two-way design
is complicated. To simplify this situa-
tion, design procedures consider only
the bending and shear resistances
along the longitudinal axis (in the di-
rection of the ribs). This results in con-
servative estimates of actual load car-
rying capacity. Most decking manufac-
turers have produced table or charts
with all the necessary cross-sectional
properties. This simplifies the design-
ers task as decking geometries can be
quite complicated.
Reports 43
Composite slab design is normally rel-
atively simple and straight forward.
Minimum slab thicknesses have been
established to ensure that significant
two-way load distribution can occur.
Non-standard bay geometries and
large openings, however, require spe-
cial consideration, as do concentrated
heavy loads, cyclical and dynamic
loads.
Loads and Actions
When a profiled sheet acts as form-
work, the following loads should be
considered in the calculations, taking
into account any support:
— self-weight of the steel decking
— weight of the wet concrete
— ponding" effect. i.e., increased
depth of concrete due to deflection
of the sheeting
— construction loads
— temporary storage loads, if applica-
ble.
Self-weight of the profiled sheeting,
weight of the wet concrete and the
ponding effect are considered as per-
manent loads. The construction loads
represent the weight of personnel and
the concreting plant and take into ac-
count any impact or vibration which
may occur during construction.
When the steel and the concrete act
compositely, the following loads act on
the slab:
Loading(q) I I I I I I1
Statical _.A.
system
£ .1
Deflected
Bending
Fig. 6: Analysis of a tst'o-span conposire slab
44 Reports
— self-weight of the slab's profiled
sheeting and concrete (when prop-
ping is used)
— weight of floor finishes
— live loads.
For the serviceability limit state, long
duration values of the loads should be
considered for the calculation of de-
formations, taking into account creep
and shrinkage of the concrete.
Analysis
Analysis of a composite slab may be
made according to one of the following
methods:
— linear elastic
— linear elastic with moment redistri-
bution
— plastic, based on kinematic behav-
iour (plastic hinges)
— higher order analysis which takes
into account nonlinear material be-
haviour and the slippage between
the profiled sheeting and concrete
slab.
Ultimate Limit States
In most cases, analysis of composite
slabs that are continuous over several
spans is performed according to the
elastic method for a slab of unit width
(1 m) comparable to a beam of con-
stant inertia (Fig. 6).
4 4 4 4 4 4 1 4 1 1
I nent stage. when the concrete is bond-
concrete cracking
Cracking of concrete can be taken into
account in several ways:
— The slab can be considered as a
beam with variable inertia, depend-
ing on the reinforcement.
— The moment at the supports can be
arbitrarily reduced (maximum re-
duction 30%, for example) and the
span moments consequently in-
creased.
— The reinforcement over the sup-
ports can be totally neglected and
the slab considered as a series of
simply supported beams. Minimum
reinforcement must always be
placed over intermediate supports
for serviceability reasons.
The analysis will use one of the above
statical systems in conjunction with the
design loads.
Serviceability Limit States
An analysis of the composite slab for
calculating deflection may take advan-
tage of the following approximations:
— The slab is comparable to a continu-
ous beam of constant inertia, equal
in value to the average inertia of the
cracked and uncracked sections.
— Long-term loading effects on the
concrete are taken into account
using the variation of the modular
ratio EalEc.
Verification
A distinctive characteristic of compos-
1 1 ite slabs is that two structural states are
considered: the temporary construc-
tion stage, when only the decking re-
sists the applied loads, and the perma-
ed to the steel allowing composite
action. It is necessary to verify that
neither the ultimate nor the service-
ability limit states are exceeded in both
structural states.
Profiled sheeting as shuttering: Verifi-
cation at the ultimate and the service-
ability limit states is required for the
safety and serviceability of the profiled
sheeting acting as formwork for the
wet concrete. The effects of props must
be taken into account in this design
situation.
Composite slabs: Verification at the ul-
timate and serviceability limit states is
required for the safety and the service-
ability of the composite slab after com-
Structural Engineering International 1/%
posite behaviour has commenced and
any props have been removed.
Ultimate Limit States
The resistance of the decking, in tern-
porarv stage of construction, or the
composite slab, permanent stage, must
be sufficient to resist external actions.
Each section or member must be capa-
ble of resisting the internal forces de-
termined by the analysis of the struc-
ture.
When considering a limit state of
rupture or excessive deformation, it
should be verified that:
Sd R11
Design value Sd for the effects of ac-
tions should be determined for each
load case from combination rules in-
volving design values of actions. The
most unfavourable combinations are
considered at each critical section of
the structure (Fig. 7).
