PROPERTIES OF

REFRACTORY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION:-
A refractory material or refractory is a heat-resistant material, e.g. a mineral that is resistant
to decomposition by heat, pressure, or chemical attack, most commonly applied to a mineral that
retains strength and form at high temperatures.[1].
ASTM C71 defines refractories as "...non-metallic materials having those chemical and physical
properties that make them applicable for structures, or as components of systems, that are
exposed to environments above 1,000 °F (811 K; 538 °C)."[2]
Refractory materials are used in furnaces, kilns, incinerators, and reactors.
Refractories are also used to make crucibles and moulds for casting glass and metals and for
surfacing flame deflector systems for rocket launch structures.[3] Today, the iron- and steel-
industry and metal casting sectors use approximately 70% of all refractories produced.
Refractory materials must be chemically and physically stable at high temperatures. Depending
on the operating environment, they must be resistant to thermal shock, be chemically inert,
and/or have specific ranges of thermal conductivity and of the coefficient of thermal expansion.
The oxides of aluminum (alumina), silicon (silica) and magnesium (magnesia) are the most
important materials used in the manufacturing of refractories. Another oxide usually found in
refractories is the oxide of calcium (lime).[5] Fire clays are also widely used in the manufacture
of refractories.
Refractories must be chosen according to the conditions they face. Some applications require
special refractory materials.[6] Zirconia is used when the material must withstand extremely high
temperatures.[7] Silicon carbide and carbon (graphite) are two other refractory materials used in
some very severe temperature conditions, but they cannot be used in contact with oxygen, as
they would oxidize and burn.
Binary compounds such as tungsten carbide or boron nitride can be very refractory. Hafnium
carbide is the most refractory binary compound known, with a melting point of 3890 °C.[8]
[9]
the ternary compound tantalum hafnium carbide has one of the highest melting points of all
known compounds (4215 °C).

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Classification of refractory materials
Based on chemical composition
Acidic refractories
Acidic refractories consist of mostly acidic materials like alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2).
They are generally not attacked or affected by acidic materials, but easily affected by basic
materials. They include substances such as silica, alumina, and fire clay brick refractories.
Notable reagents that can attack both alumina and silica are hydrofluoric acid, phosphoric acid,
and fluorinated gases (e.g. HF, F2).[12] At high temperatures, acidic refractories may also react
with limes and basic oxides.
Neutral refractories
These are used in areas where slags and atmosphere are either acidic or basic and are chemically
stable to both acids and bases. The main raw materials belong to, but are not confined to, the
R2O3 group. Common examples of these materials are alumina (Al2O3), chromic (Cr2O3) and
carbon.
Basic refractories
These are used in areas where slags and atmosphere are basic. They are stable to alkaline
materials but can react to acids. The main raw materials belong to the RO group, of which
magnesia (MgO) is a common example. Other examples include dolomite and chrome-magnesia.
For the first half of the twentieth century, the steel making process used
artificial percales (roasted magnesite) as a furnace lining material.
Shaped
These have standard size and shapes. These may be further divided into standard shapes and
special shapes. Standard shapes have dimension that are conformed by most refractory
manufacturers and are generally applicable to kilns or furnaces of the same types. Standard
shapes are usually bricks that have a standard dimension of 9 x 4-1/2 x 2-1/2 inches (230 x 114 x
64 mm) and this dimension is called a "one brick equivalent". "Brick equivalents" are used in
estimating how many refractory bricks it takes to make an installation into an industrial furnace.
There are ranges of standard shapes of different sizes manufactured to produce walls, roofs,
arches, tubes and circular apertures etc. Special shapes are specifically made for specific
locations within furnaces and for particular kilns or furnaces. Special shapes are usually less
dense and therefore less hard wearing than standard shapes. Precast refractory shape technology
has become a specialized field within the refractory industry in recent years. As demands
increase for greater refractory lining performance and lower maintenance costs, refractory users
are finding that one effective way to achieve those goals is to incorporate a broader use of
precast refractory shapes into their lining systems. Across virtually all industries –
petrochemical, steel, power generation, metal casting and treatment, wood products, minerals
processing and others - the applications for precast shapes are limited only by the imagination,
and almost invariably their use results in better performance and lower cost. This article

