GENERAL BIOLOGY LECTURE NOTES
throughout the cell to where it is
TOPIC: CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
4 TYPES OF ORGANIC MOLECULES
 CARBOHYDRATES- organic compounds
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen in a ratio of two hydrogen atoms
to one oxygen atom.
 LIPIDS (FATS)- group of hydrophobic
biomolecules, long term energy storage
 PROTEINS- organic compounds formed
mainly of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and
nitrogen.
 NUCLEIC ACID- make proteins that are
present in almost every structure.
3 TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
 MONOSACCHARIDE- contains carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of one to
two to one; simplest carbohydrate
 DISACCHARIDE- double sugar formed
from two monosaccharide linked
together in a condensation reaction.
 POLYSACCHARIDE- complex molecule
composed of three or more
monosaccharide linked together in a
condensation reaction.
4 BASIC GROUPS OF LIPIDS
 TRIGLYCERIDES- include fats and oils
 PHOSPHOLIPID- contains glycerol and 2
fatty acids
 STEROIDS- 4 fused rings of carbon to
which different functional groups are
attached.
 WAXES- non polar; found in the ears of
animals and protective coating of leaves.
2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID
 DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)-
typically remains within the center, or
nucleus of a cell.
 RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID) - can travel
needed.
TOPIC: LIFE PROCESSES
ENERGY- ability to do work.
METABOLISM- process in which different types
of chemical reactions happen inside your body.
CLASSIFICATION OF METABOLISM:
 CATABOLISM- energy is released.
 ANABOLISM- energy is stored.
REPRODUCTION- process of producing new
organism.
2 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION:
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION- two parent
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION- one parent
GROWTH- humans are made of millions of cells
and this has a number of benefits; cells can be
specialized to do particular tasks; groups of cells
can function as organs making a more efficient
but complex organism.
REPAIR- formation of cells growing.
COMMUNICATION and RESPONSE- transfer of
information from one part of the organism to
another using both chemical and electrical
signals as a response of stimuli.
TOPIC: CELLS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
PASSIVE TRANSPORT- substances are
transported across the membrane without any
energy input from the cell.
DIFFUSION- process by which molecules and ions
can tend to scatter themselves through the
available space.
SIMPLE DIFFUSION- the unassisted diffusion of
solutes to plasma membrane.
OSMOSIS- diffusion of water to a selectively
permeable membrane.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION- provides passage for
certain needed substances that are both lipid
insoluble and too large to pass through the
membrane.
FILTRATION- process in which water and solutes
are forced to a membrane (capillary wall) by fluid
or hydrostatic pressure.
PRESSURE GRADIENT- a gradient that actually
pushes solute containing fluid from a higher
pressure to the lower pressure area.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESS- whenever a cell
uses its ATP supply to move the substances
across the membrane.
SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP- simultaneously
carry sodium ions out of and potassium ions into
the cell.
EXOCYTOSIS- moves substances out of the cell.
ENDOCYTOSIS- moves substances into the cell.
PHAGOCYTOSIS- cell eating; certain white blood
cells that act as scavenger cells that protects the
body by ingesting bacteria and other foreign
debris; takes in larger substances (bacteria).
PINOCYTOSIS- plasma membrane invaginates to
form a tiny pit and then its edges fused around
the droplet of extracellular fluid containing
dissolve proteins or fats; takes in fluids and
solute.
TOPIC: PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS- process of making food.
FORMULA OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (sunlight)
C6H12O6 + 6O2
CHEMICAL ENERGY- refers to the energy stored
in the chemical bonds between atoms in
molecules.
2 STEPS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
 LIGHT- DEPENDENT REACTION- requires
light; occur in thylakoid.
 LIGHT- INDEPENDENT REACTION or
CALVIN CYCLE- occur in stroma; doesn’t
need light to function.
CHLOROPLASTS- food producers of the cell;
found in plants; converts sun’s light energy into
sugars.
