A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 1

Ian R. Petersen†

†
University of New South Wales, Canberra

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 2

■ This paper considers the problem of constructing a direct coupling quantum observer
for a closed linear quantum system.

■ The proposed observer is shown to be able to estimate some but not all of the plant
variables in a time averaged sense.

■ A simple example and simulations are included to illustrate the properties of the
observer.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 3

■ In most previous papers on quantum observers the coupling between the plant and the
observer is via a field coupling.

■ This leads to an observer structure of the form shown below.

quantum quantum
noise noise
quantum plant quantum observer

■ This enables a one way connection between the quantum plant and the quantum
observer.

■ Also, since both the quantum plant and the quantum observer are open quantum
systems, they are both subject to quantum noise.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 4

■ However in a recent paper by Zhang and James, a coherent quantum control problem
is considered in which both field coupling and direct coupling is considered between
the quantum plant and the quantum controller.

■ In this paper, we explore the construction of a coherent quantum observer in which

there is only direct coupling between quantum plant and the quantum observer.

■ Furthermore, both the quantum plant and the quantum observer are assumed to be
closed quantum systems which means that they are not subject to quantum noise and
are purely deterministic systems.

■ This leads to an observer structure of the form shown below.

quantum plant quantum observer

■ It is shown that for the case being considered, a quantum observer can be constructed
to estimate some but not all of the system variables of the quantum plant.

■ Also, the observer variables converge to the plant variables in a time averaged sense
rather than a quantum expectation sense.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 5

■ We consider linear non-commutative systems of the form

ẋ(t) = Ax(t); x(0) = x0 (1)

where A is a real matrix in Rn×n , and x(t) = [ x1 (t) . . . xn (t) ]T is a vector of

self-adjoint possibly non-commutative system variables.

■ Here n is assumed to be an even number and n

2 is the number of modes in the
quantum system.

■ The initial system variables x(0) = x0 are assumed to satisfy the commutation
relations
[xj (0), xk (0)] = 2iΘjk , j, k = 1, . . . , n,
where Θ is a real antisymmetric matrix with components Θjk .

■ Here, the matrix Θ is assumed to be of the form Θ = diag(J, J, . . . , J) where J

denotes the real skew-symmetric 2 × 2 matrix
 
0 1
J= .
−1 0

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 6

■ This linear quantum system is said to be physically realizable if it ensures the

preservation the canonical commutation relations (CCRs):

x(t)x(t)T − (x(t)x(t)T )T = 2iΘ for all t ≥ 0.

■ This holds when the system corresponds to a collection of closed quantum harmonic
oscillators.

■ Such quantum harmonic oscillators are described by a quadratic Hamiltonian

H = 12 x(0)T Rx(0), where R is a real symmetric matrix.

Theorem 1 The above system is physically realizable if and only if:

AΘ + ΘAT = 0.
In this case, the corresponding Hamiltonian matrix R is given by R = 14 (−ΘA + AT Θ).
In addition, for a given Hamiltonian matrix R, the corresponding matrix A is given by

A = 2ΘR.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 7

■ Note that the above system cannot be asymptotically stable if it is physically realizable.

■ Since it is not possible for a physically realizable quantum system of the form above to
be asymptotically stable, we will need a new notion of convergence for our direct
coupled quantum observer.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 8

■ We first consider general closed linear quantum plants described by non-commutative

models of the following form:

ẋp (t) = Ap xp (t); xp (0) = x0p ;

zp (t) = Cp xp (t)
where zp denotes the vector of system variables to be estimated by the observer and
Ap ∈ Rnp ×np , Cp ∈ Rmp ×np .
■ It is assumed that this quantum plant is physically realizable and corresponds to a
plant Hamiltonian Hp = 21 xp (0)T Rp xp (0) where the symmetric matrix Rp is given
by Rp = 14 (−ΘAp + ATp Θ).
■ Also, we consider a direct coupled linear quantum observer defined a symmetric matrix
Ro ∈ Rno ×no , and matrices Rc ∈ Rnp ×no , Co ∈ Rmp ×no .

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 9

■ These matrices define an observer Hamiltonian

1
Ho = xo (0)T Ro xo (0),
2
and a coupling Hamiltonian

1 1
Hc = xp (0) Rc xo (0) + xo (0)T RcT xp (0).
T
2 2
■ The matrix Co also defines the vector of estimated variables for the observer as
zo (t) = Co xo (t).

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 10

■ The augmented quantum linear system consisting of the quantum plant and the direct
coupled quantum observer is then a quantum system of the form described by the total
Hamiltonian

Ha = Hp + Hc + Ho
1
= xa (0)T Ra xa (0)
2
   
xp Rp Rc
where xa = and Ra = T .
xo Rc Ro
■ Then, it follows that the augmented quantum linear system is described by the
equations
   
ẋp (t) xp (t)
= Aa ; xp (0) = x0p ; xo (0) = x0o ;
ẋo (t) xo (t)
zp (t) = Cp xp (t);
zo (t) = Co xo (t)
where Aa = 2ΘRa .

