Qualitative Research Journal

Using Narratives as a Research Strategy

Coral Pepper Helen Wildy
Article information:
To cite this document:
Coral Pepper Helen Wildy, (2009),"Using Narratives as a Research Strategy", Qualitative Research Journal, Vol. 9 Iss 2 pp.
18 - 26
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902018
Downloaded on: 22 February 2016, At: 13:33 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 0 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 502 times since 2009*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Glenn A. Bowen, (2009),"Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method", Qualitative Research Journal, Vol. 9 Iss 2
pp. 27-40 http://dx.doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

Sumathi Renganathan, (2009),"Exploring the Researcher-Participant Relationship in a Multiethnic, Multicultural and

Multilingual Context Through Reflexivity", Qualitative Research Journal, Vol. 9 Iss 2 pp. 3-17 http://dx.doi.org/10.3316/
QRJ0902003
Sharon Thomas, (2012),"Narrative inquiry: embracing the possibilities", Qualitative Research Journal, Vol. 12 Iss 2 pp.
206-221 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/14439881211248356

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:540409 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit
www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

 Using Narratives as a Research
Strategy
Coral Pepper
THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Pepper, Coral & Wildy, Helen, 2009, 'Using Narratives as a Research Strategy', Qualitative Research Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 18-26. DOI 10.3316/QRJ0902018. This is a peer-reviewed article.

Helen Wildy
THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA

ABSTRACT

This paper reports on our use of narrative accounts in qualitative research about educational leadership
in Western Australia. Data for the research were gathered through semistructured interviews. We
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

wanted to know whether interview data constructed as narrative accounts then analysed would help
us understand the phenomenon of leading for sustainability. We had used this approach previously
(Wildy & Pepper, 2005; Clarke, Wildy & Pepper, 2007) in our examination of school leadership. Our
commitment to an interpretive approach (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990; Kvale, 1996), to delve into our
participants’ understanding of their experiences remains strong. Rich insights into the experiences
of participants are revealed in narrative accounts crafted from semistructured interviews. Stories and
descriptions of experience are given status when presented as narratives so contribute to participants’
wellbeing and meet the criteria for ‘good educational research’. In this paper we describe collecting
data, constructing narratives, confirming quality and conducting analysis to describe the ‘wakefulness’
and transparency we adhere to when using narrative accounts as a research strategy.
Keywords: Narrative accounts, research strategy.
We report on the use of narrative accounts in qualitative research about educational leadership
in Western Australia (Clarke, Wildy & Pepper, 2007; Pepper, 2007; Pepper & Wildy, 2008;
Wildy & Pepper, 2005). Narratives, sometimes called vignettes or creative nonfiction, permit
life-like accounts of individual experience and offer an opportunity to value the experience
of others. In so doing, narratives might also be considered to contribute to peoples’ wellbeing
and thus support the criteria for ‘good educational research’ (Hostetler, 2005).
Narratives don’t just happen. Several stages exist in the development and use of narratives
in research, and each stage requires careful attention. To begin, data are collected. If planned
carefully, data collection using individual semistructured interviews permit participants to
describe their own experiences in an informal and relaxed setting. Shaping the narrative
from field text is the next stage and is followed by narrative analysis. In this discussion we
describe collecting data, constructing narratives, confirming quality and conducting analysis.

COLLECTING DATA
Semistructured interviews enable conversation, that is, face-to-face encounters, to be used
to obtain field texts. Interviews are relational and provide an experience for both the researcher
and the interviewee (Mishler, 1986). Furthermore, semistructured interviews facilitate a less
formal conversation where both parties may interact as relative equals. The quality of the
information obtained is dependent on the skill of the interviewer: as the way the interviewer
acts, questions and responds in an interview shapes the relationship. Similarly the setting,
time and degree of formality established also influences participant responses and the depth