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discusses the design and manufacture of precast refractory shapes, and the benefits to material
properties and installation logistics.
Precast shape design and manufacturing
Realizing the benefits of precast shapes requires that designers have a thorough knowledge of
how the shape system is used and installed in the field. Successful design and manufacture of a
high-performance refractory shape system requires understanding refractory materials,
manufacturing, anchoring systems, and construction practice. Dimensional tolerances,
construction sequencing, lifting and handling capabilities at the site, anchoring facilities, and the
actual service demands within the refractory lining environment are all factors that must be well
known before the shape is designed.
Precast shape manufacturing requires a mold or pattern to form the shape. Several methods for
mold-making are routinely used, and the type of mold construction and materials depends on the
size, complexity, and dimensional tolerances the shape requires, and sometimes the quantity of
shapes. Simple shapes with loose dimensional tolerances (+/- 1/16") can use plywood or metal
forms. Other shapes may involve extremely tight tolerances that require more sophisticated
molds made from wood, plastic, or metal. These molds may be made by a foundry pattern maker
or machine shop.
Another factor in the design of a precast shape has to do with the schedule and sequencing of the
actual field installation. The shape design must take into account job accessibility, what other
lining components are already in place when the shapes are installed, and how the shape can be
handled physically on the job site. Weight and lifting limitations must be considered and planned
for, as well as the type of access available into the furnace or vessel. If necessary, lifting lugs or
other fixtures can sometimes be incorporated into the shape design.
The design of the anchoring system used in the shape is important. In addition to the normal
considerations of alloy type and anchor size, the precast shape design must also consider all
alternatives for attaching the shape to the structure. Numerous methods can be used, including
threaded stud attachments through the wall, welded fixtures, or bolted assemblies.
Perhaps most importantly, the proper refractory material must be selected to suit the demands of
the application. Factors such as the desired temperature profile through the lining, expected
mechanical stresses, potential chemical attack on the lining, erosion mechanisms, and expansion
allowance must all be understood prior to selecting a material to use in the precast shape.
A well-equipped precast manufacturing facility should include high-energy, large capacity
mixers, automated mixing stations with conveyors for material delivery, vibration tables,
digitally-controlled water addition, mixing time controllers, and adequate lifting capabilities for
large shapes. Firing of shapes is accomplished with a digitally-controlled furnace with burners
capable of firing to at least 1300 deg. F. In-house mold/pattern fabrication capabilities and CAD-
generated drawings for design assistance should also be expected.
Benefits from material property enhancement
Regardless of how complex or sophisticated the refractory castable is that is selected for an
application, the physical properties of the material can be drastically reduced if care is not taken
during the mixing, pouring, and curing processes. Particularly with the use of more complex
refractory castables to solve specific wear issues, installation variables become even more

