Seminar Report

On
“Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage”

Submitted
To
Savitribai Phule Pune University
By

Name of the Student: Rodge Adhyayan Pravin

Exam Seat Number: T150026762

Third Year (Petroleum Engineering) (2015 pattern)

Department of Petroleum Engineering,
MAEER’s Maharashtra Institute of Technology,
124, Paud Road, Pune -411038
 Certificate
This is to certify that, seminar report entitled “Steam Assisted Gravity
Drainage” submitted by Mr. Rodge Adhyayan Pravin, Exam Seat number:
T150026762, Third Year Petroleum Engineering, is a record of bonafide
work carried out by her under my supervision, in partial fulfillment for Third
Year Course requirement of Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune.

Prof Dr. P. B. Jadhav, Prof Hrishikesh Chavan

Head,
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Seminar Supervisor,
MAEER’s Maharashtra Institute of Technology,
124, Paud Road, Pune -411038
 Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my adviser, Prof Hrishikesh Chavan sir, for helping me follow
my own path for this study. It was a pleasure collaborating with sir. His emphasis to
keep things simple and focused on the big picture will remain an inspiration.

I would like to especially acknowledge Dr. L K Kshirsagar Sir for his guidance and
also would like to thank Prof. PB Jadhav sir. Prof Dr. Rahul Joshi sir deserves great
thanks for providing the guidance for writing this report.

I would like to thank the staff of Department of Petroleum engineering for all their
support during submission of this report. Other friends and colleagues were crucial
in problem solving.

Name of the Student: Rodge Adhyayan Pravin.

Exam Seat Number: T150026762

Third Year (Petroleum Engineering)

Department of Petroleum Engineering,

MAEER’s Maharashtra Institute of Technology,
124, Paud Road, Pune -411038
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................. 8
INTRODUCTION TO HEAVY OIL .......................................................................................... 8
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Properties of Heavy oil........................................................................................................ 9
1.3 MAJOR TAR SAND DEPOSITS OF THE WORLD ................................................... 11
1.4 Case Study 1:- Analysis Suriname Heavy Crude Oil ..................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................ 16
Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage ( SAGD ) ............................................................................ 16
2.1 Introduction: ...................................................................................................................... 16
2.2 Cyclic Steam Stimulation: ................................................................................................ 17
2.3 Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage Process:- ................................................................... 18
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................ 19
Baker Huges’ Solution of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage ................................................ 19
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................ 21
Mechanism of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage ................................................................... 21
4.1 Initial Concept ................................................................................................................... 21
4.2 Mathematical Equations ................................................................................................... 22
Observation and Conclusion .................................................................................................. 27
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................ 29
Concerns of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage Process ......................................................... 29
Condensate Flow ..................................................................................................................... 29
Geology ..................................................................................................................................... 29
20 vs. 3D ................................................................................................................................... 29
Geomechanical Effects ............................................................................................................ 30
Chapter 6 ..................................................................................................................................... 31
Case study 2:- The Sceptre Resources Project in the Tangleflags field, Canada ............... 31
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 33
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 34

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Table of Figures ...............................................................................................................7
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................. 8
INTRODUCTION TO HEAVY OIL .......................................................................................... 8
Fig 1. API Gravity .......................................................................................................... 9
Fig 2. MAJOR TAR SAND DEPOSITS OF THE WORLD .................................... 11
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................ 16
Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage ( SAGD ) ............................................................................ 16
Fig 3: Cyclic Steam Stimulation. ................................................................................. 17
Fig 4:- SAGD Process ................................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................ 19
Baker Huges’ Solution of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage ................................................ 19
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................ 21
Mechanism of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage ................................................................... 21
Fig 6:- Mechanism of steam chamber ........................................................................ 21
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................ 29
Concerns of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage Process ......................................................... 29
Fig 7: The growth of steam chamber observed in Phase A of the UTF project.
(Courtsey Ito and Suzuki). .......................................................................................... 29
Chapter 6 ..................................................................................................................................... 31
Case study 2:- The Sceptre Resources Project in the Tangleflags field, Canada ............... 31
Fig 8:- The Sceptre Resources Tangleflags field piolet. ............................................ 32

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Seat No: T150026762 Name: Rodge Adhyayan Pravin Page 6
 Abstract

Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD; "Sag-D") is an enhanced oil recovery technology for
producing heavy crude oil and bitumen. It is an advanced form of steam stimulation in which a
pair of horizontal wells is drilled into the oil reservoir, one a few meters above the other. High
pressure steam is continuously injected into the upper wellbore to heat the oil and reduce
its viscosity, causing the heated oil to drain into the lower wellbore, where it is pumped out. Dr.
Roger Butler, engineer at Imperial Oil from 1955 to 1982, invented the steam assisted gravity
drainage (SAGD) process in the 1970s. Butler "developed the concept of using horizontal pairs of
wells and injected steam to develop certain deposits of bitumen considered too deep for mining". In
1983 Butler became director of technical programs for the Alberta Oil Sands Technology and
Research Authority (AOSTRA), a crown corporation created by Alberta Premier Lougheed to
promote new technologies for oil sands and heavy crude oil production. AOSTRA quickly
supported SAGD as a promising innovation in oil sands extraction technology.
Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) and Cyclic Steam Stimulation (CSS) Steam
injection are two commercially applied primal thermal recovery processes used in the oil
sands in Geological formation sub-units, such as Grand Rapids Formation, Clearwater Formation,
McMurray Formation, General Petroleum Sand, Lloydminster Sand, of the Mannville Group,
a Stratigraphic range in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin.
Canada is now the single largest supplier of imported oil to the United States, supplying over 35%
of US imports, much more than Saudi Arabia or Venezuela, and more than all the OPEC countries
combined. Most of the new production comes from Alberta's vast oil sands deposits. There are two
primary methods of oil sands recovery. The strip-mining technique is more familiar to the general
public, but can only be used for shallow bitumen deposits. However, the more recent steam-
assisted gravity drainage technique (SAGD) is better suited to the much larger deep deposits that
surround the shallow ones. Much of the expected future growth of production in the Canadian oil
sands is predicted to be from SAGD.

This report discusses about heavy crude oil and its properties, the steam assisted gravity drainage
technology to produce these heavy oil. There are two case study presented in this report regarding
properties of heavy oil and piolet project on Steam Assisted gravity drainage done in Canada

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO HEAVY OIL

1.1 Introduction

Like light crude, the definition of heavy crude varies by region and by the organization making
the determination. In general, if it has an API gravity less than 20, it is considered heavy. At an
API gravity of 10, crude oil will have the same density as water. Any API below 10 and the crude
sinks in water rather than floating. Oils with an API in this range are often called extra heavy oils.
It is estimated that there is twice the amount of heavy crude in reserves than light crude.

When it comes to general properties, heavy crude is thicker, more resistant to flow, and usually
contains higher levels of sulfur and other contaminants than does light oil. For heavy oil to be
made into gasoline, it has to be refined, cracked to make large hydrocarbons smaller, and treated
to remove contaminants like sulfur. All of this extra refining requires more energy input for the
same energy output, which reduces the energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) ratio. EROEI
helps to determine how valuable a barrel of crude is because crude that requires more energy input
is more expensive to refine, which reduces profit. Beyond the need for additional refinement,
heavy crude also poses extraction and transportation issues that are not present with light crude.

Extraction of heavy crude requires higher energy input. Heavy crude does not flow like light crude.
In fact, its consistency is often compared to that of molasses at room temperature and it is even
occasionally solid if not heated. The field of petroleum chemistry has its origins in attempts to
make heavy crude easy to extract and transport. Current methods of extraction include open-pit
mining, steam stimulation (to make it less viscous), the addition of sand to the oil, and the injection
of air into wells to create fires that burn heavier hydrocarbons and degrade them into lighter, more
easily pumped varieties.

Transporting heavy crude often requires the addition of diluting agents, particularly in pipeline
transport. These diluents are referred to as Heavy Oil Drag Reducing Agents or DRAs. Most
pipelines were initially designed for light crude and thus cannot accommodate heavy crude unless
it is modified. Often times, heavy and light crude are mixed to promote transport through pipeline.
This, of course, results in contamination of the light crude and a reduction in its value.

