International Islamic University Islamabad

Research Topic: Role of Institutional Management on Academic Performance of

Students in Government Schools at Tehsil Rawalpindi

Semester-Spring 2019
Department of Education
Faculty of Social Sciences

Submitted to: Dr. Muhammad Munir Kiyani IIU Islamabad

Submitted By: Arshad Iqbal
Registration No: 297 -FSS/MSEDU/F18
MS-EDUCATION
2ND SEMESTER
Date: 06-May-2019

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Statement of the Problem:

The purpose of this research is to evaluate the role of institutional management in Government
schools for better performance of students. Head teachers’ confidence about teaching depends on
the level of management skills. Effective leader can run educational matters in right and effective
direction. With management and guidance of teachers, head teacher can perform well by
removing professional flaws and deficiencies. This study intends to find out the impact of
institutional efficiency of head teachers on the learning of students with major focus to academic
achievement.

Significance of the Study:

This study will be helpful in establishing an educational standard to meet world’s demands. The
study will be supportive for the teachers in gaining effective learning skills as well as for
administrators in learning management skills. There are so many factors like motivations,
incentives and teaching talents that influence on head teachers performance, and one of such
factors is management also. This study would be beneficial for Government schools heads as
they would be motivated to improve their management skills and practices. Besides, it would
similarly benefit for head teachers by keeping them well-informed of the prerequisite for general
and educational management and classrooms teaching and also help them to meet their
professional development needs.

It is an established fact that better performance of educational institution can bring prosperity and
solidarity in a country. Responsible supervisory staff should be well trained in their profession,
so that they could effectively check and assess Head teacher’s performance and mutually discuss
about educational problems faced by teaching staff and could easily solve these problems. The
study intends to discover effect of competency of Head teachers on the learning of students with
real center to check academic achievement. One approach does this to concentrate on classroom
environment about how the management affects student learning, make best environment, and
encourage individual learning. That way is the manner by which the polished methodology
creates instructor competency is serious. Our management keeps their work of administration
limited up to the performance of student’s achievement. They derive results and evaluate from
answer of pupils and if they feel hesitation or fear in giving right answers then management is

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responsible for improving .It is thought that’s the action taken will improve the work of
management, but it has negative effects also.

It is therefore, necessary that management should be well trained and well skilled with the latest
techniques and all the principles of management. Pointing out faults lying in it and take remedial
measures to make educational system productive and fruitful, otherwise it would be a futile and
abortive attempt in a way. Quality education will be possible to make quick progress if the
foundations of management skill are string. With the help of effective management and guidance
we can improve the requirements of the individual and the whole community. This study would
be very helpful and beneficent for district administration. It is valuable to both teachers and
students who might need to know the element that would improve student’s educational
achievement.

Objective of the Study

The objectives of the study are as under:-

1. Identify the process of institutional management

2. To identify professional competency of head teachers in Government school
3. Work out the academic performance of students
4. Find out the relationship between institutional management and academic performance of
students.

Assumptions:

This research work is based on the following assumptions:-

a. Institutional management link to improve students’ performance in Government schools.

b. Schools performance must link with Head teachers management skills
c. It is thought that Government school head teachers does not have management or
leadership skills
d. A study of this type provides base foundation for furthering the research about effective
use of management skill.

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Hypothesis

The research hypothesis of the study is:

H1: Institutional management has significant impact on academic performance of students

Null Hypothesis

H˳: Institutional management has no significant impact on academic performance of students

Delimitations:

a) Due of shortage of time and resources, this research work was restricted to tehsil
Rawalpindi
b) Only 30 Head Teachers of tehsil Rawalpindi Will Administered the questionnaires.
c) Secondary Students of session 2018-19
d) Secondary teachers of 9th grade
Method and Procedure:
Research Design: This study is descriptive type of study it provides the details of the topics and
describes each aspect of the study. The descriptive research design is used to analyze the role of
institutional management on academic performance of students. Taking after strategy was
received from this study the study will be descriptive in nature.

The following procedure will adopt to achieve the objectives of the study. Due to the shortage of
time, the questionnaires will not send by mail and the researcher will contact the respondents
personally. For this purpose, the researcher will go to schools and offices Head Teachers have to
hand over the questionnaires. After some days, receipt of the questionnaires will arrange.

Population:

The population will be the group of interest to generalize the results of the study. So, the
population will comprise of head teachers, teachers and secondary school students of
Government schools

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Sample:

According to the nature of the research thirty schools will be selected through simple random
sampling. Through simple random sampling 25 students of 9th class, ten teachers of 9th as a
sample per school and also head teacher are selected for sampling. For collection of information
questionnaires will form and distributed by hand by the researcher. The collected data will
statistically tabulate and discussed.

Development of instrument:

Three questionnaires are used to collect data, which will be filled by head teacher, teachers and
students to check out their academic performance. First section will be design to obtain the
demographic data of student’s teachers and head teacher and these second sections will the study
skills of the students and comprise overall duties of the Head teacher. These questionnaires are
supportive to gather the information and data by the sample of the study. All question included
are of multiple choice type. Respondents have to choose from amongst the given choices and
record their choice in spaces specially provided for this purpose. One of the choices in all
multiple choice type questions was “others” which permitted respondents to give their personal
views. Questions with only ‘yes’ or ‘No’ opinion will included.

Pilot Testing:

To make sure the validity pilot testing will be conducted. The purpose of the pilot testing is to
check the understanding of the respondent. For testing 10 students from three government’s
school and on teacher and also one head teacher are selected. Questionnaires for them and as
well as for the teachers to check the validity and reliability of questionnaire.

The researchers individually visited the respondents and ask question about the questionnaire.
Some difficult question will made clearer with the help of questionnaire and data collection
questionnaire will change and prepared. Then reliability of the questionnaire will be measured .5
shows that tool is reliable. The reliability of the instruments I will be obtained by using Cronbach
Alpha

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Collection of Data:

The questionnaire will be administered personally by the researcher to collect the data from
respondents. The researcher will go to the target schools actually and controlled the surveys to
the students, teachers and head teacher. Institutional management will be assessed by the
students and academic performance as well. Student’s learning and their learning in present class
will be determined by the subject teacher.

