.

The development of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in Bengal

This chapter would strive to outline the socio-cultural, political and the economic background

culminating the rise and growth of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in Bengal which would be deeply

embedded in the philosophical traditions. Vaishnavism as its philosophical framework harps

on Upanishads. It also traces its roots to the Tantric faith.

Vaishnavism believed in the triadic concept of the indivisible reality stated as ‘Brahman’,

‘Paramatman’ and the ‘Bhagavat’. The ecstatic- aesthetic emotionalism of the Bengal school

of Vaishnavism derived its scriptural authority from the Bhagavatpuranas.i The literary

productions formulate the basis for the deductions and the developments of the various

doctrines of aesthetic emotionalism, of theology, metaphysics and ritualism as per the

traditions of the celebrated Six Goswamins of the Bengal School. ii

There are three important Brahmanical traditions namely Vaisnava traditions based on

Vishnu and his incarnations,Saiva traditions based on lord Shiva and Sakta traditions focused

on the Goddess or Devi. These traditions have carved out a niche’ of their own texts and

rituals while still being a part of the broad aspects of Hinduism. iii

Even though we associate the Bengal school of Vaishnavism with that of Chaitanya, the

homogenous traditions were to be credited to the Padavalis of Jayadeva composed in

Sanskrit and the songs of Chandidasa in vernacular dialect of Bengali popularised the Radha-

Krsna cult with their largess of Vaishnava devotional sentiments.iv Radha occupies a very

unique position in the thought and devotional conundrum of the Vaishnavites of Bengal. The

emotionalism of love in the analysis of Gaudiya Vaishnavism promoted aesthetic revelation

of deep religious significance.v

Gaudiya Vaishnavism adhered to being associated as the Religion of Man and the Eternal

Man was referred as the supreme image of divinity. Chandidas exclaimed that-

‘’ Above all, Man is true,

‘’ There is no truth higher than Man.’’ vi

The Sufis and the Christian mystics had referred to this aspect in their scriptural notions as

well. In the Jewish Text, Cabala, the human form of Deification had been implied. No form

of deification other than human can have any appeal for man. vii

Vaishnavism spread the message that cosmic beings could be united in infinite federation of

love. Radha and Krsna also termed as the Eternal man and Woman and believed to be the

centre of Creation of Life.

While dealing closely with the subject of devotionalism within the Vaishnavite structure, the

doctrine of Bhakti tends to be quite overpowering and the connections with the Krsna cult

embedded within the emotionalism realisation of love. viii The connotation of Bhakti has been

transcendental over the eras; it was shrouded into a complex body of myth, superstitions,

belief, sentiment, philososphy in the earlier phases of worshipping Vishnu. A definite form of

worshipping developed due to the influence of Bhagavad Gita. The order was established and

which was quite evident in the works namely - Nārada Sāndilya Sūtras and it continued as a

doctrine till the eighth century AD as the notion of non-dualism was being promulgated by

Shankarcharya which unravelled into the revival of the Vaishnava faith. ix

The Vaishnava movement from 12th Century onwards saw the evolution in terms of four

Sampradayas or schools of thought associated with Ramanuja, Madhavacharya,

Vallabhacharya and Nimbarka. These philosophers expounded theories of Qualified non-

duality ( Vis̄istādvaita- Vāda), Duality ( Dvāita- vāda), Pure non-duality ( Sud̄dhaadvaita-

vāda) and Dualistic ( Dvāitadavita- vāda). Different modes of worship and ritualism were

developed by these schools of thought, representations; symbolisation and manifestation were

deemed to be important, sectarian marks were identified with the particular faith. The groups

centred on the fact that Bhakti was at the core of belief, faith and also acted as the singular

religious attitude of love. x

Krishna or Krsna is one of the most popular religious figures among the other Hindu

deities.xiHe is depicted in various forms. Bimanbehari Majumdar said about Krishna in his

’Krishna in History and Legend;’ ‘’as Vishnu pervades all the worlds and through them

causes himself to be permeated,so does Krishna permeate Indian

art,literature,ethics,philosophy and religion.’’ The actual role of Krishna who fits within the

broad spectrum as the category of Vaishnava traditions is generally accepted.