The other major drawback to heavy crude is its environmental impact. Two specific aspects of
heavy crude contribute to this. First, it is contaminated with sulfur and heavy metals, both of which
must be removed. Heavy metals are often toxic and their removal from crude presents disposal
issues. The sulfur content of heavy oil may be as high as 4.5%. Sulfur contributes to acid rain and
in combination with hydrogen, produces hydrogen sulfide, which can be deadly. Sulfur is corrosive
to pipeline metal and refinery components.
The other environmental impact of heavy crude is carbon dioxide output, which can be as much
as 3 times that of light crude of the same quantity. There are two reasons for this. First, more
energy must be input to generate the same quantity of useable material from heavy crude compared
to light. This means more carbon dioxide is released for the same amount of useable energy
produced. In addition, heavy crude has a higher carbon to hydrogen ratio than light crude. In other
words, it contains less hydrogen per carbon than does light crude, which means that when it is
burned, more carbon dioxide is created.

Most heavy crude is found in Canada and Venezuela, though there are deposits throughout the
world. It is generally divided into two categories based on sulfur content. Low sulfur heavy crude
has less than 1% sulfur and is primarily found in Africa. High sulfur crude is found throughout the
rest of the globe, with Venezuela having the largest single deposit. In fact, the deposit of heavy
crude in Venezuela is greater than any recoverable deposit in the world, including Saudi Arabia
and Canada.

1.2 Properties of Heavy oil.

i. API Gravity

Asphaltic, dense (low API gravity), and viscous

oil that is chemically characterized by its content

of asphaltenes (very large molecules

incorporating most of the sulfur and perhaps 90%

of the metals in the oil). Although variously

defined, the upper limit for heavy oils has been

set at 22°API gravity and a viscosity of less than

100 cP. Refer case study 1.

Fig 1. API Gravity

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ii. SARA Composition

Saturate, Aromatic, Resin and Asphaltene (SARA) is an analysis method that divides crude
oil components according to their polarizability and polarity. The saturate fraction consists of
nonpolar material including linear, branched, and cyclic saturated hydrocarbons
(paraffins). Aromatics, which contain one or more aromatic rings, are slightly more polarizable.
The remaining two fractions, resins and asphaltenes, have polar substituents. The distinction
between the two is that asphaltenes are insoluble in an excess of heptane (or pentane) whereas
resins are miscible with heptane (or pentane). Refer case study 1.

ii. Formation volume factor and Gas-oil ratio

Oil formation volume factor is defined as the ratio of the volume of oil at reservoir (in-situ)
conditions to that at stock tank (surface) conditions. This factor, is used to convert the flow rate
of oil (at stock tank conditions) to reservoir conditions. It is defined as:

Below the bubble point pressure, the oil formation volume factor increases with pressure. This is
because more gas goes into solution as the pressure is increased causing the oil to swell. Above
the bubble point pressure, the oil formation volume factor decreases as the pressure is increased,
because there is no more gas available to go into solution and the oil is compressed.

Solution Gas-Oil Ratio (Rs) The solution gas oil ratio is the amount of gas dissolved in the oil (or
water) at any pressure. It increases approximately linearly with pressure and is a function of
the oil (or water) and gas composition. A heavy oil contains less dissolved gas than a light oil.
Refer case study 1.

iii. Viscosity

Absolute viscosity provides a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to flow. For liquids, viscosity
corresponds to the informal notion of "thickness". Any calculation involving the movement of
fluids requires a value of viscosity. This parameter is required for conditions ranging from surface
gathering systems to the reservoir. Correlations for the calculation of viscosity can be expected to
evaluate viscosity for temperatures ranging from 35 to 300°F. Viscosity of heavy oil at 16 degree
Celsius is between 100cp to 1000cp, whereas for extra heavy crude oil it is less than 10000cp
Refer case study 1.

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1.3 MAJOR TAR SAND DEPOSITS OF THE WORLD

In figure 2, the location of the major, and some of the more interesting and well known minor, tar
sands of the world is shown. The age, extent, thickness, bitumen saturation, character of oil and
overburden thickness of twenty major world deposits are given. The deposits are listed in
decreasing order of reserves. It will be appreciated that statistical information on all the tar sand
areas, excepting Athabasca, is usually incomplete and some figures are estimated. Reserves at
Melville Island are unknown. The major tar sands are limited to eight countries. P’he apparently
uneven distribution is partly due to the occurrence of natural asphalt in rocks other than by Dr. P.
H. PHIZACKERLEY and Miss L. O. SCOTT, The British Petroleum Company Limited (Great
Britain). Sandstone, namely limestone, shale, serpentine etc., and partly to lack of information.
Hence the major asphalt deposits of France, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Oklahoma and Texas
are not included in this review because they occur in limestone.