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 11

Definition 1 The matrices Ro ∈ Rno ×no , Rc ∈ Rnp ×no , Co ∈ Rmp ×no define a
direct coupled linear quantum observer for the quantum linear plant if the corresponding
augmented linear quantum system is such that
T
1
Z
lim (zp (t) − zo (t))dt = 0.
T →∞ T 0

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 12

■ We now describe the construction of a direct coupled linear quantum observer.

■ We assume that the quantum plant is such that Ap = 0.

■ This corresponds to Rp = 0 in the plant Hamiltonian.
■ It follows that the plant system variables xp (t) will remain fixed if the plant is not
coupled to the observer.

■ However, when the plant is coupled to the quantum observer this will no longer be the
case.

■ We will show that if the quantum observer is suitably designed, the plant quantity to be
estimated zp (t) will remain fixed and the averaged convergence condition will be
satisfied.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 13

np
■ We also assume that mp = 2 and the matrix Cp is of the form Cp = β T where
β1 0
 
 0 β2 0  n
np × 2p
β= ∈R
 
..
 . 
0 β np
2

np
and βi ∈ R2×1 for i = 1, 2, . . . , 2 .

■ This assumption means that the plant variables to be estimated include only one
quadrature for each mode of the plant.

■ We now suppose that the matrices Ro , Rc , Co are such that Rc

np
= βαT ,
no ×
α∈R 2 and the matrix Ro is positive definite.
 
Θ1 0
■ Also, we write Θ = where Θ1 ∈ Rnp ×np and Θ2 ∈ Rno ×no .
0 Θ2
T T
   
0 βα 0 2Θ1 βα
■ Then, Ra = and Aa = 2ΘRa = .
αβ T Ro 2Θ2 αβ T 2Θ2 Ro

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 14

■ Hence, the augmented system equations describing the combined plant-observer

system become

ẋp (t) = 2Θ1 βαT xo (t);

ẋo (t) = 2Θ2 αβ T xp (t) + 2Θ2 Ro xo (t);
zp (t) = Cp xp (t);
zo (t) = Co xo (t).
■ We now use Laplace Transforms to solve these equations.

■ It follows that

sXp (s) = 2Θ1 βαT Xo (s) + xp (0);

sXo (s) = 2Θ2 αβ T Xp (s) + 2Θ2 Ro Xo (s) + xo (0)

and hence,
4 2
sXo (s) = Θ2 αβ Θ1 βα Xo (s) + Θ2 αβ T xp (0)
T T
s s
+2Θ2 Ro Xo (s) + xo (0).

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 15

■ However,
β1T Jβ1
 
0
0 β2T Jβ2 0 
β T Θ1 β =  =0
 
..
 . 
0 βnTp Jβnp
since J is skew-symmetric.

■ Therefore,
 
−1 2
Xo (s) = (sI − 2Θ2 Ro ) Θ2 αβ T xp (0) + xo (0) .
s

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 16

■ Taking the inverse Laplace Transform of this equation, we obtain

Z t
xo (t) = e2Θ2 Ro t xo (0) + 2 e2Θ2 Ro (t−τ ) dτ Θ2 αβ T xp (0)
o
= e2Θ2 Ro t xo (0)
2Θ2 Ro t
− I Ro−1 Θ−1
−2Θ2 Ro t T


−e e 2 Θ 2 αβ xp (0)
= e2Θ2 Ro t −1 T


xo (0) + Ro αβ xp (0)
−Ro−1 αβ T xp (0).

■ Also, we obtain

4 −1
Xp (s) = 2 Θ1 βαT (sI − 2Θ2 Ro ) Θ2 αβ T xp (0)
s
2 −1
+ Θ1 βαT (sI − 2Θ2 Ro ) xo (0)
s
1
+ xp (0).
s

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 17

■ Taking the inverse Laplace Transform of this equation, we obtain

Z t
xp (t) = 4Θ1 βαT e2Θ2 Ro (t−τ ) τ dτ Θ2 αβ T xp (0)
o
Z t
+2Θ1 βα T
e2Θ2 Ro (t−τ ) dτ xo (0)
o
+xp (0)
= −2tΘ1 βαT Ro−1 αβ T xp (0)
+Θ1 βαT Ro−2 Θ2 αβ T xp (0)
−Θ1 βαT e2Θ2 Ro t Ro−2 Θ2 αβ T xp (0)
+Θ1 βαT Ro−1 Θ2 xo (0)
−Θ1 βαT e2Θ2 Ro t Ro−1 Θ2 xo (0)
+xp (0).