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critical to the performance of a lining. Unfortunately, lining quality is often compromised by
field conditions during material placement. Project schedules, crew skill levels, equipment
availability, job cost pressures, or other demands can sometimes influence proper refractory
installation. Improper water addition, mix time variations, over- or under-vibration, and improper
curing can drastically affect material quality. With precast shapes, cast in a controlled shop
environment, the physical properties of a castable can be more fully optimized.
Initial drying and firing of a refractory castable is a critical installation variable that can
influence lining performance. Precast shapes are typically fired in a digitally-controlled furnace
prior to shipment, ensuring that the refractory manufacturer's recommended bake-out schedule is
closely followed. Since the shapes are fired slowly from all sides, the moisture is removed
through the entire thickness of the shape in a controlled manner. Depending on the temperature
to which the shape is fired, this can optimize the physical properties of the material through the
entire thickness of the shape, not just the hot face surface. This results in a truly homogeneous
lining. Micro-cracks within the shape, which are often introduced during field bake-out but may
go unnoticed, may also be reduced since the initial firing is more controlled.
In service, linings composed of precast shapes often see less stress and cracking, due to the
independent, "floating" nature of the lining. The performance of the lining can also be more
predictable, resulting in better opportunities to plan for maintenance and repairs.
Benefits from installation logistics
Other major benefits of precast refractory shapes are related to simplified installation and repair
logistics, which can reduce costs and down times. Using precast shapes eliminates forming labor,
materials, equipment costs, actual placement time and expense, and associated costs during form
removal, curing, and cleanup. It shifts these costs back to the manufacturer of the shape, who can
absorb them much more efficiently by spreading them over the overall production capacity.
Refractory installation contractors have begun to consider precast refractory shapes much like
they do any other pre-manufactured item such as block insulation, ceramic fiber blanket,
anchors, etc. These items can be bought and then re-sold as a component of their installation
projects. Whenever any portion of refractory repair work can be completed prior to crews being
on site, costs are automatically reduced. Installation contractors have also found that the use of
precast shapes can often give them a substantial advantage in competitive bid situations.
With the use of precast shapes, crew sizing can be minimized. Speed of installation is another
obvious benefit to both the installer and the owner, resulting in reduced costs due to shorter job
duration. Material usage is also reduced, when compared to other installation methods such as
guniting, where as much as 45% of extra material is required to compensate for rebound and
other job losses. Environmental hazards such as dusting and tripping hazards associated with
equipment and hoses are also reduced substantially, if not eliminated. Future repairs also become
much more economical and quicker to accomplish. Repair areas can be isolated to just the
immediate wear area within the boundaries of a shape. Anchor attachment points can typically be
reused. Replacement shapes, purchased early and kept as spare parts on site, can be easily
installed in a fraction of the time required for conventional repair methods. The initial bake-out
of a new refractory lining on site can be a very expensive and time-consuming component of a
refractory repair project. The use of precast and prefired refractory shapes can sometimes reduce
or even eliminate the need for an extensive initial bake-out. If an entire repair is made with a
prefired system, then normal furnace start up schedules can be used, without the fear of steam
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spalls or other damage during the initial heating. Bake-out of multi-component linings, which
may include a combination of precast shapes and other materials placed in the field, can often be
reduced by the pre-firing of the castable shapes, particularly if that material would have been the
critical item determining the bake out schedule. This can have a positive impact on not only job
costs, but in reducing down time as well.
Unshaped (monolithic refractories)
These are without definite form and are only given shape upon application. These types are
better known as monolithic refractories. The common examples are plastic masses, Ramming
masses, castables, gunning masses, fettling mix, mortars etc.Dry vibration linings often used
in Induction furnace linings are also monolithic, and sold and transported as a dry powder,
usually with a magnesia/alumina composition with additions of other chemicals for altering
specific properties. They are also finding more applications in blast furnace linings, although this
use is still rare.
Types of monolithic refractories
Castable refractories
These materials consist of precision graded coarse and fine refractory grains. They are gelled by
means of a binder system in the materials green state. Following the heat-up of the material the
binder either transforms or volatilises facilitating the formation of a ceramic bond. The most
common binder used in castables is HAC (high alumina cement). Other binders that are often
used include hydratable aluminas and colloidal silica. Castables are mixed with water and then
installed by either pouring or pumping. Placement of the material then requires vibration.The
cement-containing castables are often classified by the amount of cement they contain.
Conventional castables can contain around 15-30% cement binder. As refractory technology
evolved chemical additives were included in the package to reduce the amount of cement and
water the product required - the impact of this was material with improved strengths and
durability. Low cement castables contain between about 3-10% cement by weight. Ultra low
cement castables contain less than 3% cement.A specialised type of refractory castable is the free
flow castable, which can be installed without vibration and require much less water than
traditional castables. This is due to the fact that they have particle packing and dispersing agents
that modify the surface chemistry of the fine particles to improve the flow of the material.Certain
castable formulations may be installed via gunning techniques, which involves spraying the
material through a nozzle at a high speed. At the nozzle, cement accelerators are often added to
promote rapid hardening of the material. This technique helps workers line applications quickly.
Plastic refractories
These are monolithic refractory materials, which are tempered with water or added with a binder.
They have sufficient plasticity to be pounded or rammed into place.
Ramming refractories
These materials are very similar to plastic refractories though are much stiffer mixes.

