SHAPING PROCESSES FOR

POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

• Starting Materials for PMCs
• Open Mold Processes
• Closed Mold Processes
• Filament Winding

• Pultrusion Processes
• Other PMC Shaping Processes
Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Components in a Composite Material
• Nearly all composite materials consist of two
phases:
1. Primary phase - forms the matrix within which
the secondary phase is imbedded

2. Secondary phase - imbedded phase, sometimes

referred to as a reinforcing agent
• The reinforcing phase may be in the form of fibers,
particles, or various other geometries

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Figure 9.1 - Possible physical shapes of imbedded phases in composite
materials: (a) fiber, (b) particle, and (c) flake
Fibers: usually circular in cross-section
• Diameters range from less than 0.0025 mm to about 0.13
mm, depending on material
• Filaments provide greatest opportunity for strength
enhancement of composites
− The filament form of most materials is significantly
stronger than the bulk form
− Size effect: as size/diameter is reduced, the material
becomes oriented in the fiber axis direction and
probability of defects in the structure decreases

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Continuous vs. Discontinuous Fibers
• Continuous fibers - very long; in theory, they offer a
continuous path by which a load can be carried by
the composite part

• Discontinuous fibers (chopped sections of continuous

fibers) - short lengths (L/D = roughly 100)

– Important type of discontinuous fiber are whiskers - hair-

like single crystals with diameters down to about 0.001
mm with very high strength

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Fiber Orientation
• One-dimensional reinforcement: maximum strength
and stiffness are obtained in the direction of the
fiber
• Planar reinforcement: in some cases in the form of
a two-dimensional woven fabric
• Random or three-dimensional: composite material
tends to possess isotropic properties

Figure 9.3 - Fiber orientation in composite materials: (a) one-dimensional,

continuous fibers; (b) planar, continuous fibers in the form of a woven fabric;
(c) random, discontinuous fibers

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Materials for Fibers
• Fiber materials in fiber-reinforced composites:
– Glass – most widely used filament
– Carbon – high elastic modulus
– Boron – very high elastic modulus
– Polymers – Kevlar (man-made fibres)
– Ceramics – SiC and Al2O3
– Metals - steel
• The most important commercial use of fibers
is in PMCs
Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Particles and Flakes
• A second common shape of imbedded phase is
particulate, ranging in size from microscopic to
macroscopic

• Flakes are basically two-dimensional particles - small

flat platelets

• Distribution of particles in the matrix is random, and

therefore strength and other properties of the
composite material are usually isotropic

• Strengthening mechanism depends on particle size

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Interface
• There is always an interface between constituent
phases in a composite material
• For the composite to operate effectively, the phases
must bond where they join at the interface

Figure 9.4 - Interfaces between phases in a composite material:

(a) direct bonding between primary and secondary phases

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Interphase
• In some cases, a third ingredient must be added
to achieve bonding of primary and secondary
phases
• Called an interphase, this third ingredient can be
thought of as an adhesive

Figure 9.4 - Interfaces between phases: (b) addition of a third

ingredient to bond the primary phases and form an interphase

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Other Types of Composite Structures
• Laminar composite structure – conventional
• Sandwich structure
• Honeycomb sandwich structure

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Laminar
Two or more layers bonded together in an integral
piece
• Example: plywood in which layers are the same
wood, but grains are oriented differently to
increase overall strength of the laminated piece

Figure 9.7 - Laminar composite

structures: (a) conventional laminar
structure

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Sandwich Structure – Foam Core
Consists of a relatively thick core of low density
foam bonded on both faces to thin sheets of a
different material

Figure 9.7 - Laminar

composite structures: (b)
sandwich structure using foam
core

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Sandwich Structure – Honeycomb Core
• An alternative to foam core
• Either foam or honeycomb achieves high
strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios

Figure 9.7 - Laminar

composite structures: (c)
sandwich structure using
honeycomb core

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
A polymer primary phase in which a secondary
phase is imbedded as fibers, particles, or flakes
• Commercially, PMCs are more important than
MMCs or CMCs

• Examples: most plastic molding compounds,

rubber reinforced with carbon black, and
fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs)

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 FRP Applications
• Aerospace – much of the structural weight of
today’s airplanes and helicopters consist of
advanced FRPs
• Automotive – some body panels for cars and
trucks
• Sports and recreation
– Fiberglass reinforced plastic has been used for
boat hulls since the 1940s
– Fishing rods, tennis rackets, golf club shafts,
helmets, skis, bows and arrows.