■ We now choose the parameters of the quantum observer so that Co Ro−1 α = −I .

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 18

■ It follows that the quantities zp (t) = Cp xp (t) and zo (t) = Co xo (t) are given by
2Θ2 Ro t −1 T


zo (t) = Co e xo (0) + Ro αβ xp (0) + zp (0)
and
zp (t) = zp (0)
where we have used the fact that Cp Θ1 β = β T Θ 1 β = 0.
■ That is, the quantity zp (t) remains constant and is not affected by the coupling to the
coherent quantum observer.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 19

■ Note that the matrix Aa will have all purely imaginary eigenvalues.

■ We now verify that the averaged convergence condition is satisfied for this quantum
observer.

■ We recall that the quantity 21 xT Ro x remains constant in time for the linear system:

ẋ = 2Θ2 Ro x; x(0) = x0 .

■ That is
1 T 1 T
x(t) Ro x(t) = x0 Ro x0 ∀t ≥ 0.
2 2

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 20

■ However, x(t) = e2Θ2 Ro t x0 and Ro > 0.

■ Therefore, it follows that
s
2Θ2 Ro t λmax (Ro )
ke x0 k ≤ kx0 k
λmin (Ro )
for all x0 and t ≥ 0.
■ Hence, s
λmax (Ro )
ke2Θ2 Ro t k ≤
λmin (Ro )
for all t ≥ 0.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 21

■ Now since Θ2 and Ro are non-singular,

T
1 2Θ2 Ro T −1 −1 1 −1 −1
Z
e2Θ2 Ro t dt = e Ro Θ 2 − Ro Θ 2
0 2 2
and therefore, it follows that
Z T
1
k e2Θ2 Ro t dtk
T 0
1 1 2Θ2 Ro T −1 −1 1 −1 −1
= k e R o Θ2 − R o Θ2 k
T 2 2
1 2Θ2 Ro T
≤ ke 2 k
kkRo−1 Θ−1
2T
1
+ kRo−1 Θ−1
2 k
2T
s
1 λmax (Ro ) −1 −1
≤ kRo Θ2 k
2T λmin (Ro )
1
+ kRo−1 Θ−1
2 k
2T
→ 0
as T → ∞.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 22

■ Hence,
T
1
Z
lim zo (t)dt = zp (0).
T →∞ T 0

■ Also,
T
1
Z
lim zp (t)dt = zp (0).
T →∞ T 0

■ Therefore, averaged convergence condition is satisfied.

■ Thus, we have established the following theorem.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 23

Theorem 2 Consider a quantum plant as above where Ap = 0, Cp = β T and

β1 0
 
 0 β2 0  n
np × 2p
β= ∈R .
 
..
 . 
0 β np
2

Then the matrices Ro > 0, Rc , Co will define direct coupled quantum

np
observer for this
quantum plant if Rc is of the form Rc = CpT αT where α ∈ Rno × 2 and CoT Ro−1 α =
−I .

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 24

■ We consider the above result for the single mode case with np = 2, mp = 1, in which
Cp = [1 0].
■ This means that the variable to be estimated by the quantum observer
 is theposition
qp (t)
operator of the quantum plant; i.e., zp (t) = qp (t) where xp (t) =.
pp (t)
   
1 −1
■ By choosing no = 2, Ro = I , Co = [1 0], β = and α = , the
0 0
conditions of the above theorem will be satisfied and the observer output variable will
be the position operator of the quantum observer qo (t); i.e., zo (t) = qo (t) where
 
qo (t)
xo (t) = .
po (t)

■ Before the quantum observer is connected to the quantum plant, the quantities qp (t)
and pp (t) will remain constant since we have assumed that Ap = 0.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 25

■ Now suppose that the quantum observer is connected to the quantum plant at time
t = 0.
■ Then, the plant position operator qp (t) will remain constant at its initial value
qp (t) = qp (0) but the plant momentum operator pp (t) will evolve in an time varying
and oscillatory way.

■ In addition, the observer position operator qo (t) will evolve in an oscillatory way but its
time average will converge to qp (0).

■ This behavior of the quantum observer is similar to the behavior of quantum

measurements.

■ This is not surprising since the behavior of the direct coupled quantum observers
considered in this paper and the behavior of quantum measurements are both
determined by the quantum commutation relations which are fundamental to the theory
of quantum mechanics.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 26

■ We now present some numerical simulations to illustrate the direct coupled quantum
observer.