© RMIT Publishing, http://www.rmitpublishing.com.au/qrj.html

 Coral Pepper & Helen Wildy,'Using Narratives as a Research Strategy' | 19

of information elicited. Semistructured interviews are described by Kvale (1996) as a craft

bordering on art when carried out well.
For our research that investigated leading for sustainability, we prepared an interview
guide prior to conducting semistructured interviews simply to ensure the same basic lines
of inquiry were pursued initially. Participants were encouraged to talk about their experiences
of, for example, teaching education for sustainability, or leadership, and to address issues of
importance to them. We offered prompts to guide the conversation towards their experience
of beginning, developing, implementing and leading others. Similarly, prompts were used
to elucidate participants’ background, personal highlights, setbacks and critical incidents in
educating for sustainability or leadership. This format enabled a number of people to be
interviewed in a systematic and comprehensive fashion while allowing for different experiences
to be articulated. This is similar to the method adopted in other studies (Wildy & Pepper,
2005; Conle, 2003; Louden & Wildy, 1999).
Field text is shaped by researchers’ selective interest or disinterest so the material gathered
is interpretive (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). Such text is framed by the interpretive process
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

of both researcher and participant, as participants interpret researcher comments just as their
own comments are interpreted. Thus, neither researcher nor participant is neutral due to
their own values and personal histories (Freeman, deMarrais, Preissle, Roulston, & St. Pierre,
2007). In our study, we chose when to turn on the tape, what to write down and which in-
formation to seek clarification about. During the interview we selected when to respond,
for example by smiling, nodding or seeking clarification. Similarly, participants selected the
information they were willing to share. In writing field notes we acknowledge our role of
initial filter in deciding which parts of data to be important to record and which to leave
out. Throughout the process we remained mindful that the quality of the information ob-
tained during an interview was largely dependent on us, the interviewers. As is customary
for such research, we allocated all participants pseudonyms to ensure anonymity.

Constructing Narratives
Narratives permit life-like accounts that focus on experience, hence their alignment with
qualitatively oriented educational research. They provide a framework and context for
making meaning of life situations. Narratives are not the same as interview data or field
notes. To create narratives the interview data is processed to describe factual information
provided by and about the participants from the field texts. Narratives enable participants’
stories and descriptions of experience to be honoured and given status (Conle, 2003). This
also supports the criteria for ‘good educational research’ according to Hostetler (2005) as it
contributes to people’s wellbeing. A sense of the whole picture is built from a rich data source
with a focus on the concrete particularities of life that create powerful narrative accounts.
Table 1, ‘Everyone knows about the environment’, is an example of a narrative developed
from an interview in our study. The teacher, a well-known environmental educator, is dis-
mayed to learn at the completion of an approved secondment from his previous school that
his return is not welcomed. He is disillusioned to learn the thriving and externally recognised
program he introduced has floundered during his absence.
Historical influences that shaped narrative inquiry began with John Dewey who recognised
two inseparable criteria of experience; continuity and interaction (Clandinin & Connelly,
2000). Continuity refers to the idea that experiences grow from prior experiences and lead
into future experiences. For example, in the narrative ‘Everybody knows about the environ-
ment’ the interviewee describes his initiatives, their development and eventual collapse. In-
 20 | Qualitative Research Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 2009

teraction refers to the notion that people need to be understood not only as individuals but
also as individuals in a social context. In the narrative below, for example, as a committed
environmentalist the teacher’s distress is palpable when attempting to return to his school
setting. In developing narratives of experience Clandinin and Connelly (2000) identified
some of the major tensions present. According to these writers, issues of continuity led to
tensions of temporality, people, action and certainty while issues of interaction led to tensions
of context, people, action and certainty.
Table 1: Everybody Knows About the Environment

When the administration team at my previous school was looking for a specialist theme to introduce for our metropolitan sec-
ondary school, I proposed Environmental Studies. Initially, there was little support from the staff. I tried to encourage other
teachers to join in. Students were keen to join the Environmental Club I initiated and willing to attend during lunch and after
school hours. Many of these students were generally thought of as nurturing girls and social fringe boys looking for a cause to
support. Several teachers, while unwilling to introduce environmental studies into their classes, were happy to support our
activities out of class time.
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

During my five years at this school the environmental studies program expanded and gained legitimacy. Eventually, all departments
centred one fifth of their curriculum around sustainability issues. Business Studies classes began selling native trees to the
community and supplying native trees for the wetland area established on the school grounds. The Home Economics classes
established a worm farm, developed and maintained their own herb garden and recycled kitchen wastes.