The identities of Krsna have been forged or have shifted due to the requirements of the socio-

cultural-political framework. It has a wide range from being tales of fantasy to being a part of

rural historicity. He has a multi-dimensional presence in the facets of Hinduism. The

‘Krishnaite’ traditions have a ulterior discourse as being normative and alternative at the

same time. xii There are several other types of Krishnas who were worshipped among several

ethnic groups within India. The categorisation of Krishnas into the archetypes provides ample

choice to accept the form of Krishna. The Sanskrit\vernacular divide widens the horizon on

the broader meaning of Krishna in India. Classical sources includes the Mahabharata,

HariVamsa, Vishnu Purana, Bhagavat Purana, these are the Sanskrit canonical sources. The

Bhagavat Purana is said to the primary literary source regarding the fables of Krishna’s

childhood pastimes. Most of the stories were believed to pass down orally or aurally until

these were found to be recorded sometime before the commencement of the Christian era.
The Krishna of Indian piety and imagination has eclipsed the objective of historical Krishna

by leaps and bounds. Krishna’s entire life span has been recorded in the Sanskrit literature.

His fables covered more geographical territory than any Hindu gods. There are more

references to Krishna’s life in literature both in classical and vernacular than any other

historical or semi-historical religious persona. There have been considerable stages of

development by which Vishnu ascended to prominence after the Vedic period acted as the

milestones to the growth of Krishna as a divine being.xiii

The relationship of Krishna with the Vaishnavite traditions developed over a period of time.

It was established in around 200BCE. The historical figure and at the same time evolving as

the deity of a cowherd clan by the name of Krishna was commutated into the Bhagvata

religion as Vasudeva-Krishna. These had stages as first was an incarnation of Vishnu-

Narayana, then being identical with that status as in the Bhagavad Gita and in the final stage

being superior in the 9th century. Sectarian Vaishnavism had developed into four major

sampradaya or schools of distinct disciplines that were founded by an eminent scholar who

wrote commentaries on Upanishads. Krishna was accepted within the framework as being the

eighth among the ten incarnations of Vishnu.

Epigraphic evidences of Visnu and Krsna are quite inadequate and often rendered with

ambiguous interpretations. Instances from the Susunia Inscriptions of Chandravarman from

4th century AD, it appears that the royal princes were the devotees of Vishnu. This proved

that the emotional element in evolution of the mysticism of worshipping Krsna had not yet

secured a firm foothold in Bengal. xiv The sculptures from the Paharpur temple located in the

Bogura district depicted the crucial life events of Krsna’s life during the reign of the Pala

dynasty from the beginning of the eighth century to the middle of the twelfth century.

Vaishnavism started to appear in traces during the Sena period in Bengal. xv

The passionate lyrical poem of Jayadeva could be termed as an important literary record of

pre- Chaitanya Vaishnavism in Bengal. Jayadeva’s GitaGovinda attached a deeper meaning

to Radha rather than Krsna’s. xvi

Suniti Kumar Chatterjee explained that Jayadeva might

have derived inspiration from earlier existing literature and might not have been a Vaishnava

himself. xvii

Vidyapati, the court poet of Mithila along with his contemporary Chandidas heralded the new

age of devotional poetry by adhering to the notion of reaching moksha. The bold acceptance

of love and the complete denial of moksa bring out the differences existing between

Vaishnava and other philosophies.

Doctrines and practices left by the depraved Buddhism and the deeply sacrosanct Hinduism

influenced the religious practices of that time. Vaishnavism was used to augment up the non-

Vedic faiths. There existed scuffles between the practitioners of Tantric Buddhism, votaries

of Siva worshippers with that of those who adhered towards Vaishnavism.xviii

The Vaishnavas accepted Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu to firmly establish their social

position. The idea of a tolerant attitude was relevant in Bengal. In Ancient and Mediaeval

Bengal, even though Vaishnavite cultural traditions were gaining ground but Krsna piety was

still not adhered. On the political front, the Muslim invaders could not be defeated and the

Hindu rulers of the small principalities failed to prevent the invaders. The influence of the

Dharmashastras was quite significant. The societal configuration during these invasions was

static. At the same time, a decline could be observed in the literary works, religious circles

and in the societal structures. The very basis of Indian feudalism invited the differences

between the Vedic Brahamanical aspects with that of non-Vedic practices. Vaishnavism in

Bengal emerged during the reign of the Sena dynasty. In the South, the Sri Sampradaya and

Vishistadvaitavada were quite dominant. The Senas hailed from Canara and migrated
towards Bengal and it could be assumed that they might have brought in the newer Vaishnava

doctrines and practices. The Bhagavatpurana attests to the fact when the Senas dominated the
xix
political scene in Bengal. The notion of acculturation was coterminous among the