Analysis and Interpretation of Data:

Information gathered through the aforementioned research is instrumented will be tabulated

analyzed and interpreted in the light of the destinations of the study. Ci-Square will used to find
out the association of demographic factors and students’ academic performance. The statistical
tool for the social sciences (SPSS) is using of suitable statistical techniques for the analysis.

1. Mean
2. Standard deviation
3. Percentage
4. Chi square

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Literature Review

School Management:

School management is an important part of any educational system. School authorities all over
the world are continuously engaged in numerous activities to efficiently manage school functions
and provide a better educational experience to students.
However, managing school affairs is not at all easy in this fast growing world.
To better perform the functions of school management and assure parents of their child’s safety
and progress, schools are using school management methods nowadays.

1. Student Information
Attendance, homework, discipline, grades, and achievements! Almost all the information
regarding the students can be accessed easily using efficient school management software.
Teachers can use the student database to avail basic information of students like grades, address,
information regarding parents and siblings etc. In addition to this information, details regarding
the students’ medical history, accounts, billing etc. are also added by the administration.
Smart cards for schools can be used as identity cards to access the details regarding a particular
student when required.

2. Parent Access
Being part of your child’s school activities and stay connected with their academic
progress can be a difficult thing in this busy world. However, now it’s easy for parents
to avail updates about their child’s academic activities through parent portals and
school apps. It helps parents to be with their child and teachers the whole day.

Benefits of Parent Portal

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• Helps parents to actively participate in their children’s educational activities
• Provides up-to-date information regarding PTA meeting, grades, assignments etc.
• Provides great relief to teachers by providing students’ attendance report and progress cards to
parents without any delay
• The feature of a direct line of communication to teachers helps students and parents to contact
teachers in case of any doubts, questions, comments or suggestions

3. Teacher Information
Effective school management software not only helps in availing information regarding students
but also provides information regarding teacher activities inside the school. It’s easy to view a
particular teacher’s class schedule, file reports efficiently etc. Also teachers can use their
database to keep the details regarding class timings, student progress and classroom activities in
one place. Some of its advantages include:
• Teachers can log onto their database securely to access the records regarding school, classroom
and student activities
• Classroom forms and reports can be filled quickly using the school management software
where almost all information regarding the classroom and students are updated accordingly
• Teachers can easily notify parents about their student’s report once it is filed
Also Read: 7 Smart Education Software that are Helpful for Students

4. Artificial Intelligence Integration

AI has slowly started to make its presence felt on our daily lives. In 2018, AI is has become part
of many mainstream software. For effective school management software, one of the key areas
with AI integration is School Bus Fleet Management.
With Integrated AI features such as Auto Routing, Auto Optimization and Auto Allocation,
managing school buses has become much easier than ever before. So, check out if the software
of your choice offers any AI features.

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AI is not a fancy term. It actually reduces your expense and makes a significant difference to
safety and your ROI

5. Communication Facilities (Voice Messaging, E-mail, Chats, etc)

To a great extent, student success depends on the effectiveness of communication among
parents, schools and teachers.
School management systems have Parent portal, which are capable enough to facilitate the
communication process by sending text, voice messages and e-mails to a predefined set of
parents and the whole school.
Thereby lessening the time invested by the school administrators in making phone calls or
leaving messages to parents.
Another small but important feature of highly effective school management software is the
facility to use templates that can be saved to communicate important days like teachers’ day,
annual day, cultural day etc.

6. Attendance & Timetable Management

Attendance management is an important school administrative task and it requires teachers to
spend a small chunk of time at the beginning of each class.
Sometimes, it is difficult for teachers to manage the whole process of taking attendance and
recording them accurately.
Marking attendance in grids having small squares is very hard and errors can occur very easily.
But attendance management is no longer a burden with the Teacher App. Now, recording
attendance of each student is just a click away. You can manage attendance of your students
without any errors using online attendance pages and share the details with parents within a short
time.
The teacher app also provides an effective way for teachers to mark their own attendance, check
the timetable and apply for leaves from their smartphones.

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Timetable management for schools becomes a much easier process with this feature.

7. Online Assessments and Assignments

While term examinations are still relevant, it is of much help to teachers and students to test and
learn the knowledge each student has acquired continuously. Online assessments and
assignments are therefore very important.
Teachers can provide individual assessments to each student looking at their level of knowledge
if so required. Rubric-based assessments can be used by teachers for such purposes. So, this is an
important feature for school management software to have.

8. Report Cards
A Report Card represents a student’s hard work throughout the year and it is the most anticipated
thing in an academic year. However, both the teachers and the school administration find it a
time-consuming responsibility.
School management software can help teachers and school authorities to streamline the process
of generating report cards using an interactive database. With the already available information
about a student’s class performance, attendance and exam results, the database completes the
report card automatically.
Teachers can review this before finalizing and approving the report card and make it accessible
to parents and students immediately.

9. Admission Management

Avoid keeping bundles of files as you can save all the data in a system. This method can help
you to access the data immediately if required. You can do this with effective school
management software.

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Such software is capable enough to manage the registration and admission process of both old
and new students smoothly. This software can remove the difficulties caused by human errors
and treats the new and old students differently based on the information provided.

10. Profile Management

School management system software efficiently performs profile management. It is one module
of the system which is used to manage students, parents, staff and teachers. It captures
information such as name and contact information of the users. Every user has unique login
credentials to access.

11. Homework

With this module, daily classroom homework assignments become easily available to students
24 hours a day. It also contains the date when it was assigned and when it should be submitted.
In addition to these, teachers can also modify homework assignments and projects as per the
requirements.

12. Library Management

This module is an effective solution to make school library management simple and effective. It
has features such as find, search, issue and return books. It supports bar code & scanning
capability to automate your library. It also includes reports of library members, daily issue
register and much more.