I saw student self esteem improve, vandalism decrease and we received several Education Department awards. Students gained
the confidence to take responsibility for running the Environmental Club and represented the club and the school at national
and international meetings. While this was a huge success for the school, there was little acknowledgement for the staff involved.
I felt burnt out, even though I was thrilled with the program’s success. I was ready for a break. When offered a consultancy by
a nearby university I took long service leave.

However, when I wanted to return to the school the principal told me she was happy with the teacher replacing me. She suggested
I look for a position in another school.

But I was even more disappointed as the strong and thriving program I left, crumbled. When I asked the principal ‘Why has the
program collapsed even under your leadership?’ she replied, ‘Everybody knows about the environment. There’s no need for it
now’.

Temporality is a central feature of narrative writing: we generally think about events by

locating them in time. Narratives are set in a stated time period with a sequence of events
linked through time. In ‘Everybody knows about the environment’ events occur over a five-
year period. People featured in narrative writings, for example the teacher and the principal
in the above narrative, are always significant and often involved in a process of personal
change. Action of some type features in narratives with its historical significance identified
to highlight its relevance and assist with interpretation. Constructing narratives involves
grappling with issues of certainty. Events as they are described can always be interpreted in
a variety of ways. The aim of the narrative writer is to produce an ethical, honest interpreta-
tion of the data while being aware other interpretations are possible. Creating narratives also
involves tension centred on context. In any situation, context counts. Context is essential
for making sense of any person, action or event. In writing narratives the person in context
is of prime interest and the purpose is to make meaning of their experiences, and to share
understanding with readers.
Such tensions are considered in crafting narratives and are viewed as interconnected
rather than inseparable and independent factors (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). Narrative
 Coral Pepper & Helen Wildy,'Using Narratives as a Research Strategy' | 21

accounts are useful and educationally important because they bring theoretical ideas about
the nature of human life as lived to bear on educational experience as lived (Connelly &
Clandinin, 1990).
Crafting narratives involves skill and talent and evolves rather than develops through es-
tablished methods. Constructing narratives requires the recognition and selection of signi-
ficant rather than trivial information, and is described by Eisner (1985) as ‘connoisseurship’.
To be a connoisseur, according to this author, is to know how to look, see and appreciate
what is subtle, important and complex in order to understand events taking place, in an in-
telligible context. Constructing narratives is described by Eisner as ‘artistic reconstruction’
of what is observed in order to assist the reader experience the actions and interactions in a
life-like manner (Eisner, 1985, p. 229). Thus, field texts permit the richness and complexity
of the interview to be preserved and reconstructed into narratives. Field text is interpretive
and constructed by a researcher at a certain moment in time. Selectivity has already taken
place in foregrounding one aspect over another and making other aspects less visible in the
field texts. For example, during the interview from which the narrative ‘Everybody knows
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

about the environment’ was generated, the participant described his teaching load, lack of
preparation for teaching time and his difficulty arranging student excursions. However, since
these points were not related to the theme chosen, we didn’t refer to them in the narrative.
Writing narratives is similar to photography, where one image is presented but another quite
different could be presented at another time, depending on the context and the participants.
On another occasion the participant may have discussed different issues or even the same
issues differently.
Narratives are written in the active, first-person voice to explicate the participant’s per-
spective. The narrative is constructed to facilitate telling a worthwhile story and to ensure
it is recognised as a case of … something. Events are retold in sequence to create a sense of
the story unfolding. Each narrative we constructed is 300 to 400 words in length to permit
sufficient contextual detail to describe the situation. This length also permits enough credible
information to depict the situation, yet remain succinct. Such narratives are capable of cap-
turing the uniqueness and familiarity of a recognisable situation. When appropriate, dialogue
is used to capture the participant’s language and voice. In ‘Everybody knows about the en-
vironment’ dialogue from both characters is included to capture the essence of the story.
Colloquialism, jargon and local acronyms are all avoided. For each narrative we developed
a theme and selected a title in consultation with each participant. While keeping the context,
community and participant information accurate, some small details may be fictionalised
to ensure settings and participants cannot be traced. For example, the time of day or the day
of the week may be altered if the information has no bearing on the outcome. In ‘Everybody
knows about the environment’ school subject names are altered.
Individual data were returned in draft narrative form to each participant for feedback
and approval of its use in the research. Rather than ask participants, ‘Have I got it right?’ or
‘Is this what you said?’, we asked instead, ‘Is this you? Do you see yourself here?’ Without
exception participants approved the use of the narrative developed from their interview field
notes, sometimes after requesting minor adjustments. Several participants commented pos-
itively on the lucid representation of their jumbled interview thoughts and comments.
 22 | Qualitative Research Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 2009