Design resistances Rd of a composite
slab may be calculated according to
any appropriate method:
— Flexure: If the slab is continuous, it
may be considered for calculation
purposes as a series of single spans
or as continuous spans. Bending re-
sistance may be calculated accord-
ing to plastic theory. Several restric-
tions to the use of plastic theory are
given. Negative moment bending
resistance is calculated according to
the location of the neutral axis, ei-
ther above the decking or within the
rib height.
— Vertical shear: Vertical shear resis-
tance — due to a line load or a sup-
port reaction — and the punching
shear resistance due to a point load
must be calculated.
— Longitudinal shear: Two design
methods may be used to calculate
the longitudinal shear capacity be-
tween the concrete slab and deck-
ing. These are referred to as the
shear-bond design method [3] and
the partial connection design meth-
od[4].
Serviceability Limit States
When the profiled sheeting acts as
formwork, the behaviour under its
self-weight and the weight of the wet
concrete must be checked. Deflection
should be within acceptable limits. For
aesthetic reasons, care should also be
Structural Engineering International 1/96
III I V
I I
IV
Fig. 7: Critical sections
taken to see that props do not produce
an' marks on the sheet. The following
verifications should be made:
— deflection is within the admissible
limit
— marks on the sheet due to the props
should be avoided, if aesthetically
necessary.
When the steel and the concrete act
compositely, the behaviour of the com-
posite slab under permanent loads
and variable service loads must be
checked. The following verifications
should be made:
— Mid-span deflections occurring in
sagging moment regions must not
exceed the limiting values.
— End-slip can occur on exterior spans
which do not have end-anchorages.
End slip does not occur in internal
spans because of the blocking effect
of the adjacent spans. The effect of
end-slip at service load levels is to
increase mid-span deflections. De-
termining whether slip is permissi-
ble at service load levels should be
based on full-scale test results.
— Concrete cracking: Given that there
is a profiled sheet on the lower sur-
face of the slab, only concrete crack-
ing at the supports must be verified.
Minimum reinforcement is re-
quired.
— Vibrations may be induced by heavy
machinery or by the movements of
people and must be within accept-
able limits.
Advantages
Steel deck profiles are manufactured
under controlled, factory conditions.
This allows the establishment of strict
quality procedures that lead to more
precision on the construction site.
Lightweight composite floors are now
the preferred for a wide range of struc-
tures, offering the designer and the
client the following advantages:
II;ffl
Aid to Construction
Before concreting. the decking pro-
vides a safe working platform which
speeds the construction process for
other trades. The steel deck combines
high rigidity and low weight, proper-
ties which considerably ease the trans-
portation and storage of the materials
on site. Often one lorry is capable of
carrying up to 1500 m2 of flooring.
A team of four workers can set up to
400 m2 of decking per day. Panels are
light, prefabricated elements that are
easily transported and set in place by
two or three workers.
The fastening of the steel deck to the
structure prior to concreting provides
a stiff and reliable floor bracing. Di-
aphragm action, which is produced by
the capacity of the steel deck to resist
distortion in its own plan readily obvi-
ates the need for temporary horizontal
bracing during construction.
The steel deck, extending from beam
to beam, is permanent formwork to
the concrete; often there is no need for
temporary props. The soffit remains
clean after concreting. and the use of
colour-coated steel sheets can result in
an attractive finish to the ceiling. In ad-
dition, composite slabs act as a good
vapour barrier and generally have
good fire resistance and acoustic prop-
erties.
The steel reinforcement provided by
the cross section of the deck is usually
sufficient to resist positive moments.
Fabric reinforcement may be provided
in the slab to resist shrinkage or tem-
perature movements, or to provide
continuity over intermediate supports
(hogging moments). Composite action
is obtained by the profile shape or by
mechanical means provided by inden-
tation or embossment of the steel pro-
file.
The hollow shape of the profile steel
decking produces a saving of concrete
which is variable with the deck type
(up to 40 litres/rn2). This lowering of
Reports 45
the slab self-weight produces a signifi-
cant reduction of the dead load (up to
1.0 kNIm2) carried by the structure
and the foundations. Composite slabs
are usually thinner than conventional
reinforced concrete slabs because the
relatively high steel area in the deck
(between 1000 to 1500 mm2/m width)
works at lower stresses.
Service and Building Flexibility
Composite floors are adaptable. The'
may readily be modified during the life
of the building. This is especially true
when the slab is used with framed
structures. It is then always possible.
for example. to create a new staircase
between two floors by simply adding
the necessary trimmer beams.
Many modern profiles have re-entrant
features which allow the simple con-
nection of hanging devices. It is there-
fore possible to suspend new cable net-
works and piping without undertaking
costly and noisy drilling during the
building's service life.