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Patching refractories
These materials are similar to plastic refractories, but have a soft plasticity, so they can be
pounded into place.
Coating refractories
This type of product is used to protect refractory linings usually against chemical attack. Coating
refractories are normally intended to cover just the working surface of a lining. They tend to be
fairly thin layers.
Refractory Mortars
Mortars consist of finely ground refractory materials mixed with water to form a paste. They are
used for laying and bonding shaped refractory products such as bricks. They are normally
applied by trowelling.
Insulating castables
Insulating castables are specialised monolithic refractories that are used on the cold face of
applications. They are made from lightweight aggregate materials such as vermiculite, perlite,
extend-o-spheres, bubble alumina and expanded clay. Their main function is to provide thermal
insulation. They are typically of low density and low thermal conductivity. Insulating refractories
have inferior mechanical strength to that of conventional castables.

Properties of Refractories
Refractories are those materials which have high melting points and have properties which make
them suitable to act as heat resisting barriers between high and low temperature zones.
Refractories are inorganic, nonmetallic, porous and heterogeneous materials composed of
thermally stable mineral aggregates, a binder phase and additives. The general requirements of
refractories include (i) ability to withstand high temperatures and trap heat within a limited area
such as a furnace, (ii) ability to withstand action of liquid metal, hot gasses and liquid slag by
resisting erosion and corrosion etc. (iii) ability to withstand load at service environment, (iv)
ability to resist contamination of the material with which it comes into contact, (v) ability to
maintain necessary dimensional stability at high temperatures and after/during repeated thermal
cycling, and (vi) ability to conserve heat.
Important properties of refractories include chemical composition, bulk density, apparent
porosity, apparent specific gravity and strength at atmospheric temperatures. These properties are
frequently among those which are used as ‘control points’ in the manufacturing and quality
control process. The chemical composition serves as a basic for classification of refractories and
the density, porosity and strength are influenced by many other factors. Among these are type
and quality of the raw materials, the size and fit of the particles, moisture content at the time of
pressing, pressure at mould, firing temperature, duration of firing, and the rate of cooling.
Properties of the refractories can be classified to resist four types of service stresses namely (i)
chemical, (ii) mechanical, (iii) thermal, and (iv) thermo-technical. A suitable selection of the
refractories for the furnace lining can only be made with an accurate knowledge of the refractory
properties and the stresses on the refractories during service. The relationship between service
stresses and important properties of the refractories are at Tab 1.

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 Tab 1 Relationship between type of stress and refractory
property

Sl.No. Type of stress Important refractory property

1 Chemical composition
Mineralogical composition and crystal formation
Chemical Pore size distribution and types of pores
Gas permeability
Resistance to slag, glass melts, gasses, and vapours
2 Crushing strength
Abrasion resistance
Mechanical
Cold modulus of rupture and deformation modulus
Porosity and Density
3 Pyrometric cone equivalent
Refractoriness under load
Refractoriness under load (differential)
Thermal expansion under load (creep)
Thermal
Hot modulus of rupture
Thermal expansion
Reheat change (after shrinkage and after expansion)
Thermal shock resistance
4 Thermal conductivity
Thermo- Specific heat
technical Bulk density
Thermal capacity and temperature conductivity

Properties for chemical stress

Chemical composition – The chemical composition of refractories is of great importance
with respect to attack by liquid slags, flue dusts, glass melts and vapours. Based on the behaviour
during contact reactions, the refractories can be categorized as (i) acid refractories (silica, silicon
carbide, zircon cristobalite, and zircon silicate etc.), (ii) basic refractories (dolomite, magnesite,
chrome magnesite, magnesite chrome, and forsterite etc.), and (iii) neutral refractories (alumina,
carbon, fire clay, and chromite etc.). Chemical analysis of different refractories can be carried
out by methods described in various standards.
Mineralogical composition and crystal formation – The behaviour of refractories
during their use also depends on the type of raw materials used and on the reactions achieved
during firing of the refractories. A glassy phase is more susceptible to attack by slag than a
tightly interlocked lattice structure. Aggregate of small crystals can be dissolved and transformed
more rapidly by infiltrating substances than closed crystalline materials. Two methods are
normally used to recognize mineralogical composition. In the first method a polarizing
microscope or a scanning electron microscope is used to identify the crystal structure while in