Fig 2. MAJOR TAR SAND DEPOSITS OF THE

WORLD

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1.4 Case Study 1:- Analysis Suriname Heavy Crude Oil

Two Suriname heavy crude oil samples (Sample A, Sample B) having different API gravities of
12 and 15 data are obtained. PVT analysis, SARA compositions, rheological information, are done
using excel.

Following are the results of the samples tested:-

1. Hydrocarbon Composition:-

These both samples has high percentage of hydrocarbon containing C25+ makes the oil heavy and
thick and viscous. Such kind of oils are not flowed by conventional methods, they are solid to
semi-solid under surface conditions, and has a higher boiling point.

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 2. SARA composition:-

The samples has higher percentage resins and asphaltenes in them. Resins and asphaltenes may
also be present in crude oil. Resins and asphaltenes are the colored and black components found
in oil and are made up of relatively high-molecular-weight, polar, polycyclic, aromatic ring
compounds. Pure asphaltenes are nonvolatile, dry, solid, black powders, while resins are heavy
liquids or sticky solids with the same volatility as similarly sized hydrocarbons. High-molecular-
weight resins tend to be red in color, while lighter resins are less colored. Asphaltenes do not
dissolve in crude oil but exist as a colloidal suspension. They are soluble in aromatic compounds
such as xylene, but will precipitate in the presence of light paraffinic compounds such as pentane.
Resins, on the other hand, are readily soluble in oil.

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 3. Bubble point pressure:-
Bubble point pressure is defined as the pressure at which the first gas bubble appears while
decreasing pressure on a fluid sample. Bubble point is often used to filter water through
hydrophobic membranes. These are used for venting and filtration.

By plotting a tangent to relative volume (pump cell volume / final volume) and pressure, we
get bubble point pressure. For crude sample A, bubble point pressure is 290 psi and for crude
sample B it is 480 psi.

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 4. Formation Oil volume factor:-

Sample A has less FVF as compared to sample B. It is evident from the graph that there is less
gas dissolved in sample A as compared to sample B. Hence there is less shrinkage of oil after the
gas in escaped when produced to the surface.

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 CHAPTER 2

Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage ( SAGD )

2.1 Introduction:
As seen in previous chapter, the properties of dead crude oils (tar, bitumen, etc.) are such that they
are unable to flow by conventional methods. At reservoir conditions these oils show high viscosity
and are in solid to semi sold in state. They can be brought to flowing state by providing sufficient
heat and drained to surface by process called steam Assisted Gravity Drainage.

In the Steam-assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) process, heated oil drains from around growing
steam chamber, driven by gravity, to lower horizontal wells. As the oil drains, the steam chamber
advances into the reservoir. The process has several features:
 The displacement or the oil is systematic and high recoveries can be obtained.
 In suitable application, oil to steam ratios higher than those found for conventional steam
flooding can be achieved.
 The process can be used in even the heaviest of bitumen reservoirs without extensive
preheating. The feature which make this possible is that once the oil is heated, it remains
hot a!) it drains [0 the production well; this is unlike conventional steam flooding where
oil which is displaced from the steam chamber tends to cool on its way to production.

Although the Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage process has the application in the recovery of
conventional heavy oil, it was originally conceived for the recovery of bitumen where the in situ
viscosity is so high that conventional production methods are impractical.

The quantity of bitumen in place in Canadian reservoir is as large as that for conventional crude
oil in the Middle East. Thus, the challenge of developing suitable method of recovery is of very
great practical importance. In the main Canadian reservoir- Athabasca, Cold Lake and Peace River,
the bitumen is essentially immobile and injection of fluids is usually very difficult. In situ recovery
methods generally depend upon heating with steam and in situ combustion have been used.