13. Transport Management

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Any effective school management software will have the facility to manage school
transportation effectively. With this, you can keep track of each student’s route change history.
They also display information such as students who has opted for school transportation without
routes assigned to them. It ensures student safety by making sure whether a student is present on
the bus or not and later submits the report to their parents.

Process of institutional management

(i) Organization and management of curricular activities and

(ii) Organization and management of co-curricular activities.

In the total programme of education, curricular and co-curricular activities occupy the central

position. Curricular and co-curricular activities are complementary to each other. These activities

help in developing integrated human personality. There was a time when the whole purpose of

the educational institution was conceived to be confined to the teaching of prescribed syllabus.
Other activities were regarded as additional.

Participation in social and sports activities or outside the classroom activities was looked down

upon as a mere side show. It was thought that these activities had no link with the actual teaching

programme. Here a detail discussion on co-curricular activities has been done along with
curricular activities.

As we know, co-curricular activities are those activities which have indirect reference to actual

instructional work that goes on in the classroom. In fact, today there is only a sharp difference

between curricular and co-curricular activities as the latter activities also supplement the
classroom teaching.

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1. Curricular Activities:
Curricular activities are those activities which are organized in the classroom. These are the

teaching of different subjects by the teacher/classroom teaching. Practical work in the laboratory,
workshop, library reading etc.

2. Co-curricular Activities:
Co-curricular activities are those activities which have indirect reference to actual, instructional

work that goes on in the classroom. In fact today there is only a sharp difference between
curricular and co- curricular activities as the latter activities also supplement classroom teaching.

Human Resource management

Human resource management (HRM) is the practice of recruiting, hiring, deploying and
managing an organization's employees. HRM is often referred to simply as human
resources (HR). A company or organization's HR department is usually responsible for creating,
putting into effect and overseeing policies governing workers and the relationship of the
organization with its employees. The term human resources were first used in the early 1900s,
and then more widely in the 1960s, to describe the people who work for the organization, in
aggregate.

HRM is really employee management with an emphasis on those employees as assets of the
business. In this context, employees are sometimes referred to as human capital. As with other
business assets, the goal is to make effective use of employees, reducing risk and maximizing
return on investment (ROI). The modern HR technology term, human capital management
(HCM), has come into more frequent use than the term, HRM, with the widespread adoption by
large and midsize companies and other organizations of software to manage many HR functions.

Objectives of human resource management

The objectives of HRM can be broken down into four categories:

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1. Societal objectives: Measures put into place that responds to the ethical and social needs or
challenges of the company and its employees. This includes legal issues such as equal
opportunity and equal pay for equal work.

2. Organizational objectives: Actions taken that help to ensure the efficiency of the
organization. This includes providing training, hiring the right amount of employees for a
given task or maintaining high employee retention rates.

3. Functional objectives: Guidelines used to keep the HR functioning properly within the
organization as a whole. This includes making sure that all of HR’s resources are being
allocated to its full potential.

4. Personal objectives: Resources used to support the personal goals of each employee. This
includes offering the opportunity for education or career development as well as maintaining
employee satisfaction.

Human resource management functions

HRM can be broken down into subsections, typically by pre-employment and employment
phases, with an HR manager assigned to each. Different areas of HRM oversight can include the
following:

 Employee recruitment, onboarding and retention.

 Talent management and workforce management.

 Job role assignment and career development.

 Compensation and benefits.

 Labor law compliance

 Performance management.

 Training and development.

 Succession planning.

 Employee engagement and recognition.

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 Team building.
The importance of human resource management

The role of HRM is to manage the people within a workplace to achieve the organization’s
mission and reinforce the culture. When done effectively, HR managers can help recruit new
professionals that have skills necessary to further the company’s goals as well as aid with the
training and development of current employees to meet objectives.

School Administration:
Elementary, Middle and High School Administration
School administrators who work in elementary, middle and high schools are also known as
principals. They usually have masters or doctoral degrees in educational leadership or
administration. However, many administrators who work in private schools have only
bachelor's degrees, according to the BLS. Public and private school administration
professionals supervise teachers, counselors, coaches, librarians and support staff. A principal
could also be responsible for:

 Hiring and evaluating teachers

 Setting goals and objectives

 Communicating with parents, students and community members

 Preparing budgets
College and University Administration
Many college or university administrators started their careers as professors, so it follows that
most have masters or doctoral degrees, as reported by the BLS. These professionals oversee
departments, both educational and recreational, or they help the president of the university
manage the entire campus. The responsibilities of school administrators vary depending on the
size of the colleges or universities and the number of enrolled students. Regardless of the
school's size, college administrators usually handle the following duties:

 Hiring faculty

 Drafting budgets
 Creating policies and programs

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 Raising money

 Advocating for students

Teachers Role:
The role of a teacher often comprises much more than simply turning up to deliver a set lesson
and then going back to another administrative. Teachers are expected to take on a wider range
of roles than ever before and their activities are also subject to evaluation and scrutiny.

The paper will also look at some of the formal and informal mechanisms which exist to support
students and trainees and at some of the ways in which teachers can help to provide timely,
appropriate and helpful support, guidance and supervision to their students and trainees. It will
describe some of the different types of support that teachers can give or facilitate, such as
educational supervision, mentoring, academic guidance, tutoring and counseling, and consider
some of the similarities and differences of such roles and support mechanisms. Finally the paper
will look at how teachers themselves might define the boundaries and limitations of their
support and at some situations in which teachers themselves may need to seek help.

Role of Head Teacher:

Guidance:
Throughout the paper, the term ‘guidance’ is used to mean a cluster of activities relating to focus
on decision-making about learning i.e. Educational guidance. The term ‘support’ is often used in
relation to the wider aspects of learner support, which may include study skills, IT skills and
library services, but here we are focusing on the provision of academic or personal support given
to individual students, trainees or groups by clinical teachers. Support and guidance often
involves giving advice, offering supervision, acting as an advocate or mentor and employing
counseling skills, but we are not looking here at professional counseling services.
The coach or trainer’s role is often to promote practical skills, where the student or trainee is
taken through the steps of learning how to do some action, and skills are developed mainly
through practice. It is the role of the coach to notice where the student is going wrong or being
ineffective and where intervention would be helpful. The coach can demonstrate good practice
and go carefully and slowly through steps where mistakes could easily be made.