CONFIRMING QUALITY
In conducting any type of research it is not possible to attain complete validity and reliability
(LeCompte & Goetz, 1982). Narrative, like other qualitative methods, relies on criteria
other than validity, reliability and generalisability (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). These
criteria are closely associated with experimental and scientific research with strong elements
of causality. Cause and effect has no place in narrative experience (Connelly & Clandinin,
1990; Crites, 1986). Instead the narrative represents a case of something, including both a
general concept and also concrete illustrative particulars. This point further highlights the
craft required to create narrative accounts.
Narrative accounts, like other forms of qualitative research, rely on additional criteria to
ensure trustworthiness. These criteria include apparency (visible, obvious) and verisimilitude
(life-likeness), as proposed by van Maanen (1988), which shift the emphasis from generalis-
ability to recognisability in the field of the research text. Similarly, Guba and Lincoln (1989)
propose the term transferability, to replace the emphasis on generalisability. These writers
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

argue that generalisability infers the ability to generalise findings across different settings
with an element of prediction and control. They also argue that generalisability assumes that
different situations are context free. In its place, Guba and Lincoln (1989) offer the term
transferability to refer to the degree of similarity between the situation studied and the
situation being compared. Thus, the transferability of the account is determined by readers
rather than the researcher.
Well-crafted narratives are identified as having an explanatory, invitational quality, with
evidence of authenticity, that is, elements of adequacy and plausibility (Connelly & Cland-
inin, 1990). Readers connect by recognising particulars, imagining the scenes the particulars
occur in and by reconstructing them from memories of their own to recognise a narrative
as authentic (Rosen, 1988). Plausible accounts ring true and may result in the reader saying,
‘I can see that happening’ or even ‘That’s how it was for me too’. Furthermore, the aim of
the writer is to include sufficient detail so that narrative accounts resonate to make spontan-
eous connection with sections of a reader’s life.
In creating narrative accounts from the interview process there are risks the process may
be open to abuse. One way we endeavoured to assure participants of our research integrity
was to provide each with a copy of the narrative we crafted from the field notes written
during our semistructured interview. Such action also served to confirm our interpretation
of the information provided and to ensure participants approved all aspects of the narrative.
In addition, this practice signalled our willingness to share knowledge and power with the
participants. While constructing narratives we remained mindful that although participants
presented information they perceived as factual, it was possible they were relying on memory
reconstruction of their own. Thus, it is possible a muddled distinction between fact and
fiction exists even before narrative construction is begun.
Throughout the process of constructing narratives ongoing reflection, or ‘wakefulness’,
is necessary (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). Wakefulness ensures attention to what is being
written and how it is being written. It enables further learning about narrative construction
throughout the inquiry process, from the field to the final research text. In selecting a language
of wakefulness rather than criticism it is possible to move forward, constantly alert to the
risks of narcissism, simplistic plots and one-dimensional characters when constructing nar-
ratives.
 Coral Pepper & Helen Wildy,'Using Narratives as a Research Strategy' | 23

COMPLETING ANALYSIS
Rich insights into the experiences of participants are revealed in narrative accounts crafted
from the semistructured interviews. Analysing narrative text involves identifying themes and
subthemes. These sometimes require further culling to a manageable few and linking these
into theoretical models (Ryan & Bernard, 2003). Inductive analysis is used to organise,
synthesise and identify critical themes emerging from the data. Decisions are then necessary
to select what will be reported to others (Malterud, 2001).
To begin the narrative analysis in our studies we became immersed in proofreading and
re-reading the narratives, before we began open coding to identify themes (Glaser & Strauss,
1967). We numbered all narrative lines then underlined key phrases, and listed what these
were expressions of, alongside the narrative. For example, ‘Everybody knows about the en-
vironment’ was initially coded for passionate involvement, resilience, influence on others
and knowledge of sustainability. Writing a short summary about each narrative to acknow-
ledge what the narrative depicted was the next step and once this was finished for all narrat-
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

ives, the primary sweep through our data was complete.