  = 2,
■ We consider the single mode quantum observer considered above where np
1
mp = 1, no = 2, Ap = 0, Cp = [1 0], Ro = I , Co = [1 0], β = and
0
 
−1
α= .
0
■ As described above, the variable to be estimated by the quantum observer is the 
qp (t)
position operator of the quantum plant; i.e., zp (t) = qp (t) where xp (t) = .
pp (t)
■ Also, the observer output variable will be the
 position operator of the quantum observer
qo (t)
qo (t); i.e., zo (t) = qo (t) where xo (t) = .
po (t)

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 27

■ Then the augmented plant-observer system is described by the equations

   
q̇p (t) qp (t)
 ṗp (t) 
 = Aa  pp (t) 
 

 q̇o (t)   qo (t) 
ṗo (t) po (t)
where  
0 0 0 0
2JβαT
 
0 0 0 2 0
Aa = = .
2Jαβ T 2JRo 0 0 0 2
2 0 −2 0

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 28

■ Then, we can write    

qp (t) qp (0)
 pp (t) 
 = Φ(t)  pp (0) 
 

 qo (t)   qo (0) 
po (t) po (0)
where  
φ11 (t) φ12 (t) φ13 (t) φ14 (t)
 φ21 (t) φ22 (t) φ23 (t) φ24 (t) 
Φ(t) =   = e Aa t .
 φ31 (t) φ32 (t) φ33 (t) φ34 (t) 
φ41 (t) φ42 (t) φ43 (t) φ44 (t)

■ Thus, the plant variable to be estimated qp (t) is given by

qp (t) = φ11 (t)qp (0) + φ12 (t)pp (0) + φ13 (t)qo (0) + φ14 (t)po (0)
and we plot the functions φ11 , φ12 (t), φ13 (t), φ14 (t) below.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 29

φ11(t)
0.8 φ (t)
12
φ (t)
13
φ14(t)
0.6
1i
φ

0.4

0.2

-0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time

■ From this figure, we can see that φ11 (t) ≡ 1, φ12 (t) ≡ 0, φ13 (t) ≡ 0, φ14 (t) ≡ 0,
and qp (t) will remain constant at qp (0) for all t ≥ 0.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 30

■ Also, the other plant variable pp (t) is given by

pp (t) = φ21 (t)qp (0) + φ22 (t)pp (0) + φ23 (t)qo (0) + φ24 (t)po (0)
and we plot the functions φ21 , φ22 (t), φ23 (t), φ24 (t) below.

40

35

30

25 φ21(t)

φ22(t)

20 φ23(t)
φ2i

φ24(t)

15

10

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time

■ From this figure, we can see that pp (t) evolves in a time-varying and oscillatory way
when the quantum plant is connected to the quantum observer.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 31

■ We now consider the output variable of the quantum observer qo (t) which is given by

qo (t) = φ31 (t)qp (0) + φ32 (t)pp (0) + φ33 (t)qo (0) + φ34 (t)po (0)
and we plot the functions φ31 , φ32 (t), φ33 (t), φ34 (t) below.

4
φ31(t)
φ32(t)
φ33(t)
3 φ34(t)

2
3i

1
φ

-1

-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 32

■ To illustrate the time average convergence property of the quantum observer, we now
plot the quantities
T
1
Z
φave
31 (T ) = φ31 (t)dt
T 0
T
1
Z
φave
32 (T ) = φ32 (t)dt
T 0
T
1
Z
φave
33 (T ) = φ33 (t)dt
T 0
T
1
Z
φave
34 (T ) = φ34 (t)dt
T 0

below.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 33

2.5
av
φ31(t)
φav (t)
32
φav (t)
2 33
φav
34
(t)

φav
3i 1.5

0.5

-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time

■ From this figure, we can see that the time average of qo (t) converges to qp (0) as
t → ∞.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 34

■ To investigate the time average property of the other quantum observer variable, we
now plot the quantities
T
1
Z
φave
41 (T ) = φ41 (t)dt
T 0
T
1
Z
φave
42 (T ) = φ42 (t)dt
T 0
T
1
Z
φave
43 (T ) = φ43 (t)dt
T 0
T
1
Z
φave
44 (T ) = φ44 (t)dt
T 0

below.

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 35

1.5

av
φ41(t)
1
φav (t)
42

φav
43
(t)
av
φ44(t)
0.5
φav
4i

-0.5

-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time

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A Direct Coupling Coherent Quantum Observer 36

■ In this paper we have introduced a notion of a direct coupling observer for closed
quantum linear systems and given a result which shows how such an observer can be
constructed.

■ The main result shows the time average convergence properties of the direct coupling
observer. We have also presented an illustrative example along with simulations to
investigate the behavior of a direct coupling observer when applied to a simple one
mode quantum linear system.

■ Future research in this area might involve extending the class of quantum linear
systems for a which a direct coupling observer can be designed and also considering
the problem of constructing an observer which is optimal in some sense.

■ Also, future research could investigate the role of direct coupling observers in the
design of direct coupling coherent quantum feedback control systems.

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