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Other Polymer Matrix Composites
• In addition to FRPs, other PMCs contain particles,
flakes, and short fibers as the secondary phase
• Called fillers when used in molding compounds
• Two categories:
1. Reinforcing fillers – used to strengthen or otherwise
improve mechanical properties
• Examples: wood flour in phenolic and amino resins; and
carbon black in rubber
2. Extenders – used to increase bulk and reduce cost per
unit weight, but little or no effect on mechanical
properties e.g. calcium carbonate

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Challenges for PMC Shape Processing
• Some of the PMC shaping processes are slow
and labor intensive
• In general, techniques for shaping composites
are less efficient than for other materials:
– Composite materials are more complex than other
materials
– For FRPs, there is the need to orient the reinforcing
phase
– Relatively new category of materials; less
development of manufacturing processes

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Categories of FRP Shape Processes
• Open mold processes - some of the original
manual procedures for laying resins and fibers onto
forms
• Closed mold processes - much the same as those
used in plastic molding
• Filament winding - continuous filaments are
dipped in liquid resin and wrapped around a
rotating mandrel, producing a rigid, hollow,
cylindrical shape
• Pultrusion - similar to extrusion only adapted to
include continuous fiber reinforcement
Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 15.1 -
Classification of
manufacturing
processes for
fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP)
composites

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Starting Materials for PMCs
• In a PMC, the starting materials are:
– A polymer
– A reinforcing phase

• These are processed separately before

becoming phases in the composite

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Polymer Matrix
• Thermosetting (TS) polymers are the most
common matrix materials - the principal TS
polymers are:
– Phenolics – used with particulate reinforcing phases
– Polyesters and epoxies - more closely associated with
FRPs
• Thermoplastic molding compounds are composite
materials that include fillers or reinforcing agents
• Most commercial elastomers are composite
materials since nearly all rubbers are reinforced
with carbon black

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Reinforcing Agent
• Possible geometries - fibers, particles, and
flakes
• Possible materials - ceramics, metals, other
polymers, or elements such as carbon or boron
• Particles and flakes are used in many plastic
molding compounds
• Of most engineering interest is the use of fibers
as the reinforcing phase

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Fibers as the Reinforcing Phase in FRPs
• Common fiber materials: glass, carbon, and
Kevlar (a polymer)
• In some fabrication processes, the filaments
are continuous, while in others, they are
chopped into short lengths
– In continuous form, individual filaments are
usually available as rovings - collections of
untwisted continuous strands, convenient for
handling
– By contrast, a yarn is a twisted collection of
filaments

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Fibers as the Reinforcing Phase –
Contd.
• The most familiar form of continuous fiber is a
cloth - a fabric of woven yarns
• Similar to a cloth is a woven roving, a fabric
consisting of untwisted filaments rather than
yarns
– Can be produced with unequal numbers of strands in
the two directions for greater strength in one direction
– Such unidirectional woven rovings are often preferred
in laminated FRP composites
Woven carbon fiber cloth.
Source: Wikipedia

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Mats and Preforms as
the Reinforcing Phase
• Fibers can also be in a mat form - a felt consisting
of randomly oriented short fibers held loosely
together with a binder, sometimes in a carrier
fabric
– Mats are commercially available as blankets of various
weights, thicknesses, and widths
– Mats can be cut and shaped for use as preforms in
some of the closed mold processes
• During molding, the resin impregnates the
preform and then cures, thus yielding a
fiber-reinforced molding

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Alternatives for Combining
Matrix and Reinforcement in PMCs
1. The starting materials arrive at the fabrication
operation as separate entities and are combined
into the composite during shaping
– Examples: filament winding and pultrusion, in which
reinforcing phase is continuous fibers
2. The two component materials are combined into
some starting form that is convenient for use in
the shaping process
– Molding compounds
– Prepregs

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Molding Compounds
FRP composite molding compounds consist of the
resin matrix with short randomly dispersed fibers

• Most molding compounds for composite processing

are thermosetting polymers

• Since they are designed for molding operations,

they must be capable of flowing – i.e., they have
not been cured prior to shape processing

• Curing is done during and/or after final shaping

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Process for sheet molding compound
Manufacture

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Source-Google Image
Source-Google Image
 Sheet Molding Compound