The next step was to identify issues, patterns and themes across the narratives. Key phrases
underlined previously in each narrative were transferred to ‘post it’ notes. We looked for
repetitions of words, topics and ideas, referred to as recurring regularities by Guba (1978),
and grouped them together. We also looked for similarities and differences across units of
data called the constant comparison method by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and grouped these
together. Each of these conceptual categories was tentatively named according to the phe-
nomena they represented. In our study we called these, for example, recognising barriers,
levels and sources of support, participant history, levels of interest, dilemmas faced, and
strategies to overcome.
After recording the first round of themes we repeated the process combining different
collections of phrases. We also considered information missing from a narrative while present
in others, such as descriptions of collaboration, and looked for examples of analogies and
metaphors. By sorting, then re-sorting, the phrases into groups that appeared to go together,
we identified a large number of themes. In breaking down the raw data into manageable
chunks and naming each category we documented an audit trail. Not all themes were of
equal importance, and our next step was to exercise judgement, to identify those most signi-
ficant to our study. After axial coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) across the study we recog-
nised the themes: displaying emotion, looking forward, developing strategies, interpreting
sustainability, building resilience and sharing responsibility.
Documenting the process maximises clarity of the process and explicates understanding
that what is claimed to be analysed is being analysed (Ryan & Bernard, 2003). Each of the
themes we identified is perceived as part of a continuum with one end point to represent
an ‘abundance of’ and the opposite end point to represent an ‘absence of’. Understanding
the structure of each theme in this way enhanced our understanding and interpretation to
acknowledge the possibility of both strong and weak occurrences. On some occasions the
absence of evidence of a conceptual category provided a contrast between cases and was
therefore significant.
The final stage of narrative analysis in our study was to locate the data within the relevant
literature dealing with leadership, leading for change and education for sustainability. To
achieve this we searched backwards and forwards between the literature and the data themes
 24 | Qualitative Research Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 2009

for discussion items describing the leadership of sustainability in some Western Australian
schools.
Skill and influence persistently feature in the literature as the qualities essential for suc-
cessful leadership (Locke et al., 1991; Stogdill, 1950). Both of these qualities operate in
tandem so that leadership fundamentally involves completing tasks through and with other
people. Strong interpersonal skills to facilitate communication and collaboration of future
vision are examples of leadership skills. Examples of influence in educational leadership may
include enthusing, then supporting others to join initiatives, offering others learning oppor-
tunities and modelling desirable behaviours.
Contemporary models of educational leadership involve morals, values and ethics, and
involve some realigning of educational culture to pursue shared goals for change (Burns,
1978; Day, Harris, Hadfield, Tolley, & Beresford, 2000, Sergiovanni, 1992). We focused
on three contemporary conceptualisations of educational leadership—transformational
leadership (Leithwood, 1994), distributed leadership (Spillane, Halverson, & Diamond,
2001) and sustainable leadership (Hargreaves & Fink, 2006).
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

Notwithstanding the meticulous care taken in all stages of the study, all research is
bounded by place and time. In our study, using narratives as a research strategy, all parti-
cipants were interviewed until we were each satisfied the topic was exhausted, or could be
continued on another occasion. Nevertheless, had more follow-up interviews occurred the
study may have been longitudinal rather than snapshot in nature, and alternative issues
identified in the narrative accounts. As this is the nature of creating narrative accounts, it is
not of concern though important to acknowledge. Furthermore, such feasible variation could
impact on the selection of themes identified within our data analysis.