Brahmanical classes. Some could even say that the decline in the authority of the priestly

classes might have led to the emergence of the Vaishnava practices. Texts which accorded to

the close relationship existing between Vedic religious practices and that of the Vaishnava

fold are ‘VedaVaishnava Sishhanta Rahasya’ . The advent of the invaders and even during

the establishment of the Sultanate in Gauda, in Eastern India there was spirit of religious

tolerance and as well as that of communal antagonism as well. Within the social classes, we

could see a diversity as the moneyed landowners would be devout worshippers of Shaiva and

Sakta traditions, the peasants and the agricultural labourers would be staunch Vaishnavas and

the merchant sections would practice Buddhism. The folk traditions declared that Krishna,

Shiva and Chandi were equally significant. One body of thought proclaimed that the concept

of Radha developed from the Shakta traditions.xx Before the advent of Chaitanya, in Bengal

there were two elements which happened to be- literary productions expounding Vaishnava

faith in songs and lyrical poetry and another was the rituals dynamics. Philosophical thoughts

were deeply embedded into the traditions which were moulded within the paraphernalia of

the Vaishnava customs.xxi

THE ERA BEFORE CHAITANYA

In this section, I would provide an outline about the development of Gaudiya Vaishnavism

during Chaitanya’s time. At the same time, it is crucial for peeking into the socio-political

and the religious background against the rising popularity of Vaishnavite customs.
The Hussain Shahi dynasty established power during the later decades of the fifteenth

century. Politically, Bengal formed one of the major provinces of the Delhi Sultanate from

the time of Bhakhtiyar Khalji’s invasion down to the first half of the fourteenth century when

Senas were the ruling authority. The advent of the Indo-Turkish rule altered Bengal’s

physical and social landscape. Bengals’ economy also became monetized under the Muslim

rule. The silver tanka or currency was circulated during the medieval times uninterrupted

throughout Bengal. xxii

The Sultan acted as the superlative head of the state and served as the chief patron of the

bureaucratic departments. The nobility played a very imperative part in administering the

various departments entrusted to them. The nobility was composed of assorted sections

namely – Arabs, Pathans, Indian Muslims and Bengalis. xxiii

The hierarchy was styled as

Feudal as the region was divided into military holdings called muqtis. The trade activities

invested in satins, silks, porcelain from China. The monetization of Bengal’s economy and its

amalgamation with markets throughout the Indian Ocean greatly encouraged the region’s
xxiv
export manufacturing sector. The textile industry bloomed in this period. Bengal became

a major hub of Asian trade and manufacture.

Agriculture proved to be one of the major professional activities as the deltaic region of

Bengal proved to be fertile and produced numerous crops. The sea-borne trade of Bengal

flourished in a greater height over the barely existing internal trade. Bengal had several ports

and towns which facilitated the sea- borne trade. The society was urban in its outlook from

the thirteenth century through sixteenth century concentrating in the capital cities –

Lakhnauti, Pandua and Gaur and in the provincial towns of Satgaon, Sonargaon and

Chittagaon. The society was fragmented into two divisions- Ashrafs and non-ashrafs. The

nobles, traders formed a part of the Muslim elite or ashrāf and included Sufis saints, religious

officials ( Ulama) , soldiers, administrators, judges. A distinct social group were the urban
artisans adhering to Islam and they were organised into separate, endogamous communities

like jāti with characteristic occupations which existed parallel to the social organization of

the Hindu society. The weavers loom makers, tailors, papermakers, dyers, livestock herders,

wandering holy men constituted the Bengali Muslims in the regions. The professional

demands were met by these workers who worked alongside their fellow Hindu workforce. xxv

The advent of the Indo-Turkish rule meant an immediate end to official patronage for those

priestly classes who had served the Sena government as sacrament priests, astrologers,

ministers, advisors or as fiscal officers like revenue collectors. The Brahmans and the Muslim

officers needed to coordinate in order to satiate the changes in the political and economic

front. During the reign of Ala al-Din Husain Shah, the founder of the Husain Shahi dynasty,

many prominent members of the priestly class were appointed in the royal court. The

moneylenders, merchants continued their techniques of patronizing the royal court and

transitioned into a surrogate Kstatriya class as they absorbed remnants of the previous

existing ruling dynasties. xxvi

The social order was enforced with the practice of endogamy, the regulation of arriage by

‘’caste’’ councils. The first tier included Brahmins, Kayasthas, Baidyas or traditional healers.

The second tier included cultivators, herders, iron smiths, potters, weavers, gardeners,

barbers. The third tier comprises of wood cutters, tailors, carpenters. The last tier comprises

of the sweepers.etc. xxvii

Shaivism was patronised by the Hindu kings as he was viewed as the cosmic overlord. The

cosmic reunion of Siva and S̍akti corresponded to the unification of anionic symbolism.