One of the main problem encountered is that, even if the bitumen is heated, it can’t be pushed
through cold reservoir without regaining its viscosity; this prevents adequate flow. It is necessary
to keep the bitumen hot as it flows to the production well. One scheme for doing this which has
been studied is reverse combustion. In this process, the tar sand is ignited neat the production well
and the flame front moves away against the flow of the combustion air which is injected into
another well. A major problem is obtaining adequate air injectivity. Another problem, and an even
larger one, is that secondary combustion fronts tend to occur near the injection well and this has
caused the process to be unsuccessful.

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2.2 Cyclic Steam Stimulation:
A better approach is that of cycling steam stimulation. In this method, steam is first injected into
the reservoir through the production well; and bitumen reservoir, it is frequently necessary to use
injection pressures high enough to cause reservoir fracturing so that injectivity can be obtained.
The reservoir adjacent to the well becomes heated and then, subsequently, the flow is reversed to
allow production. This continuous until the flow has declined to uneconomic values and then the
cycle is repeated. This is the process which has been used by imperial oil in its large and successful
commercial project at Cold Lake.

Advantage:-The process is relatively efficient and oil flows of the order of 100 barrels per day per
well are obtained with oil steam ratio of 0.3. A major advantage of cyclic steaming is that the heat
tends to be concentrated where it can do the most
good that is near to the wellbore. The main problems
with the method are associated with the high well
density required and the relatively low economic
recovery (15-20%).

Limitations: - An inherent limitation of the cyclic

steaming methods is that there is little drive
available to move the hot fluids to the well. It is
thought that some of the tribe comes from the
compaction of the fractured reservoir and some from
gravity drainage around the well. The problem with
gravity drainage, in this application, is that the Source: Stanford university
conventional (i.e. near vertical) Wells which are Fig 3: Cyclic Steam Stimulation.
employed to have a limited contact with the
reservoir and the need for radial flow provides a
considerable resistance.

The steam assisted gravity drainage approach which is reviewed in this paper employs gravity
drainage to move the crude to the production well but the contact with the reservoir is much greater
because horizontal wells, and potentially very long horizontal wells, are used. These have much
greater contact with the reservoir then do conventional wells and adequate floors can be achieved
with head equivalent to that obtained from gravity. This is not possible in vertical wells. It is the
use of horizontal wells which allows oil to be pushed at economic rates with the main driving force
and gravity. The process allows the oil to remain hot as it rains downwards and there is a systematic
coverage of the reservoir so that use recoveries can be achieved.

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2.3 Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage Process:-

Steps:- Fig 4:- SAGD Process

1. Two horizontal wells are drilled one above the other, deep underground until the oil is
reached.
2. Steam is used to liquefy the oil and separate it from the sand. The steam is injected into the
top well, which can be as deep as 500 meters.
3. With the help of gravity, the oil flows into the bottom well. Oil and water are then pumped
to the surface leaving the sand in place.
4. Water is separated from the oil. It’s then treated and almost all is sent back to the steam
generators for reuse.
5. Most of the water we use to generate steam is recycled water and salt water. Just around
2% of fresh groundwater is used.\
6. The oil is transported to refineries where it’s made into finished products like gasoline,
diesel and jet fuel, and transformed into materials that are used as the building blocks for
many products.
7. Fluids not suitable for reuse are safely disposed of by depositing them in deep underground
formation approved by the government.

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 CHAPTER 3

Baker Huges’ Solution of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage

Step one in optimizing SAGD production potential is to understand the geology and the injection
and production boundaries of the reservoir. BHGE's JewelSuite™ reservoir modelling software
integrates the SAGD workflow by stimulating
steam injection and production. JewelSuite™
considers the critical stress of the caprock to
improve well placement, reduce risk, increase
production and meet government regulations.

Fig 5: SAGD simulation on

JewelSuite™
Source: www.bhge.com/ jewelsuitetm-subsurface-modeling

In this arrangement a horizontal injection well

is placed directly above each producer.
Horizontal wells are drilled upward from the
mined tunnel, which is located just below the

Source: www.bhge.com/ jewelsuitetm-subsurface-modeling

Athabasca tar sand reservoir, and then

horizontally. The wells are drilled as
injector-producer pairs. In this application
, the wells are very close together, about 2
m apart, to allow interwell reservoir
heating and communication .
Communication can . be achieved initially
by heating both wells and pressuring them
cyclically.