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Facilitator
The word ‘facilitator’ is used in preference to the word ‘teacher’ in experiential learning
situations where students learn from practical experience, e.g. in supervised practice in schools,
as this type of learning requires more facilitation and less direct teaching than learning in the
academic environment. Facilitation implies that the activity is one of support rather than
initiating. The experience belongs to the student and the facilitator helps the student to get the
most out of the experience by providing appropriate resources and intervening in support of the
learning. There are different models of facilitation where at one extreme the student is an
autonomous learner, in total control of content and process, with the facilitator supporting.

The facilitator role is a difficult one for the ‘traditional’ teacher in that it involves careful
listening and eliciting rather than giving of one’s own knowledge. It usually requires that the
tutor be student-centered, helping students to express what they understand by respecting them
for what they are rather than what they ‘should’ be.

Counsellor
There is a difference between counselling and guidance. Teachers sometimes have to adopt a
counseling role when students are finding it difficult to find a direction, if they have personal
problems affecting learning or to clarify why their learning is not progressing as it should. It is
more common however for teachers to adopt a guidance role and often providing comfort,
support and a ‘friendly ear’ is enough.

Guidance usually involves a more directive form of help. With guidance a teacher will
probably:

 Give information without any attempt at evaluating or pronouncing value judgements

on the content
 offer advice based on knowledge and experience
 structure the learning experiences by taking positive action in the form of direct
intervention

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The source of the problem that results in a need for counseling may be connected with life
outside the workplace. The counselling role is therefore one of facilitating, by providing an
arena and conditions that allow clients to recognize and resolve their problems. Some of the
important basic counselling skills that a teacher may adopt are:
• Icebreaking
• Drawing out
• Listening
• Managing silence
• Clarifying
• Reflecting back
• Questioning
• Summarizing
• Advising
• Target setting
• Prescribing

Head Teacher, Academic Environment and school

Effectiveness

Communicating with learners

Good communication skills lie at the heart of providing effective teaching and learning and
learning support and guidance. Poor communication can lead to mistakes, misunderstandings
and time-wasting and can have a drastic effect on individual relationships, leading to general
feelings of dissatisfaction which can result in poor co-operation. The ability to establish
rapport helps provide an atmosphere compatible with effective communication and learning.

Teachers must be sensitive to the views of learners, regardless of their ethnic background, age or
gender. It is the teacher’s responsibility to provide a secure atmosphere in which consultation
may take place. It is very important that teachers acting in a support rather than a formal

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teaching capacity have good communication skills because situations and topics that arise may
require discussion of problems of understanding, and may reveal embarrassment or confusion by
students. Simple words which convey the intended meaning should be used whenever possible.
In one to one discussions the aim is to convey empathy and understanding and to reassure the
student that you are taking what they are saying seriously and are willing to help to solve the
problem. The key features of effective communication defined below are relevant to both group
and individual situations, involving formal teaching as well as learner support.
Here are some helpful tips for giving positive and negative feedback on performance:

• Let the student/trainee speak first: before you give your opinion of good and bad,
Hear what the trainee thinks: they often have a realistic view.

• Begin with the good points: always find strengths before highlighting the
weaknesses. A person who feels good about themselves will be more willing to consider
deficiencies.

• Be specific rather than general

• Plan a solution for each problem: never leave the trainee without any idea of what can
be done to improve.

• Show interest and involvement: show an interest in helping and solving the problem,
rather than scoring points. Coach, counsel and be seen as concerned.
• Be constructive: show that a problem exists. Be descriptive rather than evaluative –
describing what we actually see or hear reduces the need of the receiver to react defensively.
Involve the other person in defining the problem and encourage them to suggest improvements.
Do not expect to find an immediate solution; move ‘towards’ one.

• Deal with one point at a time: do not collect a catalogue of incidents to be dealt with one
at a time. Deal with problems as they arise. Help the trainee to see the possible relationship
between one instance and another.

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• Criticize the act, not the individual: help the trainee to see the consequences of the
actions. Try not to make the person defensive or aggressive, from which position nothing can
be achieved.

• Do not compare: never make comparisons with other people. The comparison
should be with the person’s own potential.
• Be productive: Your criticism should be seen as helpful and as moving the person
towards a solution.
• Take into account the receiver’s needs as well as your own

• Check that the receiver has understood: if you can, get them to rephrase the
feedback to see if it’s what you had in mind

Receiving feedback:

• Listen to the person who is giving the feedback, accept what they are saying as
genuine and helpful; try to understand their feelings, what they are describing and what they
are suggesting you do

• Accept feedback as a gift

• If possible, check the feedback with a third party

• Give the feedback serious consideration, weigh up the consequences of changing or not
changing, express your thoughts and feelings about alternatives

• Communicate your decisions to the giver

• Tell them what they could do which might help you to change

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• Thank the giver for their concern and help

Benefits of giving and receiving effective feedback:

• Individuals build up confidence and self-esteem which leads to the ability to master
concepts and develop study and cognitive skills
• Those providing guidance develop a range of skills including leadership and
communication skills which they are able to apply in other situations. They also gain a deeper
understanding of their own subject area.

• Staff gets regular feedback on how teaching is being received by the learner.