Shaivism started to decline when the Indo-Turkish conquerors withdrew the royal patronage

on which the cults were depended. The Pashupatas formed a section of the Shaivite cult and
were deterred by the emerging Vaishnavite sections. The notion about the cult supplemented

the changes in the political, economic and religious spheres. xxviii

Copious popular cults dedicated to the various manifestations of the Goddess became

prominent. The literary genre termed as mangala- kavya thrived among those socio-religious

groups who were not much affected by the Indo-Aryan culture. These cults were not

integrated into the hierarchic scheme of social organization as promoted by the priestly
xxix
classes. They comprised the oldest, effervescent and the authentic Bengali religious

traditions in the deltaic region. In their earliest form, Goddess cults seem to have sprung from

ancient female domestic rites not presided over by Brahmin priests as in the case of the cult

of Manasa, the snake goddess. The cult appears to be of a composite nature as it contained a

number of Vedic, Puranic and Non-Aryan elements. xxx

The folk deities experienced varying degrees of accommodation with Brahmanical orthodoxy

which ranged from a rather complete incorporation into the Hindu pantheon to a marginalised

position. These cults failed to achieve acceptance in Brahmanic literature and was also

resisted by the orthodox Saivas. It gained immense popularity among the low-ranking

communities like that of fishermen and cowherds.

Goddess Chandi received support from the Brahmans in the premodern Bengali pantheon.

Chandi was a forest goddess and was identified as the wife of Siva .the worship of Goddess

Chandi is mentioned in Chaitanya- Bhagavatand in Mukundaram Das’s Chandi Mangala. xxxi

The Gaudiya Vaishnavism provides an interest in the theological Sanskrit text literally

knowledge and different categories of drama and emotion. While on the other hand, the folk

Vaishnavism focuses on miracles, the use of Harinam (chanting the name of Lord Krishna) to

dispel evil spirit, disease and bad luck. Gaudiya Vaishnavism is often considered as a more

conservative form of Vaishnavism in West Bengal which was seen as monotheistic tradition
with Krishna playing a dual role of a transcendent Divine Being and that a of a male who is

fascinated by the emotional levels of his consort, Radha. Another form of Vaishnavism which

is practised in the Bengali villages by the people are not formally trained in any doctrine. In

Gaudiya Vaishnavism Krishna had been identified as the only true God and Creator of the

Universe. Orthodox theologians have pointed out that the Avatara descends for the welfare of

the world.

Hindu society in the sultanate period was dominated by two religious orientations- Goddess

cults and the Vaishnava devotionalism. Vaishnava movement appeared to have centered in

western Bengal, whereas the cults dedicated to the Goddess prevailed throughout the delta,

especially in the south and the east. The Saiva cult could never recover from the withdrawals

of the court patronage that followed the Turkish conquest, the Sakta Brahman patrons

succeeded in grafting the high god to indigenous cults and especially focusing on goddess

Chandi. The priestly sections adhering to Vaishnava faith could absorb the shocks emanating

due to restraint for the emotionalism of Chaitanya’s movement.

CHAITANYA

In this section, I would be constructing a brief biographical sketch of Chaitanya and the

development of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in Bengal.

Chaitanya was born in 1486 as Visvambhara Misra in the town of Nabadwip to Jagannath

Misra and his wife, Sachi. The departure of his older brother, Viswarupa and venturing out as

an Advaita Sannyasin under the name of Samkaranya had left a mark on Chaitanya. After the

visit to Gaya for performing his father’s last rites, he embarked upon a path of organising a
xxxii
devotional sankirtan circle in his hometown, Nabadwip. His personal charm, social

standing disarmed resentment and promoted to him to a respectable position in the orthodox

society.

He was initiated by Isvara Puri, a disciple of Madhavendra Puri affiliated to

Madhavacharya’s theology. The sankirtan circle was joined by Nityananda, Advaita, Srivas

Gadhadhar, Narahari, Vasudeva, Pundarik and others. The irrestible charm of the soul

enrapturing music, vocal and instrumental relegated to the all embracing notion of love set
xxxiii
aside the lofty ideals of caste superiority. It led to the emergence of the trend of singing

songs in praise of Krishna. The officers of the Sultanate placed curbs on the cult’s ecstatic

practices as it was seen as disrupment of peace and harmony. The true adversaries of the

growing neo-Vaishnava movement were neither local Muslims nor the royal court at Gaur

who only patronized Vaishnava literature but the priestly sections of supporters of Chandi
xxxiv
and Manasa cults. It was believed that the Vaishnava custom of communal song, the

kirtan, lacked scriptural authority and hampered the communal harmony. Chaitanya was

believed to have usurped the monopoly of sacred oral words. Another point of criticism was

evident as Chaitanya indeed attracted followers from the lower classes which might have

brought certain changes in the social hierarchy. xxxv

Chaitanya’s movement proved to be a

threat to the Brahmans who followed the Sakta traditions and seldom provided support to the

Goddess cults.