Thick Molding Compound-Thicker than SMC

Source-Google Image
Bulk/Dough Molding Compound

Source-Google Image
Pelletized Molding Compounds

Source-Google Image
 Prepregs
Fibers impregnated with partially cured TS resins to
facilitate shape processing
• Available as tapes or cross-plied sheets or fabrics
• Curing is completed during and/or after shaping
• Advantage: prepregs are fabricated with
continuous filaments rather than chopped
random fibers, thus increasing strength and
modulus

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Source-Google Image
Prepregs

Source-Google Image
 Open Mold Processes
Contact Lamination/Contact Molding
Family of FRP shaping processes that use a single positive or
negative mold surface to produce laminated FRP
structures

• The starting materials (resins, fibers, mats, and woven

rovings) are applied to the mold in layers, building up
to the desired thickness

• This is followed by curing and part removal

• Common resins are unsaturated polyesters and

epoxies, using fiberglass as the reinforcement

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Open Mold FRP Processes
1. Hand lay-up
2. Spray-up
3. Automated tape-laying machines

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Hand Lay-Up Method
Open mold shaping method in which successive
layers of resin and reinforcement are manually
applied to an open mold to build the
laminated FRP composite structure
• Labor-intensive
• Finished molding must usually be trimmed with a
power saw to size outside edges
• Oldest open mold method for FRP laminates,
dating to the 1940s when it was first used for boat
hulls

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 15.4 - Hand lay-up : (1) mold is treated with mold release agent; (2)
thin gel coat (resin, colored) is applied, to be the outside surface of
molding; (3) when gel coat has partially set, layers of resin and fiber are
applied, the fiber is in the form of mat or cloth; each layer is rolled to
impregnate the fiber with resin and remove air; (4) part is cured; (5)
fully hardened part is removed from mold

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Mold Materials
• Plaster
• GFRP
• Metals

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Products Made by Hand Lay-Up
• Generally large in size but low in production
quantity - not economical for high production
– In addition to boat hulls, other applications
include: swimming pools, large container tanks,
stage props, etc.
– The largest moldings ever made were ship hulls
for the British Royal Navy: 85 m (280 ft) long

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Spray-Up Method
Liquid resin and chopped fibers are sprayed onto
an open mold to build successive FRP
laminations
• It is an attempt to mechanize application of
resin-fiber layers and reduce lay-up time
• It is an alternative for step (3) in the hand
lay-up procedure

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Figure 15.5 - Spray-up method

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Random orientation of fibre, in opposition to
hand-lay
• Fibre content limited to 35%, against 65% in
hand lay
• Spray gun-Manual or automated
• Rolling is required after each lay-up

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Products Made by Spray-Up
• Boat hulls, bathtubs, shower stalls, automobile
and truck body parts, recreational vehicle
components, furniture, large structural panels,
and containers
• Movie and stage props are sometimes made by
this method
• Since products made by spray-up have randomly
oriented short fibers, they are not as strong as those
made by lay-up, in which the fibers are continuous
and directed

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Automated Tape-Laying Machines
Automated tape-laying machines operate by
dispensing a prepreg tape onto an open mold
following a programmed path
• The typical machine consists of an overhead
gantry to which the dispensing head is
attached
• The gantry permits x-y-z travel of the head, for
positioning and following a defined
continuous path

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Figure 15.6 - Automated tape-laying machine

(courtesy Cincinnati Milacron)

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Curing in Open Mold Processes
• Curing is required of all thermosetting resins
used in FRP laminated composites
• Curing cross-links the polymer, transforming
it from its liquid or highly plastic condition
into a hardened product
• Three principal process parameters in curing:
1. Time
2. Temperature
3. Pressure

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Curing at Room Temperature
• Curing normally occurs at room temperature
for the TS resins used in hand lay-up and
spray-up procedures
– Moldings made by these processes are often large
(e.g., boat hulls), and heating would be difficult
– In some cases, days are required before room
temperature curing is sufficiently complete to
remove the part

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Curing Methods that Use Heating
• Oven curing provides heat at closely controlled
temperatures; some curing ovens are equipped
to draw a partial vacuum
• Infrared heating can be used in applications
where it is impractical to place the molding in an
oven
• Curing in an autoclave provides control over both
temperature and pressure
– Autoclave - an enclosed chamber equipped to apply
heat and/or pressure at controlled levels
– In FRP composites processing, it is usually a large
horizontal cylinder with doors at either end, used by
aerospace industry