• Educational institutions and employer organizations are able to provide support and
benefit from a more effective learning community and improved retention rates
References, further reading and useful links
Learning Environment:
Quality education entails environments that are healthy, safe, protective and gender-sensitive. A
conducive learning environment should provide adequate resources and facilities for learning
and for other physical and emotional needs of the learners. These include the following:

Infrastructure and facilities: school buildings, number of rooms, washrooms, boundary

wall, furniture, black board, stationery
Human Resource: a capable and qualified teaching force in required numbers
Safe and Peaceful Environment: safe atmosphere with fair and clear rules for a well-
managed and orderly learning and playing space, where students are protected from disturbances
and from mistreatment/violence from teachers and school managers
Inclusive Environment with tolerance for diversity: a nurturing affective atmosphere
where care and attention is extended to both genders from different ethnic, socio-economic and
religious backgrounds, and with different learning abilities/disabilities and needs

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 School Management: goal-oriented leadership, regular monitoring and evaluation of
teaching practices with frequent constructive feedback for improvement, and
Parents and Community: role of parents in overall school improvement, helping to
increase enrollment, reduce dropouts and ensure an appropriate school environment.

Content

Content is reflected in the relevant curricula and translated into textbooks and other
supplementary learning material for the acquisition of basic skills and knowledge for both
literacy and numeracy including crosscutting areas such as gender, health, nutrition and peace.
Curriculum
The curriculum is a crucial component of any educational process. Curriculum is the central
document to which other education implementation processes and products must be aligned.
These include textbooks and other learning materials, classroom teaching practices, student
assessment systems and pre-service and in-service teacher training/education programmes. The
curriculum addresses questions such as what students should learn and be able to do
(competencies); why, how (methodology); and how well (standards, benchmarks) they should be
able to do. The curriculum states expectations regarding the academic competencies and skills to
be acquired by students at different grade levels. In this way, the curriculum also creates
appropriate links to the student’s life situation in order to encourage meaningful participation for
the development of higher order thinking skills including analytical, critical and creative thinking
abilities. Significant cross-cutting themes are also reflected in the curricula of different subjects.
Such themes include peace and tolerance, gender equity and environmental stewardship.

Textbooks and Learning Materials:

Textbooks are the primary teaching and learning tool that connects education policy and the
curriculum with the actual teaching and learning that takes place in the classroom and beyond.
The textbook is the primary learning. Material to which teachers, students and their parents have
access. In most developing countries where supplementary learning materials and reference
books are not available in most schools, the textbooks assume even more importance.
Consequently, it is imperative that textbooks provide accurate and updated knowledge, are

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student-centered and child-friendly with age-appropriate appealing graphics and thought
provoking content.

Process
System inputs, such as infrastructure and curricular content form one aspect of quality education.
Equally important are educational processes; these define how teachers and school managers use
these inputs to frame meaningful learning experiences for their students.

Leadership Style

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing

plans, and motivating people. As seen by the employees, it includes the total pattern of
explicit and implicit actions performed by their leader (Newstrom, Davis, 1993).

The first major study of leadership styles was performed in 1939 by Kurt Lewin who
led a group of researchers to identify different styles of leadership (Lewin, Lippit,
White, 1939). This early study has remained quite influential as it established the three
major leadership styles: (U.S. Army, 1973):

o authoritarian or autocratic - the leader tells his or her employees what to do

and how to do it, without getting their advice
o participative or democratic - the leader includes one or more employees in the
decision making process, but the leader normally maintains the final decision
making authority
o Delegate or laissez-fair (free-rein) - the leader allows the employees to make
the decisions, however, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are
made.

Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad
leaders tend to stick with one style, normally autocratic.

Authoritarian or Autocratic Leadership

I want both of you to. . .

This style is used when leaders tell their employees what they want done and ho w they
want it accomplished, without getting the advice of their followers. Some of the

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appropriate conditions to use this style is when you have all the information to solve
the problem, you are short on time, and/or your employees are well motivated.

Some people tend to think of this style as a vehicle for yelling, using demeaning
language, and leading by threats. This is not the authoritarian style, rather it is an
abusive, unprofessional style called “bossing people around.” It has absolutely no
place in a leader's repertoire.

The authoritarian style should normally only be used on rare occasions. If you have the
time and want to gain more commitment and motivation from your employees, then
you should use the participative style.

Participative or Democratic Leadership

Let's work together to solve this. . .

This style involves the leader including one or more employees in the decision making
process (determining what to do and how to do it). However, the leader maintains the
final decision making authority. Using this style is not a sign of weakness, rather it is a
sign of strength that your employees will respect.

This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your employees have
other parts. A leader is not expected to know everything—this is why you employ
knowledgeable and skilled people. Using this style is of mutual benefit as it allows
them to become part of the team and allows you to make better decisions.

Even if you have all the answers, gaining different perspectives and diversity of
opinions normally provide greater creativity than insularity. As Katherine
Phillips wrote,

So as you think about diversity and its effects in organizations during this tough
economic time recognize that the most robust practical value of diversity is that it
challenges everyone in an organization. We are more thoughtful, and we recognize and
utilize more of the information that we have at our disposal, when diversity is present.
That is diversity’s true value.

Delegate or Laissez-faire Leadership

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You two take care of the problem while I go. . .

In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decisions. However, the
leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees
are able to analyze the situation and determine what needs to be done and how to do it.
You cannot do everything! You must set priorities and delegate certain tasks.

This is not a style to use so that you can blame others when t hings go wrong, rather
this is a style to be used when you fully trust and have confidence in the people below
you. Do not be afraid to use it, however, use it wisely!

A good leader uses all three styles, depending on what forces are involved between the
followers, the leader, and the situation. Some examples include:

o Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job. The
leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is motivated to learn a new
skill. The situation is a new environment for the employee.
o Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their jobs. The
leader knows the problem, but does not have all the information. The employees
know their jobs and want to become part of the team.
o Using a delegate style with a worker who knows more about the job than you
do. You cannot do and know everything and the employee needs to take
ownership of her job! In addition, this allows you to be more productive.
o Using all three styles: Telling your employees that a proc edure is not working
correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian). Asking for their
ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative). Delegating tasks in
order to implement the new procedure (delegate).