Despite initial Brahman attempts to resist the movement Vaishnavism managed to carve out

individuality in Bengal. It was successful as it managed to accentuate non-Vedic

inclusiveness as opposed to high-caste exclusiveness, the practice of devotion rather than

ritual and the use of Bengali rather than Sanskrit, the movement posed an alternative to the

Brahman-supported Saiva movement with its ties to various Goddess cults. Devotional and

hagiographical literature composed in the sixteenth century aggrandized the assurance of

salvation through love of Krishna and fixed the historical Chaitanya as one who was divinely

inspired if not even identified with both Krishna and Radha. Chaitanya was deified by

passionate devotees during his lifetime and by the end of the century, his name was included

among those of the gods praised in the introductory lines of contemporary poems and his

mysticism seemed to have been extensively accepted. xxxvi

Vaishnava piety spread across Bengali Hindu society and in poems written by the

philosopher poets portrays the ecstatic spirit of Chaitanya’s devotional movement which was

still vibrant in the sixteenth century. In the subsequent centuries, Vaishnava piety

encompassed the artisanal and the cultivating caste. Chaitanya was successful in emulating

the emotional form of mysticism and evoking the very essence in others as well. The

increasing fervour expressed in Kirtana songs proved contagious by creating a highly

emotionalised form of devotion.

Adoration to Krishna and Radha along with the doctrine of Bhakti is woven quite intricately

round the texture of Bengal. Bhaktivada is one of the special features of the Vaishnava faith.

The main principles of Bengal Vaishnavism are centred on the spirit of sincere devotion

developed to a state of a personal relationship between objects of worship and worshipping

objects. The rise of the theory of Bhakti added a new impetus to the Vaishnava cult. xxxvii

The close resemblance of the medieval Bhakti-vada with that of Sufism ‘’ would suggest the

possibility or likelihood, of its having borrowed its traits, at least some of them , from the

mystics. H.C.Raychaudhury stated ‘’ the idea of God, of grace, the doctrine of Bhakti which
form the salient features of Vaishnavism, are not very conspicuous in the Visnu worship of

the Vedas and Brahmanas for Vishnu of the Brahmanas is more closely associated with yagna

than with Bhakti or Prasada’’. xxxviii

The emotionalism of Bhakti received an added impetus in Bengal and its adjoining regions as

a result of the tremendous onrush of Chaitanya movement. Vaishnavism as preached by Sri

Chaitanyadeva produced as unprecendented sensation and enthusiasm in Bengal and its

adjoining regions like Orissa, Assam. Chaitanya was a radiating personality whose disciples

Sanatana Goswami and Rupa Goswami were deputed by the great teacher to stay in

Vrndavana and carry on the message of Bhakti in their new environment during the fifteenth

and sixteenth century AD. The spiritual exuberance of premabhakti exemplified in his life

and gave a sound living inspiration to all with whom he came into contact. His life and

conduct became the ideal prototype of the highest devotion which a devotee should seek to

emulate in his life. Devotional songs and ecstatic dances were the festive aspects of

Vaishnavism. The development of a cult or sect was not much of Chaitanya’s attributes rather

it emerged largely due to his charming personality and the appeal of his devotion. xxxix

In his lifetime, his disciples had organised a mission. In Bengal, the new creed was preached

and spread far and wide by Nityananda, who was a contemporary of Chaitanya and a close

confidante as well. Chaitanya insisted on the unity of the Godhead underlying the multitude

of idols of popular worship. He taught that God could be realized only by means of love as an

ardent ornament and all absorbing into the divine passion. xl

Chaitanya talked about a monotheistic faith and preached that the Vedas teach us that Krishna

is the essence.xli He was able to dive into the depths of Krishna consciousness. Krishna

dwells in the form of swarup power; spreading out in the forms of swāmsha and

bibhinnāmsha, he himself disports in Ananta, Vaikuntha and Brahmānda. Faith in Krishna is

the supreme end (abhidheya). Knowledge dissociated from Bhakti deviates from the path of
xlii
salvation. The element of Guruvada, or taking refuge at the feet of the guru, taking

initiation are one of the many paths of cultivating Bhakti.