STROMA- liquid that sorrounds the thylakoids;
fills the interior of the chloroplast.
THYLAKOID- disk like shape
GRANUM/ GRANA- set of thylakoids.
CHLOROPHYLL- green pigment; absorbs the suns
light energy.
ATP or ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE- carries
energy within the cell; main energy currency of
the cell; a high energy molecule within cells that
stores and transports the chemical energy on
organism needs for metabolism.
TOPIC: CELLULAR RESPIRATION
CELLULAR RESPIRATION- is a metabolic process
involving many different reactions taking place.
2 TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION;
 AEROBIC RESPIRATION- process of
producing cellular energy involving
oxygen.
 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION- a type of
respiration using used electron
acceptors other than oxygen molecule;
does not involve oxygen.
3 STEPS OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION:
 GLYCOLYSIS
 KREBS CYCLE
 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
2 STEPS OF ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION:
 GLYCOLYSIS
 FERMENTATION
TOPIC: AUTOTROPHS AND HETEROTROPHS
AUTOTROPHS- can manufacture their own
foods; producer
HETEROTROPHS- cannot manufacture their own
food; consumer
2 TYPES OF AUTOTROPHS:
 PHOTOAUTOTROPHS- are organisms
who get the energy to make organic
materials from sunlight; all plants, green
algae, and bacteria.
 CHEMOAUTOTROPHS- are organisms
that obtain energy from inorganic
chemical processes.
2 TYPES OF HETEROTROPHS:
 CONSUMERS
 DECOMPOSERS
TYPES OF CONSUMERS:
 HERBIVORES- are animals that eat
plants.
 CARNIVORES- is an animal that gets food
from killing and eating other animals.
 OMNIVORES- an animal or person that
eats food of both plants and animals.
TYPES OF DECOMPOSERS:
 DETRITIVORES- an organism that feeds
on and breaks down dead plants or
animal matter.
 SAPROPHYTES- a plant, fungus, or
microorganism that lives on dead or
decaying organic matter.
TOPIC: MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS- process where a single cell divides
twice to produce four cells containing half the
original amount of genetic information; a type of
cell division that is seen during the formation of
gametes (sex cells).
STAGES OF MEIOSIS 1:
 PROPHASE 1- the homologous pairs of
chromosomes come to lie next to one
another, each chromosomes consist of
two chromatids attached by a
centromere.
 METAPHASE 1- the spindle fibers
arranged the homologous chromosome
pairs in the middle of the cell.
 ANAPHASE 1- the spindle fiber separate
the homologous pairs and pull them to
opposite poles of the cell.
 TELOPHASE 1- the chromosome gather
into nuclei, and the original cell divides;
then cytokinesis takes place resulting in
two haploid cells. Each chromosomes in
the haploid cells consist of two sister
chromatids; daughter cells are not
identical.
STAGES OF MEIOSIS 2:
 PROPHASE 2- spindle fibers form again,
and chromosomes condense once
more.
 METAPHASE 2- spindle fibers align
chromosomes along the center of the
cell.
 ANAPHASE 2- sister chromatids are
separated and pulled to opposite poles
of the cell.
 TELOPHASE 2- new nuclei are formed;
then cytokinesis follows resulting into
four haploid cells.
TOPIC: PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE
GREGOR MENDEL- Father of Modern Genetics
MENDELS LAW OF HEREDITY:
 LAW OF SEGREGATION- Each inherited
trait is defined by a gene pair. Parental
 genes are randomly separated to the sex
cells so that sex cells contain only one
gene of the pair. Offspring therefore
inherit one genetic allele from each
parent when sex cells unite in
fertilization.
 LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT-
Genes for different traits are sorted
separately from one another so that the
inheritance of one trait is not dependent
on the inheritance of another.
 LAW OF DOMINANCE- An organism with
alternate forms of a gene will express
the form that is dominant.
MONOHYBRID CROSS- is a breeding experiment
between P generation (parental generation)
organisms that differ in a single trait.