SUMMARY
Narrative accounts offer a powerful research strategy in educational leadership studies. They
permit rich insights into the experiences of participants and are aligned with qualitatively
oriented educational research. Narratives provide a means for participants’ stories and exper-
ience to be honoured and given status. Data are gathered during semistructured interviews
with participants encouraged to ‘tell their story’ from each individual’s unique perspective.
Such interviews are designed to obtain descriptions of the interpreted life world of the inter-
viewee. Field texts, shaped by both the researcher and the participant, are developed through
the interpretive process into narratives. Throughout narrative construction ‘wakefulness’ or
ongoing reflection is vital to ensure that the essential criteria of trustworthiness, transferab-
ility and resonance are evident. An inductive analysis of narrative accounts is recommended
to identify and synthesise themes within and across narratives. In our study themes were
identified after open coding which was strengthened by a second analysis. Through inductive
analysis issues, patterns and themes were identified for discussion and all conceptual categories
were named to describe the phenomena they represented. While acknowledging the inter-
pretive nature of our research, documenting an audit trail provides transparency to the
analysis process. Our qualities as researchers include the insight and the ability to give
meaning to data and the capacity to understand and to separate the pertinent from the irrel-
evant. The credibility of our research remains dependent on the confidence readers have in
our sensitivity to the data and ability to make appropriate decisions in the field.
 Coral Pepper & Helen Wildy,'Using Narratives as a Research Strategy' | 25

REFERENCES
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper and Row.
Clandinin, D. J. & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative
research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Clarke, S. R. P., Wildy, H. & Pepper, C. (2007). Connecting preparation with reality: Primary
principals’ experiences of their first year out in Western Australia. Leading & Managing, 13(1),
81–90.
Conle, C. (2003). An anatomy of narrative curricula. Educational Researcher, 32(3), 3–15. [CrossRef]
Connelly, F. M. & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational
Researcher, 19(5), 2–14.
Crites, S. (1986). Storytime: Recollecting the past and projecting the future. In T. R. Sarbin (Ed.),
The storied nature of human conduct, New York: Praeger, 152–173.
Day, C., Harris, A., Hadfield, M., Tolley, H. & Beresford, J. (2000). Leading schools in times of
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

change. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Eisner, E. W. (1985). The educational imagination: On the design and evaluation of school programs
(2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Freeman, M., deMarrais, K., Preissle, J., Roulston, K. & St. Pierre, E. (2007). Standards of evidence
in qualitative research: An incitement to discourse. Educational Researcher, 36(1), 25–32.
[CrossRef]
Glaser, B. G. & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative re-
search. New York: Aldine.
Guba, E. G. (1978). Toward a methodology of naturalistic inquiry in educational evaluation. Los
Angeles: Center for the Study of Evaluation.
Guba, E. G. & Lincoln, Y. S. (1989). Personal communication. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.
Hargreaves, A. & Fink, D. (2006). Sustainable leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hostetler, K. (2005). What is ‘good’ education research? Educational Researcher, 34(6), 16–21.
[CrossRef]
Kvale, S. (1996). An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
LeCompte, M. D. & Goetz, J. P. (1982). Problems of reliability and validity in ethnographic research.
Review of Educational Research, 52(1), 31–60.
Leithwood, K. (1994). Leadership for school restructuring. Educational Administration Quarterly,
30(4), 498–518. [CrossRef]
Locke, E. A., Kirkpatrick, S., Wheeler, J. K., Schneider, J., Niles, K. & Goldstein, H., et al. (1991).
The essence of leadership: The four keys to leading successfully. New York: Lexington Books.
Louden, W. & Wildy, H. (1999). Circumstance and proper timing: Context and the construction
of a standards framework for school principals' performance. Educational Administration Quarterly,
35(3), 398–422. [CrossRef]
Malterud, K. (2001). Qualitative research: Standards, challenges and guidelines. The Lancet,
358(9280), 483–488. [CrossRef]
Mishler, E. G. (1986). Research interviewing: Context and narrative. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Pepper, C. (2007). Leading for sustainability. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Murdoch University,
Perth.
Pepper, C. & Wildy, H. (2008). Leading for sustainability: Is surface understanding enough?
Journal of Educational Administration, 46(5), 613–629. [CrossRef]
Rosen, B. (1988). The autobiographical impulse. In D. Tannen (Ed.), Linguistics in context: Con-
necting observation and understanding, Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 69–88.
Ryan, G. W. & Bernard, H. R. (2003). Techniques to identify themes. Field Methods, 15(1), 85–109.
[CrossRef]
 26 | Qualitative Research Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 2009