Forces that influence the style to be used include:

o Amount of time available

o Are relationships based on respect and trust or on disrespect?
o Who has the information—you, the employees, or both?
o How well your employees are trained and how well you know the task
o Internal conflicts
o Stress levels.
o Type of task, such as structured, unstructured, complicated, or simple?
o Laws or established procedures, such as OSHA or training plans

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Continuum of Leader Behavior
In 1958 Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1973) expanded on Lewin, Lippit, and White's
three leadership styles by extending them to seven styles and placing them on a
continuum as shown in the diagram below:

Notice that as you go from left to right, it moves from manager -oriented decision
making to team or subordinate oriented decision making, thus the team’s freedom
increases while the manager’s authority decreases. Depending upon the present level of
your team's experience and skills, you select a starting point and as the team grows and
develops, you move from on to the next one:

1. Manager makes decision and announces it – The team has no role in the
decision-making role. Coercion may or may not be used or implied.
2. Manager “Sells” decision – Rather than just tell, the manager needs to sell the
decision, as there is a possibility of some resistance from team members.
3. Manager presents ideas and invites questions – This allows the team to get a
fuller explanation so they can gain a better understanding of what the manager
is trying to accomplish.
4. Manager presents a tentative decision that is subject to change – This action
invites the team to have some influence regarding the decision; thus, it can be
changed based on the team's input.
5. Manager presents the problem, gets suggestions, and then makes the decision –
Up to this point the manager has always presented the decision, although the last
style allows it to change based upon the team's input. Now the team is free to

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 come up with options, however, the manager still has the final say on those
options.
6. Manager defines limits, and requests the team to make a decision – The manager
delegates the decision making to the team; but instills specific limits on the
team's solution.
7. Manager allows team to function within limits – Now the team does the decision
making; however, the manager's superior may have placed certain limits on the
options they can make. If the manager sits in on the decision making, he or she
attempts to do so with no more authority than the other members do.

Basically, the first two styles or behaviors are similar to the authorit arian style, the
next three are similar to the participative style, while the last two are similar to the
delegate style. This approach gives the leader more options that can be refined to
specific situations or environments.

Positive and Negative Approaches

Leaders approach their employees in different ways. Positive leaders use rewards, such
as education, new experiences, and independence, to motivate employees, while
negative employers emphasize penalties (Newstrom, Davis, 1993). The negative
approach has a place in a leader's repertoire of tools in certain situations; however, it
must be used carefully due to its high cost on the human spirit.

Negative leaders act domineering and superior with people. They believe the only way
to get things done is through penalties, such as loss of job, days off without pay,
reprimanding employees in front of others, etc. They believe their authority is
increased by frightening everyone into higher levels of productivity. Yet, what
normally happens when this approach is used is that morale falls, which leads to lower
productivity.

Most leaders do not strictly use one or another, but are somewhere on a continuum
ranging from extremely positive to extremely negative. People who continuously work
out of the negative are bosses, while those who primarily work out of the positive are
considered great leaders.

A similar theory is McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y.

Use of Consideration and Structure

Two other approaches that leaders use are (Stogdill, 1974):
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 o Consideration (employee orientation) — leaders are concerned about the human needs
of their employees. They build teamwork, help employees with their problems, and
provide psychological support.
o Structure (task orientation) — leaders believe that they get results by consistently
keeping people busy and urging them to produce.

There is evidence that leaders who are considerate in their leadership style are higher
performers and are more satisfied with their job (Schriesheim, 1982).

Also notice that consideration and structure are independent of each other, thus they
should not be viewed on a continuum (Stogdill, 1974). For example, a leader who is
more considerate does not necessarily mean that s he is less structured.

Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid is a good example of a leadership model based
upon the concept of consideration and structure.

Paternalism

Paternalism has at times been equated with leadership styles. Most definitions of
leadership normally state or imply that one of the actions within leadership is that
of influencing. For example, the U.S. Army (1983) uses the following definition:

Leadership is influencing people by providing purpose, direction, and motivation while

operating to accomplish the mission and improving the organization. It is the means or
method to achieve two ends: operating and improving. But there is more to influencing
than simply passing along orders. The example you set is just as important as the
words you speak. And you set an example—good or bad—with every action you take
and word you utter, on or off duty. Through your words and example, you must
communicate purpose, direction, and motivation.

Paternalism is defined as (Webster Dictionary):

A system under which an authority undertakes to supply needs or regulate conduct of

those under its control in matters affecting them as individuals as well as in their
relationships to authority and to each other.

Thus, paternalism supplies needs for those under its protection or control, while
leadership gets things done. The first is directed inwards, while the latter is directed
outwards.

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Geert Hofstede (1997) studied culture within organizations. Part of his study was on
the dependence relationship or Power Difference—the extent to which the less
powerful members of an organization expect and accept that power is distributed
unequally. Hofstede gave this story to illustrate the co ncept of Power Difference:

The last revolution in Sweden disposed of King Gustav IV, whom they considered
incompetent, and surprising invited Jean Baptise Bernadotte, a French general who
served under Napoleon, to become their new King. He accepted and bec ame King
Charles XIV. Soon afterward he needed to address the Swedish Parliament. Wanting to
be accepted, he tried to do the speech in their language. His broken language amused
the Swedes so much that they roared with laughter. The Frenchman was so upset that
he never tried to speak Swedish again.

Bernadotte was a victim of culture shock—never in his French upbringing and military
career had he experienced subordinates who laughed at the mistakes of their superior.
This story has a happy ending as he was considered very good and ruled the country as
a highly respected constitutional monarch until 1844. (His descendants still occupy the
Swedish throne.)

Sweden differs from France in the way its society handles inequality (those in charge
and the followers). To measure inequality or Power Difference, Hofstede studied three
survey questions from a larger survey that both factored and carried the same weight:

o Frequency of employees being afraid to express disagreement with their managers

o Subordinates' perception of their boss's actual decision making style (paternalistic style
was one choice)
o Subordinates' preference for their boss's decision-making style (again, paternalistic style
was one choice)

He developed a Power Difference Index (PDI) for the 53 countries that took the
survey. Their scores range from 11 to 104. The higher the number a country received
the more autocratic and/or paternalistic the leadership, which of course relates to
employees being more afraid or unwilling to disagree with their bosses. Wh ile lower
numbers mean a more consultative style of leadership is used, which translates to
employees who are not as afraid of their bosses?