7
the second method the crystalline phases are examined by X-ray examination or by X-ray
diffraction analysis.
Pore size distribution and types of pores – The mechanical strength of refractories is
largely determined by the true porosity. Porosity is a measure of the effective open pore space in
the refractory into which the liquid metal, slag, fluxes, gasses, and vapours etc. can penetrate and
thereby contribute to eventual degradation of the structure. The porosity of refractory is
expressed as the average percentage of open pore space in the overall refractory volume. Other
important properties, such as the behaviour during chemical attack by slags, glass melts, gasses
and vapours are influenced by the size, shape, number and distribution of the pores. Hence, both
the pore size as well as distribution of pores is important. True porosity of refractory bricks is
composed of closed pores and open pores. The open pores can be either permeable or
impermeable. The content of open pores is determined by water absorption while the pore size
distribution is determined by forcing mercury in the brick sample with the help of a pressure
porosimeter.
Gas permeability – Gas permeability describes the property of a solid porous refractory to
allow gas to flow through in from one direction under the influence of a pressure gradient. The
gas flow can be carried out by means of a pressure or suction pump. The methods of
determination of gas permeability are described in various standards. The dimension of gas
permeability is sq cm or Perm. As this unit is rather large, the dimensions terms where these
units are divided by 10 to the power nine are normally used.
Resistance to slag, glass melts, gasses, and vapours – The slag resistance characterize
the resistance of refractories to chemical attack of any type, including that of glass and vapours.
The destructive agents coming into contact with refractories are of different composition and the
destruction processes are correspondingly many. The method of determination of slag resistance
is described in various standards. Refractory brick destructions are not only caused by liquid
slags and glass melts but gasses and vapours also influence the service life of the refractory
bricks due to several individual reasons.
Properties for mechanical stress
Cold crushing strength – The cold crushing strength determines the ability to withstand the
rigorous of transport and handling before the installation of refractories in the furnace. It can be
seen as a useful indicator to the adequacy of firing and abrasion resistance in consonance with
other properties such as bulk density and porosity. The cold crushing strength is determined by
the methods described in various standards. In order to evaluate the behaviour at the service
temperatures, the hot crushing strength is also sometimes determined in addition to the cold
crushing strength.
Abrasion resistance – The mechanical stress of refractories is not caused by the pressure
alone, but also by the abrasive attack of the solid charge materials as they slowly pass over the
brickwork inside the furnace. The mechanical stress can also be due to the impingement of the
fast moving gasses loaded with fine solid dust particles. The abrasive stress is quite well
simulated by Bohme’s grinding machine, but the results normally cannot be applied to the
conditions existing in the furnaces being operated at high temperatures, especially when the
strength of the refractory brick is getting changed due to the chemical influences. There is
presently no approved measuring method available for measuring abrasion resistance, and the
abrasion factor according to Bohme is still being used as a reference value.