Sergiovanni, T. J. (1992). Moral leadership: Getting to the heart of school improvement. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Spillane, J. P., Halverson, R. & Diamond, J. B. (2001). Investigating school leadership practice: A
distributed perspective. Educational Researcher, 30(3), 23–28. [CrossRef]
Stogdill, R. M. (1950). Leadership, membership and organisation. Psychological Bulletin, 47(1),
1–14. [CrossRef]
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and
techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
van Maanen, J. (1988). Tales of the field: On writing ethnography. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Wildy, H. & Pepper, C. (2005). Using narratives to develop standards for leaders: Applying an in-
novative approach in Western Australia. Educational Research and Perspectives, 32(2), 122–141.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Coral Pepper is the Problem Based Learning Lecturer and Coordinator for the Climate Studies Initi-
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

ative for the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences at the University of Western Australia,
Perth. Her additional interests include Educational Leadership and Education for Sustainability.

Coral Pepper
Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences
The University of Western Australia
Stirling Highway
Crawley 6009
Western Australia
Australia
Phone: +61 8 6488 1495
Email: cpepper@cyllene.uwa.edu.au

Helen Wildy is Winthrop Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Education at the University of Western
Australia, Perth. Her research interests relate to leadership in schools using both qualitative and
quantitative approaches, with particular emphasis on the use of narrative to represent qualitative
data.

Helen Wildy
Graduate School of Education
The University of Western Australia
Stirling Highway
Crawley 6009
Western Australia
Australia
Phone: +61 8 6488 1709
Email: helen.wildy@uwa.edu.au
 This article has been cited by:

1. Elaine Sharplin, Sanna Peden, Ida Marais. 2016. Making the grade: describing inherent requirements for the initial teacher
education practicum. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education 1-18. [CrossRef]
2. Frank L. K. Ohemeng, Hamza B. Zakari, Augustina Adusah-Karikari. 2015. Performance Appraisal and Its Use for Individual
and Organisational Improvement in the Civil Service of Ghana: The Case of Much Ado about Nothing?. Public Administration
and Development 35:10.1002/pad.v35.3, 179-191. [CrossRef]
3. NICOLE ASHBY, KIRSTIE FRYIRS, RICHARD HOWITT. 2015. Prospects for, and Challenges of, Research Design
and Training in Cross-Disciplinary Environmental Management Research. Geographical Research n/a-n/a. [CrossRef]
4. Lisa Hall. 2014. ‘With’ not ‘about’ – emerging paradigms for research in a cross-cultural space. International Journal of
Research & Method in Education 37, 376-389. [CrossRef]
5. Teuku Zulfikar. 2014. Researching my own backyard: inquiries into an ethnographic study. Ethnography and Education 9,
373-386. [CrossRef]
6. Augustina Adusah-Karikari, Frank Louis Kwaku Ohemeng. 2014. Representative Bureaucracy in the Public Service? A Critical
Analysis of the Challenges Confronting Women in the Civil Service of Ghana. International Journal of Public Administration
37, 568-580. [CrossRef]
7. Jenny Bossaller, Jenna Kammer. 2014. Faculty Views on eTextbooks: A Narrative Study. College Teaching 62, 68-75.
[CrossRef]
8. S. Jeff Birchall. 2014. Termination Theory and National Climate Change Mitigation Programs: The Case of New Zealand.
Downloaded by MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY At 13:33 22 February 2016 (PT)

Review of Policy Research 31:10.1111/ropr.2014.31.issue-1, 38-59. [CrossRef]

9. Susan Gair, Sharon Moloney. 2013. Unspeakable stories: when counter narratives are deemed unacceptable. Qualitative
Research Journal 13:1, 49-61. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
10. Angela Brown, Peter Smith, Judith Kuit. 2013. The use of a social enterprise construct for widening participation, learning
and training for employment. Widening Participation and Lifelong Learning 14, 202-215. [CrossRef]
11. Servet Çelik. 2012. Reflecting the experience of truth: issues of empathy in narrative inquiry. Qualitative Research Journal
12:2, 193-205. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
12. Donna M. McLaughlin, Será Godfrey Grantz. 2012. Mutual inspiration. Groupwork 22, 39-58. [CrossRef]