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Closed Mold Processes
• Performed in molds consisting of two sections
that open and close each molding cycle
• Tooling cost is more
• Advantages
• good finish on all part surfaces,
• higher production rates,
• closer control over tolerances, and
• more complex three-dimensional shapes are
possible

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Classification of Closed Mold Processes
• Three classes based on their counterparts in
conventional plastic molding:
1. Compression molding
2. Transfer molding
3. Injection molding

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Compression Molding PMC
Processes
A charge is placed in the lower mold section, and the
sections are brought together under pressure, causing the
charge to take the shape of the cavity
• The mold halves are heated to cure the TS polymer
• When the molding is sufficiently cured, the mold is
opened and the part is removed

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• There are several shaping processes for PMCs
based on compression molding; the
differences are mostly in the form of the
starting materials
– SMC-Sheet molding compound molding
– BMC-Bulk molding compound molding
– TMC-Thick molding compound molding

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Preform Molding
• Placement of a precut mat into the lower
mold section
• Plus polymer resin charge (pellets or sheets)
• Pressed
• Causing the resin to flow, which impregnate
the mat
• Curing
• Molding ready
Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Elastic Reservoir Molding
• Curing produces a lightweight part consisting
of a low density core and thin FRP skins

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Transfer Molding PMC Processes
A charge of thermosetting resin with short fibers is placed in a
pot or chamber, heated, and squeezed by ram action into one
or more mold cavities
– The mold is heated to cure the resin
– The name of the process derives from the fact that the
fluid polymer is transferred from a pot into a mold

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Resin Transfer Molding
• A preform mat is placed in the lower mold section, the mold is
closed, and a thermosetting resin (e.g., polyester resin) is
transferred into the cavity under moderate pressure to
impregnate the preform.

• To confuse matters, RTM is sometimes called resin injection

molding

• RTM has been used to manufacture such products as

bathtubs, swimming pool shells, bench and chair seats, and
hulls for small boats.

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Advanced RTM
• Several enhancements of the basic RTM
process have been developed
• One enhancement, called advanced RTM,
• uses high-strength polymers such as epoxy
resins and continuous fiber reinforcement
instead of mats.
• Applications include aerospace components,
missile fins, and snow skis.

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Thermal expansion resin transfer molding

• Thermal expansion resin transfer molding (TERTM)

consists :
• A rigid polymer foam (e.g., polyurethane) is shaped
into a preform.
• The preform is enclosed in a fabric reinforcement and
placed in a closed mold.
• A thermosetting resin (e.g., epoxy) is injected into the
mold to impregnate the fabric and surround the foam.
• The mold is heated to expand the foam, fill the mold
cavity, and cure the resin.
Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Injection Molding PMC Processes
• Injection molding is noted for low cost
production of plastic parts in large quantities
• Although most closely associated with
thermoplastics, the process can also be
adapted to thermosets
• Processes of interest in the context of PMCs:
– Conventional injection molding
– Reinforced reaction injection molding

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Conventional Injection Molding
• Used for both TP and TS type FRPs
• Virtually all TP polymers can be reinforced with
fibers
• Chopped fibers must be used; if continuous, the
fibers would be reduced by the action of the
rotating screw in the barrel anyway
• During injection into the mold cavity, the fibers
tend to become aligned as they pass the nozzle
– Designers can sometimes exploit this feature to
optimize directional properties in the part

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding
Reaction injection molding (RIM) - two reactive
ingredients are mixed and injected into a mold
cavity where curing and solidification occur
due to chemical reaction rather than heat

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Reinforced Reaction Injection
Molding - 2
Reinforced reaction injection molding (RRIM)
is a closely related process that includes
reinforcing fibers, typically glass, in the
mixture
• Advantages: similar to RIM (e.g., no heat
energy required, lower cost mold), with the
added benefit of fiber-reinforcement
• Products: auto body and truck cab
applications for bumpers, fenders, and
other body parts

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Filament Winding
Resin-impregnated continuous fibers are wrapped
around a rotating mandrel that has the internal
shape of the desired FRP product; the resin is
then cured and the mandrel removed

• The fiber rovings are pulled through a resin bath

• The operation is repeated to form additional

layers, each having a criss-cross pattern with the
previous, until the desired part thickness has
been obtained

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Figure 15.8 - Filament winding