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Cold modulus of rupture and deformation modulus – Due to the thermal stress,
generally combined with altered physical- chemical conditions because of infiltrations, strain
conditions occur in the refractory brickwork which can lead to rupture and crack formation. In
order to determine the magnitude of the rupture stress, the resistance to deformation under
bending stress, i.e. rupture strength is measured. Because of their heterogeneous coarse ceramic
structure, refractory bricks are purely elastic within a narrow deformation region. The ratio of
stress of deformation within this purely elastic initial region, where the deformation is still
reversible, is described as the modulus of elasticity. This is normally measured dynamically by
means of ultrasonic or resonance frequency. Progressive deformation up to rupture is outside the
purely elastic region with the deformations on the less resistant fines content and for this reason
the stress increases more slowly relative to the deformation. Then the modulus of elasticity is no
longer sufficient to calculate the stress which occurs. Hence, the ratio of rupture stress to rupture
deformation has been introduced as the modulus of deformation. In case of refractories this
modulus is smaller than or at the most equal to the modulus of elasticity. The determination of
the modulus of deformation in cold condition is carried out, together with the modulus of
rupture, on a test bar resting on two bearing edges and applying a load to the centre of the bar.
Porosity and density – Low porosity of the refractory brick is desirable since it improves the
mechanical strength and other properties of the refractories. True porosity of a refractory brick is
the ratio of the total pore space (i.e. open and closed pores) of a body to its volume and is
expressed in volume percent. The formula for true porosity is as follows.
True porosity = (S- R)/S X 100 volume %, where S is the density and R is the bulk density.
The density is the quotient of mass and volume excluding pore space and is determined on finely
crushed material. Frequently, not the values of the true porosity but those of apparent porosity
(open porosity) are used as the application property. The apparent porosity includes only those
holes which can be infiltrated by water and not the closed holes.
High porosity materials tend to be highly insulating as a result of high volume of air they trap,
since air is a very poor thermal conductor. As a result, low porosity materials are generally used
in hotter zones, while the more porous materials are usually used for thermal backup. Such
materials, however, do not work with higher temperatures and direct flame impingement, and are
likely to shrink when subjected to such conditions. Refractory materials with high porosity are
usually not chosen when they are to be in contact with liquid slag since they can be penetrated as
easily.The bulk density is generally considered in conjunction with apparent porosity. It is a
measure of the weight of a given volume of the refractory. For many refractories, the bulk
density provides a general indication of the product quality. It is considered that the refractory
with higher bulk density (low porosity) is better in quality. This is because an increase in bulk
density increases the volume stability, the heat capacity, as well as the resistance to abrasion and
slag penetration.
Properties for thermal stress
Pyrometric cone equivalent – Refractories due to their chemical complexity melt
progressively over a range of temperature. The refractoriness of the refractories is one of the
most important properties of the refractory. As the refractories hardly ever consist of a single
compound, reference is made, not to a specific melting point, but to a softening region. This is
determined with the help of comparative ceramic samples of known softening behaviour usually
known as ‘Seger cones’ (Fig 1). Pyramids are cut from the refractory bricks which are to be
tested. The method of testing is described in various standards. The equivalent standard cone
which melts to the same extent as the test cone is known as the pyrometric cone equivalent

9
(PCE). The cone values reported for refractories are based on a defined standard time –
temperature relationship, so different heating rates result in different PCE values.

Refractoriness under load – Refractoriness points to the resistance of extreme conditions

of heat (temperature more than 1000 deg C) and corrosion when hot and liquid materials are
contained while being transported and/or processed. The ability to withstand exposure to higher
temperatures without undergoing appreciable deformation is measured in terms of refractoriness.
The tests for refractoriness under load serve to evaluate the softening behaviour of fired
refractory bricks at rising temperature and under constant load conditions. The softening
behaviour under load is not identical to the melting range of pure raw materials, but is influenced
by the content and the degree of distribution of the low melting point flux agents.
The refractoriness under load test provides an indication of the temperature at which the
refractory bricks collapse, in service conditions with similar load. However, under actual service
where the bricks are heated only on one face, most of the load is carried by the relatively cooler
rigid portion of the bricks. Hence the refractoriness under load test gives only an index of the
refractory quality, rather than a figure which can be used in a refractory design. Under service
conditions, where the refractory used is heating from all sides such as checkers, partition walls,
etc. the test data is quite significant.
Refractoriness under load (differential) – In order to eliminate errors as a result of the
inherent expansion of the test equipment when the refractoriness under load is being tested, and
to enable tests to be carried out in an oxidizing atmosphere, a different method has been
developed to determine the resistance at rising temperature and constant load which is the
refractoriness under load (differential) test. In this method same type of samples are used as for
the refractoriness under load test bur they have an internal bore to permit rods to be fitted to the
upper and the lower sides. With this method, temperature values are obtained by differential
measurements in an oxidizing atmosphere and these values are considerably lower than the
refractoriness under load values.
Thermal expansion under load (creep) – Refractory materials must maintain
dimensional stability under extreme temperatures (including repeated thermal cycling) and
constant corrosion from very hot liquids and gases. The thermal expansion under load (creep) of
refractory bricks, which are heated evenly on all sides over a long period during service, can be
tested by a long term test called creep under load. It is a time dependent property which
determines the deformation in a given time and at a given temperature by a material under
stress. The test is conducted as described in the various standards. For this, the sample of 50 mm
diameter and 50 mm height, with an internal bore for the measuring rod, is heated at a constant
speed and under a given load (normally 0.2 N/sq mm) and is normally held for 10 hours to 50
hours under constant load after the required test temperature has been reached. The compression
of the sample, after maximum expansion has been attained, is given in relation to the test time as
a measure of creep at a specified test temperature.
Hot modulus of rupture – Hot modulus of rupture is the resistance to bending stress at high
temperature. The resistance to bending stress of refractory products provides information on their
deformation behaviour at high temperatures. The test samples are bars which are heated in
electric chamber kilns. For the test, the bars are placed on bearing edges of the kiln and are
stressed until fracture occurs at the test temperature by applying an increasing load to the centre
of the bar.