The later development of the sect was due to the efforts of his chosen associates and

disciples. Chaitanya’s relation to his disciples as accentuated by the conventional records

established the emergence of the cult based on the inspiration revered by his life and

experiences. This became the driving force by which the movement was structured and

propagated even during his lifetime. This further inspired the leading acquaintances of

Chaitanya’s .xliii The standard of Vaishnava life and devotion inspired from Chaitanya’s life ,

the new spirit of emotionalism which he imparted to popular piety , the widespread appeal of

Samkirtana which he had developed, sincere passion of the Radha-Krsna cult, the liberation

of worship, fancies regarding Vrindavana provided an impetus to the movement which

gradually organised itself in the hands of his followers into a sect or a cult.

When the movement started at the courtyard of SriVasa, after Chaitanya’s return from Gaya,

it started without premeditation among a small group of men who invoked religious

aspirations and hailed him as the incarnation of such aspirations. Chaitanya was not in favour

of disrupting the social usage and tradition. He wanted to forge amicable relations between

Saivism and Vaishnavism. He viewed religion from a larger perspective which was that
xliv
religion which would serve mankind. Kabir, Dadu and Nanak wanted to enlarge the

similar aspect to Islam. Chaitanya also believed in the same line of thought. He preached

about Premadharma, or the religion/ faith embedded in divine form of love which could be

equated with the Sufi concept of ishq-i- haqiqi-(the idea of professing love to the beloved,

God, in this case). Chaitanya should be credited as he rebuilt the celestial region of Mathura-

Vrindavan and restored to its lost glory.

The Sanskrit narrative traditions which primarily developed in the north has been dealt with

and also focused on the religions of Vishnu. The cults of both Krishna and Vishnu developed

in the North. There were other indeed sampradayas within Vaishnavism. Chaitanya focused

on romantic mysticism and kirtans. The raas lila were popular dramas which were enacted

out during the festivities.

There are various offshoots of the Bengal Vaishnavism school- Sahajiya, Baul, Kartabhaja

sects to name a few. The Vaishnava Sahajiya movement was a tantric yogi movement in

medieval Bengal. The Sahajiya sources mainly talk about rituals, guru shishya parampara and
xlv
yogic physiology. The Sahajiya might be considered in a broad sense an alternative to the

Krishna tradition. They adapted classical devotional interpretations of Krishna transforming

him from a divine being to that of a into the inner soul form of every human being. Similarly,

Radha is transformed from the consort or hladini –sakti of krishna into the inner cosmic form

or svarupa of every woman. For Sahajyas their goal was not only to imitate Krishna or Radha

or even the gopis but to become Krishna or Radha themselves in monistic, tantric

mannerisms. The Sahajiya teaching lineages move the notions of Krishna and Radha from

Sanskrit based and classical formulations into the regional realms of Bengal.

Edward.C.Dimock Jr , in his, ‘the Place of the Hidden Moon’ has given detailed anecdotes

about basic beliefs of Viahnava Sahajiya traditions and also discussed about the problems

about the origins. Krishna and his erotic encounters with Radha would be adapted by late-

medieval Sahajiyas as they would prefer to reverse the flow of creation as the cosmic play or

‘lila’.

There are metaphors which express certain notions and imageries of the sacred realm. This

idea of metaphor was studied by Western scholars as a poetic device. However, this was

extensively given importance in classical Indian aesthetics and in dramas (rupaka,alamkara).

Alternative religious traditions are alternative not only because they are developed and
respond to different social, cultural and historical contexts.xlvi They also make proper use of

metaphors to express pious realities. These metaphors are not just to be used in poetic and

literary works but it connects with the fundamental cognitive, physiological and neurological

processes. Bengali vernacular tantric traditions are dynamic examples of the nature of the

history of religions. Mukunda-dasa’s verses talk about the transformation of men and women

into Krishna and Radha which was a complex process.

The Baul religion of Bengal in unique in its approaches. They had formed certain specific

views about women. They are traditional village singers and pious people in West Bengal and

Bangladesh. They are mainly syncretic groups and they draw their influence from Tantric

Buddhism, Sankhya philosphy, Sahajiya Vaishnavism, Sakta tradition, Yoga and Sufism

too.xlviiThere are different baul lineages. The Baul tradition has a strong egatalitarian feature

which is in contrast with the dominant traditions. Both men and women Bauls are

unconventional in their approach to life, they emphasise more on the existence of spirit in a

free state. They do not really follow structured rituals . They deem as their path as ulta or

reverse path as it is known. Role of gurus or teachers are the focal point in this regional sect.