For example, Malaysia has the highest PDI score, being 104, while Austria has the
lowest with 11. And of course, as the story above illustrates, Sweden has a relative low
score of 31, while France has a PDI of 68. The United States' score is 40. Note that

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these scores are relative, not absolute, in that relativism affirms that one culture has no
absolute criteria for judging activities of another culture as “low” or “noble”.

Keeping the above in mind, it seems that some picture paternalistic behavior as almost
a barbaric way of getting things accomplished. Yet, leadership is all about getting
things done for the organization. And in some situations, a paternalistic style of
decision-making might be required; indeed, in some cultures and individuals, it may
also be expected by not only those in charge, but also by the followers.

That is what makes leadership styles quite interesting—they basically run along the
same continuum as Hofstede's PDI, ranging from paternalistic to consultative styles of
decision making. This allows a wide range of individual behaviors to be dealt with,
ranging from beginners to peak performers. In addition, it accounts for the fact that not
everyone is the same.

However, when paternalistic or autocratic styles are relied upon too much and the
employees are ready for a more consultative type of leadership style, then it can
becomes quite damaging to the performance of the organization if change is not
advanced.

Leadership model

Leadership models may be defined as guides that suggest specific leadership behaviors
to use in a specific environment or situation. In addition, they often use a graphic
representation to show the required leadership behavior.

Three models are discussed:

o Managerial Grid - focuses on a leader's concern for task and concern for people to predict
leadership outcomes
o Four Framework Approach - uses four common concepts to guide leadership behavior in
specific situations
o Situational Leadership - guides a leader on the type of coaching required to develop a
worker in a specific situation

Leadership or Managerial Grid

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Two large studies found that two types of leader behaviors were important concepts in
leadership skills. While the two separate studies used different terms, they can be
thought of as concern for people and concern for tasks. The study at Ohio State
University identified these two behaviors as (Fleishman, 1953, Stogdil l, 1974):

o Consideration - relationship behaviors, such as respect and trust (concern for people)
o Initiating Structure - task behaviors, such as organizing, scheduling, and seeing that
work is completed (concern for tasks)

The study at the University of Michigan identified these two behaviors as (Katz,,
Maccoby, Morse, 1950; Northouse, 2007):

o Employee Orientation - approaching employees with a strong human relations

orientation (concern for people)
o Production Orientation - stressing the technical and production aspect of the job
(concern for tasks)

The researchers from Michigan State thought of these two behaviors as being on
opposite ends of a single continuum. Thus, a leader could be strong with one of these
two behaviors, but would be weaker in the opposite one.

The Ohio State studies viewed these two behaviors as distinct and independent. Thus, a
leader could be high or low in one or both behaviors. For example, in the U.S. Army,
one of the most important rules is to take care of your soldiers and c omplete the
mission (task) — a leader should be good with both. Bad leaders can do neither or do
one, but not the other.

The notion that just two dimensions can describe leadership behavior has the attraction
of simplicity. However, humans are far from being two dimensional in their behaviors,
hence, you have to learn more than the model, but the model is a great place to start.

Two researchers, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, (1985) created a short questionnaire
that asked leaders how they approached tasks and people. They also created a grid
similar to the one shown below. Depending on how a leader scored, would place him or
her in one of four quadrants:

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The four quadrants represent the level of strength of the two behaviors:

o Authoritarian — strong on tasks, weak on people skills

o Country Club — strong on people skills, weak on tasks
o Impoverished — weak on tasks, weak on people skills
o Team Leader — strong on tasks, strong on people skills

The goal to good leadership is to score at least a 6 on both task and people, which
places the leader in the Team Leader grid.

The four leadership behaviors are discussed in more detail below.

Team Leader (high task, high relationship) - These leaders lead by positive example
and endeavor to foster a team environment so that all team members can reach their
highest potential, both as individual team members and as a group of people who use

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cooperation and collaboration. They encourage the team to reach goals as effectively
as possible, while also working tirelessly to strengthen the bonds among the various
members. They normally lead some of the most productive teams.

Authoritarian Leader (high task, low relationship) - Leaders who get this rating are
very much task oriented and are hard on their workers ( autocratic). There is little or no
allowance for cooperation or collaboration. Authoritarian leaders mostly display these
characteristics: they are very strong on schedules; they expect people to do what t hey
are told without question or debate; when something goes wrong they tend to focus on
who is to blame rather than concentrate on exactly what went wrong and how to
prevent it; they are intolerant of what they see as dissent (it may just be someone's
creativity), thus it is difficult for their subordinates to contribute or develop.

Country Club Leader (low task, high relationship) - These leaders predominantly
use reward power to maintain discipline and to encourage the team to accomplish its
goals. Conversely, they are almost incapable of employing the more punitive coercive
and legitimate powers. This inability results from fear that using such powers could
jeopardize relationships with the other team members.

Impoverished Leader (low task, low relationship) - These leaders use a “delegate
and disappear” management style. Since they are not committed to either task
accomplishment or maintenance, they essentially allow their team to do whatever they
wish and prefer to detach them from the team process by allowing the team to suffer
from a series of power struggles within the group.

Leadership influence on students learning model

The Sweet Spot on the Grid

Lead Primarily as Team Leader, but be Situational for the Other Three — The
most desirable place for a leader to be along the two axes at most times would be a 9
on task and a 9 on people — the Team Leader. However, do not entirely dismiss the
other three. Certain situations might call for one of the other three to be used at times.
For example, by playing the Impoverished Leader, you allow your team to gain self -
reliance. Be an Authoritarian Leader to instill a sense of discipline in an unmotivated
worker. Be an Impoverished Leader to allow others to teach others to lead. By
carefully studying the situation and the forces affecting it, you will know at what
points along the axes you need to be in order to achieve the desired result.