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Thermal expansion – All materials experience a change in volume under the influence of
temperature. The contraction or expansion of the refractories can take place during service. Such
permanent changes in dimensions may be due to (i) the changes in the allotropic forms which
cause a change in specific gravity, (ii) a chemical reaction which produces a new material of
altered specific gravity, (iii) the formation of liquid phase, (iv) sintering reactions, and (v) may
happen on account of fluxing with dust and slag or by the action of alkalis on fireclay
refractories, to form alkali-alumina silicates, causing expansion and disruption. The reversible
linear expansion curve of most of the refractory bricks is more or less straight although the
absolute amount varies considerably. Silica bricks, however, have an irregular and strong
thermal expansion in the temperature range of up to 700 deg C. By changes in structure or in
firing methods of refractory bricks, the expansion curve can be influenced within certain
limits. Bricks with high expansion are very susceptible to thermal shock. Thermal expansion is
important in service, as the effects of expansion are to be taken into account during the
installation of refractory lining. If not done, then edge pressure and premature spalling of the
bricks take place.
Reheat change (after shrinkage and after expansion) – After heating to high
temperature and subsequent cooling, a permanent change in the dimension (permanent linear
change) often occurs which is described as after expansion or after shrinkage. If a refractory
brick has very strong after shrinkage then the joints get enlarged and the brickwork is loosened
and no longer tight. In opposite case, after expansion is also dangerous since this can cause the
destruction of the brickwork through pressure. The permanent linear change (PLC) of the
refractories can be influenced. For obtaining a brick with a constant volume, the burning of the
raw materials and the firing of the bricks is to be controlled in such a manner so that equilibrium
is achieved at the desired temperature.
Thermal shock resistance – Thermal shock resistance is one of the most important service
properties. It characterizes the behaviour of refractories to sudden temperature shocks which
occurs very often during the furnace operation. Temperature fluctuations can reduce the strength
of the brick structure to a high degree and can lead to disintegration or spalling in layers. There
are two standard methods for the testing of the thermal shock resistance. They are (i) water
quenching method, and (ii) air quenching method. In the water quenching method, the test piece
is a standard cylinder which is heated to 950 deg C and then quenched in running cold
water. The test is repeated till the destruction of the sample but not more than 30 times. The
number of quenching till destruction determines the thermal shock resistance. Air quenching
method is used for bricks which are susceptible to hydration. The process in this method is same
except that the quenching is done by blowing compressed air in place of running water. The
thermal shock resistance of refractories often decreases with increasing firing levels. Those
refractories which retain their quenching resistance even after higher firing temperatures or
service temperatures are the most useful in practice.
Properties for thermo-technical stress
Thermal conductivity – Thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of heat which will
flow through a unit area in direction normal to the surface area in a defined time with a known
temperature gradient under steady state conditions. It indicates general heat flow characteristics
of the refractory and depends upon the chemical and mineralogical compositions as well as the
application temperature. The unit of the thermal conductivity of refractories is W/K*m. The
determination of thermal conductivity is carried out by the plate, ball, hollow cylinder or hot