They believe that god dwells within every man; they sing songs about the jibon pakhi or the

life which can be related with a free bird. Their approach has a more rustic ,rural feel.

According to them a true state can be reached when a man and a woman unites in an eternal

relationship as we can see from Hindu traditions as Krishna and Radha or Shiva and Sakti.

The divine couple is also known by Svarupa or another Rupa or identity or physical form.

They also followed the folk Vaishnavite traditions .They usually lead their lives different

from others. The material world does not attract them. They usually sing songs about

liberation of the soul (atma) from the body. The physical attributes to them are imagined as

cages.
After the aftermath of the Battle of Plassey, numerous minor religious sects developed in

Bengal. The changes in the political situation affected the majority; it was reflected in the

social spheres as well. In the sixteenth century, the development of orthodox Gaudiya
xlviii
Vaishnavism, the minority sections lost their achieved status in the preceding era. These

sects challenged the established major religious institutions. Some of the heterodox sects are

Aul, Baul, Jaganmohini, Kartabhaja, Sain and others. They rejected the dominance of the

higher castes. The Kartabhajas as a sect developed in the middle of the eighteenth century.

One of the major personalities associated with the sect was Fakir Aulchand. The ambiguity

existing in Aulchand’s social and religious identity attracted both the Hindus and the

Muslims who wanted to break away from the yoke of the torments of the caste-ridden

society. xlix

The philosophy and the rituals were passed down orally from the leaders down to their

followers. They rejected the Brahmanical and Vedic traditions. The influences of Sahajiya

Buddhism and Sufism are apparent as they believed in the concept of Moner Manush or the

soul of an individual. The Kartabhajas were a powerful force against the jata-gosani and

smartas, who had become the sedentary establishment of Gaudiya Vaisnavism. The

Kartabhajas and other Sahajiya groups converted thousands of common folk on the plea that

"the company" (the Gaudiya Vaisnavas) was once rich but now bankrupt. Out of the ruins of

the old company, the Kartabhajas said, a new company had arisen (the Kartabhajas

themselves). All the deviant tantric sects have a philosophy of guruvada, or veneration of the

guru, but only the Kartabhajas go to the extreme of proclaiming the guru to be God incarnate.

Kartabhaja guruvada arises from the Mayavadi idea of absolute oneness. For the Kartabhajas,

the guru alone is the worship able form of God.l

In this chapter, I have outlined the social, political, religious changes which were prominent

from fifteenth century onwards in Bengal. The challenges faced in all these sectors in the

preceding decades of the colonial rule would actually tie the causes leading to the social-

cultural transformations in colonial Bengal and eventually leading to the development of

Gaudiya Math and Mission in the nineteenth century.

i
‘Sarasanragah’- A work on Gaudiya Vaishnavism. Ed. By Krishnagopal Goswami Sastri, The Ashutosh Sanskrit
Series, page-3, No.3, published by The University of Calcutta , 1949
ii
Ibid
iii
Flood Gavin; ‘ An Introduction to Hinduism’, Ch.1, pp 15, Cambridge university Press, 1996
iv
Kumar , Sushil Kumar; ’ Early History of the Vaisnava faith and movement in Bengal’, Ch.1, pp 1, General
Printers and Publishers Limited, Calcutta,1942
v
‘Sarasanragah’; A work on Gaudiya Vaishnavism. Ed. By Krishnagopal Goswami Sastri, The Ashutosh Sanskrit
Series, No.3, published by The University of Calcutta , 1949

vi
Dasgupta, B.V.; ‘Some Aspects of Bengal Vaishnavism’, Narayan Machine Press, Dacca, 1936
vii
Ibid, pp 3-4
viii
Kumar , Sushil Kumar; ’ Early History of the Vaisnava faith and movement in Bengal’, Ch.1, pp 2, General
Printers and Publishers Limited, Calcutta,1942
ix
Ibid, pp 2
x
Ibid pp 3-4
xi
‘Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular variations on a Hindu Deity’, Ed. Guy.L.Beck,,State University
of New York Press,2005
xii
Alternative Krishnas: regional and vernacular variations on a Hindu deity, ed. Guy.L.Beck ,State University of
New York Press,2005
xiii
Ibid
xiv
Kumar , Sushil Kumar;’ Early History of the Vaisnava faith and movement in Bengal’, Ch.1, pp 7-8, General
Printers and Publishers Limited, Calcutta,1942