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Figure 15.10 - Filament winding machine
(courtesy Cincinnati Milacron)

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Methods for Impregnation of Fibers
• Wet winding, in which the filament is pulled through
the liquid resin just before winding,

• Prepreg winding (dry winding), in which filaments

pre-impregnated with partially cured resin are
wrapped around a heated mandrel; and

• Postimpregnation, in which filaments are wound

onto a mandrel and then impregnated with resin by
brushing or other technique

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Two basic winding patterns in filament winding:
(a) helical and (b) polar
Vc- Speed of carriage

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Operation resembles that of lathe
• Computer numerical control (CNC) also
possible, especially contoured shapes
• Mandrels-
– Inflatable/deflatable,
– collapsible,
– soluble salt/plaster mandrels

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Applications
• Aerospace: Rocket-motor cases, missile bodies,
radomes, helicopter blades, and airplane tail sections
and stabilizers [Epoxy resins+reinforced with fibers of
carbon, boron, Kevlar, and glass.

• Commercial applications include storage tanks,

reinforced pipes and tubing, drive shafts, wind-
turbine blades, and lightning rods; these are made of
conventional FRPs.

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Pultrusion Processes
Similar to extrusion (hence the name similarity) but
workpiece is pulled through die (so prefix "pul-" in place of
"ex-")

• Like extrusion, pultrusion produces continuous straight

sections of constant cross-section

• Developed around 1950 for making fishing rods of glass

fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)

• A related process, called pulforming, is used to make parts

that are curved and which may have variations in
cross-section throughout their lengths

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Pultrusion
Continuous fiber rovings are dipped into a resin
bath and pulled through a shaping die where the
impregnated resin cures
• The sections produced are reinforced throughout
their length by continuous fibers
• Like extrusion, the pieces have a constant
cross-section, whose profile is determined by the
shape of the die opening
• The cured product is cut into long straight
sections

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Figure 15.11 - Pultrusion process

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Materials and Products in Pultrusion
• Common resins: unsaturated polyesters, epoxies,
and silicones, all thermosetting polymers

• Reinforcing phase: E-glass is most widely, in

proportions from 30% to 70%

• Products: Solid rods, tubing, long flat sheets,

structural sections (such as channels, angled and
flanged beams), tool handles for high voltage
work, and third rail covers for subways.

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Pulforming
• Pultrusion with additional steps to form
– the length into a semicircular contour and
– alter the cross-section at one or more
locations along the length

– Pulforming is suited to these less regular

shapes

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Figure 15.12 - Pulforming process
(Important application: Leaf springs)

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Other PMC Shaping Processes
• Centrifugal casting
• Tube rolling
• Continuous laminating
• Cutting of FRPs
• In addition, many of the traditional thermoplastic
shaping processes are applicable to FRPs (with
short fibers) based on TP polymers; these include
– Blow molding
– Thermoforming
– Extrusion

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Tube Rolling

FIGURE 15.13 Tube rolling, showing (a) one possible means of

wrapping FRP prepregs around a mandrel, and (b) the
completed tube after curing and removal of mandrel.

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Such tubes are used in bicycle frames and
space trusses.
• In the process, a precut prepreg sheet is
wrapped around a cylindrical mandrel several
times to obtain a tube wall of multiple sheet
thicknesses.
• The rolled sheets are then encased in a heat-
shrinking sleeve and oven cured.
• As the sleeve contracts, entrapped gases are
squeezed out the ends of the tube.
Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Cutting Methods
• Cutting of FRP laminated composites is
required in both uncured and cured states
• Uncured materials (prepregs, preforms, SMCs,
and other starting forms):
– Must be cut to size for lay-up, molding, etc.
– Typical cutting tools: knives, scissors, power
shears, and steel-rule blanking dies
– Nontraditional methods are also used, such as
laser beam cutting and water jet cutting

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Steel-rule blanking dies

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Cutting Methods - continued
• Cured FRPs are hard, tough, abrasive, and
difficult-to-cut
– Cutting is required in many FRP products to trim
excess material, cut holes and outlines, and so on
– For glass FRPs, cemented carbide cutting tools and
high speed steel saw blades can be used - for some
advanced composites (e.g., boron-epoxy), diamond
cutting tools cut best
– Water jet cutting is also used, to reduce dust and
noise problems with conventional sawing methods

Adapted from “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” M. P. Groover, 2nd Ed., 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.