Steam is injected from injection well which is placed above the producing well. A steam chamber
is created which reduces the viscosity of heavy oil, which starts to accumulate in producing well
due to gravity. Once in the well, the fluid of significant low viscosity is pumped to the surface with
help of High temperature resistant Electric Submersible Pump (ESP). At surface facilities, the
steam condensate and oil are separated with steam condensate feed again to steamer for recycling.

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Following are the general specification of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage:-

Horizontal length of wells 750 – 1200 m

Vertical sepration between wells 5–6m

True Vertical Depth 90 – 400 m

Production Rate 100 – 400 m3/day

Steam-oil ratio 2-4

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 CHAPTER 4

Mechanism of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage

4.1 Initial Concept
The mechanism by which the process proceeds and the general nature of the flows within the
reservoir are indicated by the figure. This shows the process in a fairly early phase. Steam is being
injected from a well either a horizontal well or sometimes one or more vertical wells somewhat
above the horizontal producer. Steam saturated zone is formed in which the temperature is
essentially that of the injected steam. The steam flows to the parameter of the steam chamber and
condenses. The heat from the steam is transferred by the thermal conduction into the surrounding
reservoir. The water condensate from the steam and the heated oil flow, driven by gravity, to the
production well below. As oil flows away and is produced, the steam chamber expense. It can
expand both upward and sideways.

Fig 6:- Mechanism of steam chamber

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The growth of words proceeds in a rather irregular, but quite rapid, manner until it is limited by
the top of reservoir. The oppositely moving interface tends to be in the form of steam fingers with
oil flowing between them in a rather erratic manner. The flows meander.

In contrast, the interface move sideways and downwards in a very stable manner; it is stabilized
by gravity. This part of the mechanism tends to be rate- limiting and is more amenable to the
theoretical analysis than the rise of the interface. The nature of the process is such that there is a
systematic heating and displacement of the old oil by the steam and oil remains hot as it flows to
the lower production well.

A later stage in the process, where the chamber has reached the top of the reservoir and is spreading
sideways beneath the overburden as shown in figure 2. The similarity between the situation shown
here and the coning of gas in conventional production operations is apparent. if the product is
removed to quickly from the horizontal production well then the steam chamber will be drawn
down to the well and bypassing of steam will occur. Essentially the only drive available to remove
oil to the vicinity of the well comes from the effect of gravity and the mobile oil is that which is
relatively close to the steam chamber. The process is ineffective with vertical production bells
because of the relatively low floor that can be achieved under these conditions. however with long
horizontal Wells economic floor can be achieved for example in conventional reservoir, 1000
meter horizontal well on a four factors facing has a productivity index which is about hundred
times that of a conventional well. In the situation shown in figure 2, the oil drains quite slowly per
unit length of the well (about 1.5 meter cube / meter of well/ day or 0.5 us gallons/ foot/ of well /
hour), but the total flow can be quite large because of the long length.

4.2 Mathematical Equations

Oil saturation:-
It has long been realized that the gravity drainage of conventional crude oil from below a gas cap
can produce unusually high oil recoveries. Dykstra (1978) summarizes work in this area.
Terwilliger et al (1951) showed that the recovery decreases and the drainage rate increases when
pressure gradients are imposed upon the gravity drainage process. Increasing the rate by lowering
the production well pressure tends to leave additional liquid behind in the gas-saturated region.
While the dynamic hold-up of oil in the gas-saturated steam chamber is significant, it is relatively
small, since the viscosity of the oil within the chamber is very low compared with the average
viscosity of the oil draining below and around it. The average oil saturation remaining in the steam
chamber can be estimated using the integrated form of an equation developed by Cardwell and
Parsons (1949) ; this is shown in equation 3.1.

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 Equation 3.1:-

where ;
Sor is the average residual oil saturation after time t
Z is the drainage height
k is the permeability
b is the exponent in Cardwell and Parson's equation for relative
permeability, kr = Sb
vs is the kinematic viscosity of the oil at the temperature of the steam

If b is set equal to a typical value of 3.5 and Z is set equal to the maximum possible value h, then
the result is equation 3.2 .