xv
Chakrabarty , Ramakanta ,;‘ Bange Baishnab Dharma, ’pp 9-10, Ananda Publisher’s Private Limited, Calcutta,
1996
xvi
Kumar , Sushil Kumar;’ Early History of the Vaisnava faith and movement in Bengal’, Ch.1, pp 7-8, General
Printers and Publishers Limited, Calcutta,1942
xvii
Chakrabarty , Ramakanta ; ‘ Bange Baishnab Dharma, ’pp 9-10, Ananda Publisher’s Private Limited, Calcutta,
1996

xviii
Ibid pp11-12
xix
Ibid pp 13-14
xx
Sarma , R.S; ’ Material Milieu of Tantricism’, Indian Society:Historical Probings ;Essays in Honour of
D.D.Kosambi, R.S.Sharma, pp 188-89, People’s Publishing House, New Delhi,1974
xxi
Chakrabarty , Ramakanta ;‘ Bange Baishnab Dharma, ’pp 16-17, Ananda Publisher’s Private Limited,
Calcutta, 1996
xxii
Eaton, Richard M;‘ The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760’, pp95-96, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi ( first Indian Edition in 1994)
xxiii
Tarafdar, Momtazur Rahman; ‘ Husain Shahi Bengal 1494-1538- A Socio-Political Study’, Published by Asiatic
Society of Pakistan, Dacca, November 1965
xxiv
Eaton, Richard M;‘ The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760’, pp96-97, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi ( first Indian Edition in 1994
xxv
Eaton, Richard M; ‘ The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760’, pp101-102, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi ( first Indian Edition in 1994

xxvi
Ibid, pp 102-103
xxvii
Ibid
xxviii
Tarafdar, Momtazur Rahman; ‘ Husain Shahi Bengal 1494-1538- A Socio-Political Study’, Published by
Asiatic Society of Pakistan, Dacca, November 1965
xxix
Eaton, Richard M; ‘ The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760’, pp104-105, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi ( first Indian Edition in 1994
xxx
Tarafdar, Momtazur Rahman; ‘ Husain Shahi Bengal 1494-1538- A Socio-Political Study’, Published by Asiatic
Society of Pakistan, Dacca, November 1965

xxxi
Eaton, Richard M; ‘ The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760’, pp108-109, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi ( first Indian Edition in 1994
xxxii
Kumar , Sushil Kumar; ’ Early History of the Vaisnava faith and movement in Bengal’, pp 52-53, General
Printers and Publishers Limited, Calcutta,1942
xxxiii
Chakravarti , Janardan; ’ Bengal Vaishnavism and Sri Chaitanya’, The Asiatic Society, Park Street, Kolkata
1975
xxxiv
Kumar , Sushil Kumar; ’ Early History of the Vaisnava faith and movement in Bengal’, pp 52-53, General
Printers and Publishers Limited, Calcutta,1942

xxxv
Eaton, Richard M; ‘ The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760’, pp110-111, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi ( first Indian Edition in 1994)
xxxvi
Ibid pp 111
xxxvii
Jash , Pranabananda; ’ History and Evolution of Vaishnavism in Eastern India’, Appendix pp 203-205,
Calcutta 1982
xxxviii
ibid
xxxix
Kumar , Sushil Kumar; ’ Early History of the Vaisnava faith and movement in Bengal’, pp 77-78, General
Printers and Publishers Limited, Calcutta,1942
xl
Datta , Bijit Kumar; ’ Chaitanya Jiban Katha’, Sri Ma Kali Printers, Calcutta , 1986
xli
Kaviraj Krishnadas,; ’ Chaitanya Charitamrita’, canto 22
xlii
ibid
xliii
Kumar , Sushil Kumar;’ Early History of the Vaisnava faith and movement in Bengal’, pp 78-79, General
Printers and Publishers Limited, Calcutta,1942

xliv
Datta , Bijit Kumar;’ Chaitanya Jiban Katha’, Sri Ma Kali Printers, Calcutta , 1986
xlv
Hayes, Alexander Glen, ‘Alternative Krishnas: regional and vernacular variations on a Hindu deity’
contemporary metaphor theory and alternative views of Krishna and Radha in Vaishnava Sahajiya tantric
traditions,’ State university of New York Press,2005

xlvi
Ibid

xlvii
Mc.Daniel, June ; ‘The embodiment of God among Bauls of Bengal’, Journal of Feminist Studies in
Religion,Vol8,No.2,1992,pp27-39
xlviii
Mitra, Sanat Kumar; ‘ Kartabhaja Dharma mat o Itihas’, De Book Stores, Calcutta 1975
xlix
Ibid
l
Ibid