Recent developments in communica-
tions and information technology have
shown the importance of being able to
quickly modify the services arrange-
ment in a building. The rapid pace of
change in these areas makes it impossi-
ble to predict precisely the future de-
mands on a building, so flexibility is a
significant asset of the composite floor
slab system.
Modern building usage demands that
it be possible to modify services in one
part of a building without disrupting
the activities of other occupants. New
services are generally accommodated
in the ceiling, under a false floor or in a
coffer box running along the walls. The
two latter solutions are limited to spe-
cific services, and result in a loss of
space or in poor appearance. Compos-
ite floors are rarely used without a
false ceiling beneath the beams usually
for aesthetic reasons. The gap between
the soffit and the bottom flange consti-
tutes an ideal zone in which new ser-
vices may be hidden.
Slimfloors
The slimfloor has been developed in
the 1980s [5]. In this approach, the slab
is contained within the beam depth.
The original idea was to replace the
secondary beams by precast hollow
concrete elements spanning between
primary beams without props. This so-
46 Reports
lution provides a flat appearance. a
minimum floor depth and built-in fire
protection for the floor beams.
An alternative form of slimfloor incor-
porates light gauge steel decking as
part of a composite system (Fig. 8). It
retains the same benefits as standard
slimfloor construction. with the ad-
ditional advantages of lighter slab
weight and greater ease of erection.
in-Situ concrete
Fig. 8: Shallow floor arrangement with coin-
posite slab (slimfloor)
Slimfloors made of composite slabs
usually span between 5 to 9 m, the to-
tal thickness of the slab usually set be-
tween 180 and 350 mm. The use of
deep steel decking (Fig. 8) is therefore
an efficient solution, because the deck
rests directly on a place welded to the
bottom flange of the beam. The deck
openings are closed b stop-end acces-
sories which prevent concrete leakage.
The top flange of the beam is covered
by a concrete topping (70 to 100 mm)
which houses the steel fabric for hog-
ging moments and the shear connec-
tors when the beam is designed for
composite action. This topping consti-
tutes the compression part of the slab
within the current span. The fire stabil-
ity of the beam is up to 1 hour and the
use of lightweight concrete allows
spans of up to 6 m without props.
Conclusions
Composite floors using profiled steel
sheeting are a modern and efficient
form of construction. The technique
has been used for a number of years in
Europe and the United States. There is
now increased interest in many other
countries. This is principally due to the
cost advantages of the system. There is
a reduction in overall structural weight
because of the ribs in the profile that
eliminates significant volumes of con-
crete. The composite interaction be-
tween steel and concrete has become
more efficient through the develop-
ment of new profiles with improved
embossments and other methods of
connection. There has been an in-
crease in the spans which can be
achieved with little or no propping.
which can lead to the omission of sec-
ondary beams.
These advantages have resulted from
theoretical and experimental work
which has led to a good understanding
of behaviour of the composite slabs up
to failure. This information has been
made available to profile manufactur-
ers and structural engineers have been
provided with simple and reliable de-
sign methods.
In conclusion the best guarantee of
quality is the external appearance of
the product. This can be achieved with
conscientious construction: From the
engineer who chooses the profile di-
mensions and the lay-out to the profile
manufacturer and the contractor who
places and fixes the sheeting and final-
ly to the concrete contractor who fol-
lows correct procedures during the
pouring and finishing of the slab.
When the whole team follows the
straight forward rules. composite
floors will justly continue to be appre-
ciated by the architect and the client.
References
[1] Le nouveau hdtirneni administratif de Ia
Société Nestlé a Vevev (Suisse). Acier-
Stahl-Steel. vol. 25. no. 12.
pp. S13—519,
Bruxelles, 1960.
[2] BRYL. S. Effet de liaison entre les to/es
d'acier et le béton dans It's planchers me-
talliques nzixtes. Acier-Stahl-Steel. vol. 32.
no. 10, pp. 453—49. Bruxelles. 1967.
[3] SCHUSTER. R. M. Composite Steel-
Deck-Reinforced Concrete Systems Failing
in Shear-Bond. 9th IABSE Congress
Amsterdam, pp. 185—191. IABSE Congress
Report. Zurich. 1972.
[4] BODE. H.: MINAS. E: SAUER-
BORN, I. Partial Connection Design of
Composite Slabs. Structural Engineering
International. SE! 1/1996, IABSE. Zurich.
1996. p. XX.
[5] LAWSON, R. M.: LESKELA. M. Slim-
floor Construction. To be published in
SEI 2/1996.
Structural Engineering International 1/96