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Four Framework Approach

In the Four Framework Approach, Bolman and Deal (1991) suggest that leaders
display leadership behaviors in one of four types of frameworks: Structural, Human
Resource, Political, or Symbolic:

This model suggests that leaders operate in one of t hese four categories and there are
times when one approach is more appropriate and times when it would not be. That is,
any style can be effective or ineffective, depending upon the situation. Relying on only
one of these approaches would be inadequate, thus we should strive to be conscious of
all four approaches, and not just rely on one or two.

For example, during a major organization change, a Structural leadership style may be
more effective than a Symbolic leadership style; during a period when strong growth is
needed, the Symbolic approach may be more appropriate. We also need to understand
ourselves as each of us tends to have a preferred approach. We need to be conscious of
these at all times and be aware of the limitations of just favoring one appro ach.

The four leadership behaviors are:

Structural Framework - Structural Leaders focus on structure, strategy, environment,

implementation, experimentation, and adaptation.

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In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a social architect whose leade rship
style is analysis and design. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a
petty tyrant whose leadership style is petty details.

Human Resource Framework - Human Resource Leaders believe in people and

communicate that belief; they are visible and accessible; they empower, increase
participation, support, share information, and move decision making down into the
organization.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a catalyst and servant whose

leadership style is support, advocating, and empowerment. While in an ineffective
leadership situation, the leader is a pushover, whose leadership style is abdication and
fraud?

Political Framework - Political leaders clarify what they want and what they can get;
assess the distribution of power and interests, build linkages to other stakeholders, use
persuasion first, but will use negotiation and coercion if necessary.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is an advocate, whose leadership style is

coalition and team building. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a
hustler, whose leadership style is manipulation?

Symbolic Framework - Symbolic leaders view organizations as a stage or theater to

play certain roles and give impressions, use symbols to captu re attention, frame
experience by providing plausible interpretations of experiences, and discover and
communicate a vision.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a prophet, whose leadership style is

inspiration. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a fanatic or fool,
whose leadership style is smoke and mirrors?

Situational Leadership

The situational leadership theory, developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard
(1977), is based upon two continuums — the required level
of supervision and arousal required to coach workers in specific situations so that they
develop into great performers:

o Supervision (directing) - The employee's skill and knowledge level determines the level
of supervision (what the authors call Directing). On one end of the continuum is over-

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 supervision, while the other end is under-supervision. The goal is to hit the sweet-spot.
Under-supervision leads to miscommunication, lack of coordination, and the perception
by subordinates that the leader does not care. Over-supervision stifles initiative, breeds
resentment, and lowers morale. The goal is to provide the correct amount of supervision
that is determined by the employee's skill and knowledge level.
o Arousal (supporting) - The employee's skill and knowledge level determines the amount
of arousal or emotional support required (what the authors call Supporting). This
emotional support raises or lowers the task holder's arousal level (the inner-drive within
our self-system). A certain level of arousal motivates us toward change (learning).
However, too much or too little will over or under stimulate our behavior. In highly
cognitive tasks a low arousal is required as over-simulation may occur (and vice-versa).
For more information, see arousal.

Ken Blanchard (1985) later refined the model and changed the term Situational
Leadership Theory to simply Situational Leadership. In his model, leadership is the act
of providing the correct amount of supervision (Directing Behavior) and arousal
(Supportive Behavior), which in turn, produces the best learning and developmental
environment as shown in the model below:

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Situational Leadership is basically is a four-step model, however, depending upon the
situation, you can jump into any step as required (depending on how well an employee
can perform and is motivated to perform) :

o Directing - Provide a lot of direction (learner does not know how to perform) and a small
amount of support (you do not want to overload learner - see arousal).
o Coaching - Decrease direction (so that learner can learn by trial and error) and increase
support (needs emotional support due to some failure).
o Supporting - Decrease direction even more (so that learner can become self-supporting)
and decrease support.
o Delegating - Provide direction and support on an as-needed basis.

Relationship between institutional Management and

Academic performance of the students
Teachers’ Professional Development and Learning:

Teachers need to have mastery over both their subject matter and its pedagogy. This can be made
possible through an effective pre-service teacher education and a robust continuing professional
development (CPD) system which also includes mentoring and supervision. CPD can help
address shortcomings that may have been a result of an inadequate pre-service education. Even
satisfactorily qualified teachers benefit from CPD as it helps keep teachers abreast of up-to-date
knowledge and practices in the field. This ongoing process of training for teachers can have a
direct impact on student achievement.

Classroom Processes:
Interactive teaching methods that engage students with their own learning rather than promote
rote memorization are an important characteristic of quality education today. As discussed
earlier, the content for quality education includes appropriately designed curriculum and
textbooks. However, the manner in which this material is translated into the students’ learning
experience depends on classroom processes. For example, for the child-centeredness of a
textbook to benefit the learner, the teaching approaches must be child-centric and interactive.

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Similarly, teaching and learning about life skills requires interactive, participatory methods.
Since skills are by definition related to actions and behavior, the required levels of competency
are unlikely to be developed without the active involvement of learners.

Thus, classroom processes include the sequences of steps through which trained teachers use
teaching approaches in a well-managed classroom by:

applying child-centric teaching practices

adopting/adapting new teaching methods
using prepared lesson plans
using and creating their own materials
being kind, respectful and caring to the learners, and
Promoting and supporting students’ personal and integrated development.

Learning Outcomes

As a result of the pre-existing condition of the learner, the school environment, the content and
processes, a range of changes can occur in the learner, some of them intended and some
unintended. When speaking of quality education, it is the intended outcomes that are the focus.
The outcomes include what a learner knows and is able to do, and the attitudes and values she/he
has. Knowledge, attitude and skills of a learner will come into play as a learner pursues further
education, as she/he enters the work force, and makes choices as a member of their group, as a
participant of the community and as a global citizen.

Students’ assessments are the primary tool for measuring and enhancing learning outcomes.
Assessments include different methods of regular and integrated ongoing classroom assessment,
collectively known as formative assessments. Through formative assessments, an opportunity is
created to give immediate and continuous feedback to students for improved outcomes.
Summative assessments, on the other hand, include periodic tests that benchmark various
abilities and levels of knowledge and understanding of a student.

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