The Accuracy of Measurement

Systems in the Steady State

 Measurement error of a system of
ideal elements
• Consider the system shown below, consisting
of 𝑛 elements in series.

• Suppose each element is ideal, i.e. perfectly

linear and not subject to environmental
inputs.
• If we also assume the intercept or bias is zero,
i.e. 𝑎 = 0, then:
𝑂𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖 𝐼𝑖
for 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛, where 𝐾𝑖 is the linear sensitivity
or slope.
• It follows that 𝑂2 = 𝐾2 𝐼2 = 𝐾2 𝐾1 𝐼, 𝑂3 =
𝐾3 𝐼3 = 𝐾3 𝐾2 𝐾1 𝐼, and for the whole systems
𝑂 = 𝑂𝑛 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 … 𝐾𝑖 … 𝐾𝑛 𝐼
• If the measurement system is complete, then
𝐸 = 𝑂 − 𝐼, giving:
𝐸 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 … 𝐾𝑛 − 1 𝐼
• Thus, if 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 … 𝐾𝑛 = 1, then 𝐸 = 0 and the
system is perfectly accurate.
• The temperature measurement system shown
appears to satisfy this condition.

• The indicator is a moving coil voltmeter with a

scale marked in degrees Celsius so that an
input change of 1 V causes a change in
deflection of 25 °C.
• This system has 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 = 40 × 10−6 ×
103 × 25 = 1 and thus appears to be
perfectly accurate.
• The system is not accurate, however, because
none of the three elements present is ideal.
– The thermocouple is non-linear, so that as the input
temperature changes the sensitivity is no longer 40 μV
°C−1.
– Also changes in reference junction temperature cause
the thermocouple e.m.f. to change.
– The output voltage of the amplifier is also affected by
changes in ambient temperature.
– The sensitivity 𝐾3 of the indicator depends on the
stiffness of the restoring spring in the moving coil
assembly and this is affected by changes in
environmental temperature and wear, causing 𝐾3 to
deviate from 25 °C V−1.
• Thus the condition 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 = 1 cannot be
always satisfied and the system is in error.
• In general the error of any measurement
system depends on the non-ideal
characteristics – e.g. non-linearity,
environmental and statistical effects – of every
element in the system.
• Thus, in order to quantify this error as
precisely as possible we need to use the
general model for a single element
 The error probability density function
of a system of non-ideal elements
• We have seen that the probability density function of
the output 𝑝(𝑂) of a single element can be
represented by a normal distribution.
• The mean value 𝑂ത of the distribution takes non-
linearity and environmental effects into account.
• The standard deviation 𝜎0 takes statistical variations in
inputs 𝐼, 𝐼𝑀 and 𝐼𝐼 with time, and statistical variations
in parameters 𝐾, 𝑎, etc., amongst a batch of similar
elements into consideration.
• These equations apply to each element in a
measurement system of 𝑛 elements and can be used to
calculate the system error probability density function
𝑝(𝐸).
• Equations [3.6] show how to calculate the
mean value of the output of each element in
turn, starting with 𝑂1 for the first and finishing
with 𝑂𝑛 = 𝑂ത for the 𝑛th.
• The mean value 𝐸ത of the system error is
simply the difference between the mean value
of system output and mean value of system
input (eqn [3.7]).
• Since the probability densities of the outputs
of the individual elements are normal, then
the probability density function of the system
output 𝑂 and system error 𝐸 is also normal
(eqn [3.10]).
• Equations [3.8] show how to calculate the
standard deviation of the output of each
element in turn, starting with 𝜎𝑂 1 for the first,
and finishing with 𝜎𝑂𝑛 for the 𝑛th.
• We note that the standard deviation of the
system input is zero and that the standard
deviation of the error is equal to that of the
system output (eqn [3.9]).