11
wire method. In addition to the temperature, the co-efficient of thermal conductivity depends
also on the composition of raw materials, the mineralogical structure of the brick mix, true
porosity and pore size, firing temperature and grading. Hence the absolute values of the thermal
conductivity vary widely for the different types of the refractories. There is a negative
temperature gradient of thermal conductivity in bricks which consist almost exclusively of
crystalline components. Bricks with a high portion of the glassy phase generally have a positive
and small gradient. With rising temperatures the vibration conditions of the crystalline, non-
metallic materials become similar to those of the amorphous materials and this leads to
converging values of the thermal conductivity. Porosity is a significant factor in heat flow
through refractories. The thermal conductivity of a refractory decreases on increasing its porosity
Specific heat – Specific heat is a temperature and material related energy factor and is
determined with the help of colorimeters. This factor indicates the amount of energy (joules)
required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a material by 1 degree kelvin. Compared to water,
the specific heat of refractories is very low.
Bulk density – In order to know the stored heat, it is necessary to know the bulk density of the
refractories. The term bulk density describes the measure of mass and volume including the pore
space. Bulk density is generally considered in conjunction with apparent porosity. It is a measure
of the weight of a given volume of the refractory. For many refractories, the bulk density
provides a general indication of the product quality. It is usually considered that refractories with
higher bulk density (low porosity) are better in quality. An increase in bulk density increases the
volume stability, the heat capacity, as well as the resistance to abrasion and slag penetration.
Bulk density is by far one of the most important characteristics and serves, together with the
density, to calculate the true porosity and, together with water absorption, to calculate the
apparent porosity.
Thermal capacity and temperature conductivity – Thermal capacity can be
calculated from the specific heat and the bulk density. The following formula gives the heat
stored (W) in one square meter of refractory wall of thickness‘s’.
W= R x Cpm x (T1 – T2) x s
Where W is stored heat in kJ/sq m, R is bulk density of brick in kg/cu m, Cpm is mean specific
heat of the refractory bricks between the temperatures T1 and T2 in kJ/kg*K, s is wall thickness
in meters, T1 is the inside temperature of furnace wall in deg C, and T2 is the external
temperature of the furnace wall in deg C.
With intermittent heat flow, e.g. checker work, not only the thermal conductivity of the
refractories is of interest but also the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the thermal capacity
(known as temperature conductivity), is important for the progression of the temperature
changes.
Other important properties
Melting point – Melting temperatures (melting points) specify the ability of materials to
withstand high temperatures without chemical change and physical destruction. The melting
point of few elements that constitute refractory composition in the pure state varies from 1700
deg C to 3500 deg C. The melting point serves as a sufficient basis for considering the thermal
stability of refractory mixtures and is an important characteristic indicating the maximum
temperature of use

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References

1. Ailsa Allaby and Michael Allaby (1996). Concise Dictionary of Earth Sciences. Oxford
Paperbacks Oxford University Press.
2. ^ ASTM Volume 15.01 Refractories; Activated Carbon, Advanced Ceramics
3. ^ Refractory Materials for Flame Deflector Protection System Corrosion Control: Similar
Industries and/or Launch Facilities Survey - January 2009 - NASA
4. ^ "How cool are refractory materials?" (PDF). The Journal of the Southern African
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. 106 (September): 1–16. 2008. Retrieved 22
April 2016.
5. ^ Grover, Mikell P. (2010-01-07). Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials,
Processes, and Systems. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470467008.
6. ^ Sonntag, Kiss, Banhidi, Weber (2009). "New Kiln Furniture Solutions for Technical
Ceramics". Ceramic forum international. 86 (4): 29–34.
7. ^ Roza, Greg (2009). Zirconium. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 9781435850705.
8. ^ Hugh O. Pierson (1992). Handbook of chemical vapor deposition (CVD): principles,
technology, and applications. William Andrew. pp. 206–. ISBN 978-0-8155-1300-1.
Retrieved 22 April 2011.
9. ^ Hafnium, Los Alamos National Laboratory
10. ^ McGraw-Hill encyclopedia of science and technology: an international reference work
in fifteen volumes including an index. McGraw-Hill. 1977. p. 360. ISBN 978-0-07-
079590-7. Retrieved 22 April 2011.

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