Equation 3.2:-

Problem :-

Typical field values for a steam chamber temperature of 216°C and for Cold Lake crude are as
follows.

vs = 0.452 m2 /d (5.2 cs);

porosity= 0.3;

h ==30.5 m;

k = 0.987 x 10-12 m2 ( 1 darcy);

g = 7.32 x 1010 m/d2

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Observation and Conclusion:-
For a practical case with a project life of 6 to 15 years, the average time that the chamber would
drain might be of the order of 2000 days, and the corresponding residual oil saturation would be
0.1.

Flow rate:-
A second relationship between the flow of oil q and
the front velocity can be defined by considering the
material balance at the interface. Consider again the
small region depicted in Figure 7 . 3 .

If the interface is advancing, then oil must be flowing

out of the region at a faster rate than it is flowing in; it
is the difference in the rates that determines the
advance of the interface rather than the rate itself. A
material balance about a thin vertical element results
in equation 3.3 .

Equation 3.3:-

Velocity of the Interface

The velocity of the interface U is related to the term (ay/at) in equation 3.3 and to the angle Ө by
equation 3.4.

Equation 3.4:-

In this expression the term (ɗy/ɗt) can be expected to be negative. U from equation 3.4 is

substituted into equation , and this is simplified by setting sin Ө /cos Ө = tan
Ө = (ɗy/ɗx).

Equartion:- 3.5

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Equation 3.5 may be rearranged and integrated by separating the variables, as in 3.6.

Equation 3.6:-

or, at the bottom of the steam chamber where y = 0,

Where;

q = volumetric rate

Ө = porosity

k = permeability

g = acceleration caused by gravity

α= thermal diffusivity

v = kinematic viscosity

m is a constant between 3 and 5

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 CHAPTER 5

Concerns of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage Process

Condensate Flow

Foremost among the concerns with regard to the application of the original SAGD theory to oil
sands and heavy oil alike is the role of steam condensate flow, with a volume two to five times as
large' as the volume of oil. 'The condensate will flow inside the steam chamber -if such a chamber
forms-and the heat from the steam will' be used 'to heat the condensate first, and then the adjoining
oil or bitumen. With so much condensate flowing, convection' would be expected to be the
dominant heat transfer mechanism. Numerical simulations by Ito and Suzuki clearly show that
convection is far more important than conduction. The author's own results support that view, and
a close examination of Ito and Suzuki's numerical results shows that the observed convection is
not numerical dispersion.

Geology

Geology of the formation can have a profound influence

on steam chamber growth, as the performance of UTF
Phase A shows. The observed steam chamber was
oblate, as shown in Figure 2, and expanded sideways
rather than vertically to the top of the formation. This is
attributed to small differences in formation
characteristics, as well as convection in the lower part of
the formation. The pressure gradient in a gravity drive is
constant, but relatively small, and consequently flow
would follow the path of higher conductivity. Ito and
Fig 7: The growth of steam chamber observed in
Suzuki were able to match the observed steam chamber.
Phase A of the UTF project. (Courtsey Ito and
Suzuki).

20 vs. 3D

The SAGD theory, and much of the reported experimental work, are based on a two-dimensional
cross-sectional visualization of the process. Two important missing factors are flow in the two
horizontal wells, and the effect of wellbore, when the wells are drilled from surface rather than
from tunnels, as in UTF (one pair of wells in Phase B is drilled from surface). Steam and fluid
flow behavior for the horizontal sections of the two wells can be observed from numerical
simulations, or from approximate analytical methods. Examples of this type can be seen from the
paper by Edmunds and Gittins. Uneven steam distribution along the injection well would lead to
formation of separate steam chambers. Moreover, precise production control is important: too little
production would lead to drowning of the steam chamber, while too much would cause channeling
of steam. Such "steam trap" control is much more difficult when operating the wells from surface,

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because of large hydrostatic heads (or lack thereof). The authors also examined the effect of
variability in the spacing between the two horizontal wells, as a drilling constraint. Continuous
temperature measurements along the length of the wells could lead to better control of surface
drilled wells, but are not available at this time, although work is in progress in this direction.

Geomechanical Effects

A different type of problem is posed by geomechanical effects in steam injection into the viscous
oils and bitumens of Alberta. These not only encompass formation failure and associated effects,
but also the changes in petro physical properties and in situ stresses induced by temperature
changes. Ito and Suzuki found such effects to be significant. The extensive instrumentation of UTF
Phase A showed considerable thermally induced stresses and resulting strains.