DIHYBRID CROSS- is a breeding experiment
between P generation (parental generation)
organisms that differ in two traits.
TEST CROSS- are used to test an individual’s
genotype by crossing it with an individual of a
known genotype.
PUNNETT SQUARE- is a square diagram that is
used to predict the genotypes of a particular
cross or breeding experiment.
GENETIC TRAITS- are characteristics that are
enclosed in DNA.
GENETIC DISORDER- is a diseased caused in
whole or in part by a change in the DNA
sequence away from a normal sequence; caused
by an abnormality in an individual’s genome.
TYPES OF GENETIC INHERITANCE:
 SINGLE GENE GENETIC INHERITANCE or
MONOGENETIC INHERITANCE- caused
by changes or mutations that occur in
the DNA sequence of a single gene;
disorders of a single gene.
 MULTIFACTORIAL GENETIC
INHERITANCE or POLYGENIC
INHERITANCE- caused by a combination
of environmental factors and mutations
in multiple genes.
 CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES-
typically occur due to a problem with cell
division; caused by an excess or
deficiency of the genes that are located
in the chromosomes or by structural
changes within chromosomes.
 MITOCHONDRIAL GENETIC
INHERITANCE- caused by mutations in
the non- nuclear DNA of mitochondria.
MONOGENETIC INHERITANCE examples:
 CYSTIC FIBROSIS- affects mostly the
lungs, but also the pancreas, liver,
kidneys and intestines.
 SICKLE CELL ANEMIA- abnormality in the
oxygen- carrying protein haemoglobin
found in red blood cells.
 HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE- death of brain
cells.
MULTIFACTORIAL GENETIC INHERITANCE
example:
 HEART DISEASE
 HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE
 OBESITY
CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES example:
 DOWN SYNDROME- occurs when a
person has three copies of chromosome
21.
 TURNER SYNDROME- short and webbed
neck, low-set ears, low hair line at the
back of the neck, short stature and
swollen hands and feet seen at birth.
 KLINEFELTER SYNDROME- sterility and
small testicles.
MITOCHONDRIAL GENETIC INHERITANCE  ALLELES- an alternative form of a gene
example: that occurs at the same locus on
homologous chromosomes.
 LEBER’S HEREDITARY OPTIC ATROPHY
 DOMINANT ALLELE- an allele that is
(eye disease)
always expressed when present,
CHANGES IN CHROMOSOMES: regardless of whether the organism is
homozygous or heterozygous for that
 DELETION- a mutation in which a part of gene.
a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is
 RECESSIVE ALLELE- genes are recessive if
lost during DNA replication. the phenotype that they code for is only
 DUPLICATION- it refers to the expressed when the genes are
occurrence of a segment twice in the homozygous.
same chromosome. It results in addition
 PARENT GENERATION- generation that
of one or more genes to a chromosome.
supplies gametes to the filial generation.
 TRANSLOCATION- caused by
 FILIAL GENERATION- generation that
rearrangement of parts between non-
receives gametes from the parental
homologous chromosomes. generation.
 INVERSION- a chromosome
 HYBRID- an offspring resulting from the
rearrangement in which a segment of a
mating between individuals of two
chromosome is reversed end to end.
different genetic constitutions.
GENETIC TERMINOLOGIES:

 HAPLOID- condition of having only one

set of chromosomes per cell.
 DIPLOID- condition of having two sets of
chromosomes per cell.
 CHROMOSOMES- structures within the
nucleus of eukaryotic cells composed of
chromatin and visible at cell division.
 HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES-
chromosome that are similar in
morphology (shape and form) and
genetic constitution.
 RECOMBINATION- exchange of genetic
material between chromosomes.
 GENOTYPE- the genetic make- up of an
individual.
 PHENOTYPE- the physical or chemical
expression of an organism’s gene.
 GENE- a discrete unit of hereditary
information that usually specifies a
protein.