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 Chapter 6

Case study 2:- The Sceptre Resources Project in the Tangleflags

field, Canada

A Field pilot is being operated by Scepter Resources which is closely related to the principles
described above. Very high production rate has been achieved and the project is encouraging.
Steam is injected near to the top of the reservoir from 4 horizontal injectors. The oil is produced
from a horizontal well with a length of 420 meter placed at the bottom of the reservoir. The
viscosity of the crude oil in situ is about 6000 cp.

Data:-

Essay most of the thicker Lloydminster type reservoirs, there is a substantial bottom water there
in the Tangles field reservoir. This precludes economic production by conventional Wells because
of the excess water production. Which horizontal steam drive, as has been discussed previously,
the pressure in the production well can be mended high enough to prevent excessive water
production.

Another characteristics of the Tangleflags reservoir is the existence of a gas cap. This is of limited
extent and is not thought to play a substantial part in the recovery mechanism. It may have had
some beneficial effect in the initial stages of the steam drive along the steam to spread across the
top of the reservoir.

No steam was injected until June of 1988 and this period was characterized by a relatively low
production rate and an increasing amount of produced water. The pressure around the production
bill was being lowered and water flow into the aquifer below. After the start of steam injection oil
rate increased and as the pressuring by the steam to effect the production of water decreased

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 Fig 8:- The Sceptre Resources Tangleflags field piolet.

At this time the capacity of the well was limited by that of the pump. Scepter has since install a
series of progressive only large pumps to overcome this limitation. It will be noted that after the
onset of steaming the water rate decreased until it is now approximately equal to that of the steam
injection rate. The where is producing approximately 200 meter cube per day of oil with steam oil
ratio of order 3.

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 Conclusion

In steam assisted gravity drainage the use of horizontal production Wells produces a large contact
with the reservoir and this allows operation at economic rates without the bypassing of steam.

The process can be used for both the production of bitumen and the production of conventional
heavy crude oils. The drainage rates depend upon the viscosity of the crude at steam temperature
and upon the reservoir properties. With Bitumens, the problem of obtaining initial communication
between the injection well and production well so that the steam condensate can be removed can
be overcome by placing the injection wells close to and about the production wells. Oil which is
heated around the perimeter of the steam chamber can drain to the production well without cooling.

Steam assisted gravity drainage can also be used for the production of heavy oil with a significant
initial mobility and steam can be injected from horizontal well near to the top of the reservoir.
During the initial establishment of thermal communication, cold oil is displaced efficiently by the
growing steam chamber about the production well. Following this initial phase, the process is
similar to that used for bitumen but usually faster.

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 REFERENCES

1. Butler, R.M.: Thermal Recovery of Oil and Bitumen, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey (1991).

2. Butler, R.M.: “SAGD comes of age,” J. Cdn. Pet. Tech. (1998) 37, No. 7, 9.

3. Elliot, K.E. and Kovscek, A.R.: “A Numerical Analysis of the Single-Well Steam Assisted
Gravity Drainage (SW-SAGD) Process,” Pet. Sci. Tech. (2001) 19, No. 7–8, 733.

4. Butler, R.M., McNab, G.S., and Lo, H.Y.: “Theoretical studies on the gravity drainage of
heavy oil during in-situ steam heating,” Cdn. J. Chem. Eng. (1981) 59, No. 4, 455.

5. IP – 469 Standard Method. Determination of saturated, aromatic and polar compounds in

petroleum products by thin layer chromatography and flame ionization detection.

6. K.S. Bhoendie and K.P. Moe Soe Let, Staatsolie Maatschappij Suriname N.V.; P.L.J. Zitha
, Delft University of Technology & Binga Energy B.V.; L. Pirlea and A. Hebing, PanTerra
Geosciences B.V. “Case Study of Heavy-Oil Fluid Characterization for Gas EOR
Experiments: Main Challenges”. Paper SPE 171039. Presented at the SPE Heavy and Extra
Heavy Oil Conference - Latin America held in Medellin, Colombia, 24–26 September
2014.

7. Pilehvari A., Saadevandi, B., Halvaci, M., Clark P.E., Oil/Water Emulsions for Pipeline
Transport of Viscous Crude Oils, Paper SPE 18218 presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, 2-5 October.

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