Electronic Components:

• Passive
P i Components:
C t Contribute
C t ib t no power gain i iin
a circuit. Has no control action and does not require
any input other than a signal to perform its function.
Alwaysy has a gain
g less than one. Can never oscillate
or amplify a signal. Can shift the phase of or reject a
signal but can never multiply by more than one.
Passive devices include resistors, capacitors and
Passive
i d t
inductors Components
• Active Components: Are capable to control (Discrete)
voltage and current and can create a switching
action in a circuit. Can amplify
p y or interpret
p a signal.
g
Active devices includes diodes, transistors and IC’s
(ie: semiconductor devices)
• Discrete Components: Packaged with one or two
f nctional elements
functional elements. Examples
E amples are resistors,
resistors diodes
diodes,
transistors
Discrete
• Integrated Circuits (IC’s): Combination of several
interconnected discrete components
p p
packaged
g in a
single case to perform multioke functions. Typical Active
example could be a microprocessor which can Components
perform a variety of applications
IC form

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 1
Component leads:
• Through hole: Component leads inserted
through mounting holes on pcb. Usually
soldered with bottom copper
• Surface mount: Attached directly on to the Through hole
surface of the pcb (either top or bottom) Surface mounting
• Axial leads: Components with axial leads
normally will have two leads extending from
each side of the component like arms.
• Radial Leads: Such leads protrudes from Axial leads Radial leads
the component bottom like legs
• IC leads: IC’s have a large number of
leads arranged in a single line row – Single
in Line (SIL) Package, or in two parallel
rows – Dual in Line (DIL) Package. High DIL package SIL package
Density IC’s are manufactured in the form
off Pin-grid
Pi id arrays. They
Th h have severall rows
of round pins extending from component
bottom
Leadless SMDs
• Leadless components: Some surface
mount (SMD/SMT) components have no
metal leads sticking out of the body.
Components body is metallized at the
edges
d ffor attachment
tt h t onto
t pcb
b surface
f Pin grid array SMD diodes with leads
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 2
Component Polarity:
• Polarized components have leads marked/indicated with positive (or Anode) and/or
negative (Cathode)
• Polarity observed when installing on pcb since if polarity reversed damage can be caused
to component and even circuit.
• Typical
yp p
polarized components:
p Capacitors
p and diodes.

Polarized capacitors:
polarity indicated by +/- SMD capacitors.
sign near or pointing to the Line/black marked edge
respective lead
lead. Also indicates ((-)) lead
longer lead will be the (+)
Tantalum lead

Rectifier/signal/zener/SMD diodes. Light emitting Diode (LED): Flat portion indicates

Cathode indicated by a painted ring Cathode. Longer lead indicates Anode. Internal
electrode with greater SA = Cathode

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 3
Resistors: Carbon type
appearance and
• Most commonlyy used componentp
composition
in electronics.
• Classes of resistors: Fixed or
Variable. According to material
used to build up
• Carbon type: Made by mixing
fine carbon with resin binder and Metal film type
insulating filler. Have low stray appearance and
capacitance and inductance – composition
useable at high frequencies. thickness length
Accuracy limited to 1%. Tend to
drift with temperature and
vibration Approximate sizes:
• Metal film type: Made by coating Power  Carbon film Metal film
a ceramic rod with metal film or Rating
Rating  Thickness
Thickness  Length
Length  Thickness 
Thickness Length 
Length
metal glaze (metal/glass mix) or (W) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
metal oxide (metal and insulating
1/8 2 3 2 3
oxide mix). More stable under
temperature and vibration.
vibration Have ¼ 2 6 2 6
tolerances approaching 0.5%. ½ 3 9 ‐ ‐
Precision metal film resistors are 1 ‐ ‐ 3.5 12
also available with tolerances
2 ‐ ‐ 5 15
below 0.1%
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 4
• Wire wound resistors: Made by winding resistance wire onto an insulating former. Have
very close tolerance.
• Thick film resistor networks: Also called ‘Chip
Chip Resistor’
Resistor . Precious metals in a glass
binding system are screened onto a ceramic substrate and fired at high temperatures.
Such networks provide miniaturization, have rugged construction, and are inherently
reliable. Networks typically
y y consist of 5 to 50 resistors. Packages
g commonly y available: SIL,
DIL, and square packages. Network is made with number of resistors of the same value.
One common use is to control the current in a circuit powering a number of LED’s. Typical
size: 1.8mm thick, 5mm in height, 20-23mm wide

4S type

Resistor Network arranmgements

Thick film resistor networks:

Wire wound resistors: typical arrangements and appearance
construction and appearance
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 5
Resistor packages:
• Resistive material deposited onto a ceramic
cylinder
li d or rectangular
t l bbox.
• End caps with leads are pressed at the ends to
make connections. Cylindrical
packages
• Most ppopular
p nowadaysy are resistor p
packages
g
with
ith axial
i l
with axial leads leads.
• Modern technology also presents SMT resistors Different
• High power wire-wound resistors are presented power
encapsulated
l t d iin ceramic
i or aluminium
l i i case Metal film ratings
ti

Wire wound
Wire-wound

Cylindrical package
with radial leads Radial
R di l package
k
with radial leads

High power with

metal body for
SMT technology High power with better heat
resistor ceramic encapsulation dissipation

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 6
Resistor characteristics:
• Resistance: nominal value at 25°C
• Tolerance: maximum ± deviation from the nominal value
• Power rating: maximum power that a resistor can dissipate continuously at 70°C. Above
70°C nominal power rating reduced i.a.w. de-rating factor specified by manufacturer
• Temperature Coefficient: expresses the extent to which the value of resistance will change
with temperature. Expressed in p.p.m. of the nominal value per °C
• Hot spot temperature: critical temperature in a resistor. Sum of ambient temperature
and temperature rise caused due to power dissipation. Measured in the mid-spot of the
resistor.
resistor
• Stability or Drift: a measure of how much the value of a resistor will change w.r.t. time due to
ageing. Measured in % change after 1000 hours of operation at 70°C. Depends upon power
dissipation and ambient temperature
• Noise: White/Johnson noise generated due to statistical movement of electrons. Depends
upon construction technique. Specified in μVolts/volt. Increases at higher values of resistance
and frequency.
• Parasitic
P iti effect:
ff t lumped
l d model
d l off resistor
i t consist
i t off resistor
i t
with shunt capacitor in series with an inductor. Impedance hence
is frequency dependant.
• Maximum voltage: maximum dc voltage that can be safely applied continuously to a
resistor. Transients above rated value can induce permanent changes in value
• Identification: printed in numerical form or by a system of colour coding. Reistor are
commercially available in preferred values. Most common used values are up to the E12
standard
t d d

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 7
 Resistor identification:
4-Band Resistor
• Colour coding system (table indicates how
to interpret)
• Alpha numerical printing in package. 2K2
1st Digit 2nd Digit 3rd Digit Multiplier Tolerance indicates value of 2.2kΩ. Tolerance
indicated by a letter code:
(Black) 0 0 0 1
(Brown) 1 1 1 10 1% Brown
• F=±1%; G=±2%; J=±5%; K=±10%;
(Red) 2 2 2 100 2% Red M=±20%
(Orange) 3 3 3 1000
(Yellow) 4 4 4 10000 • In 6-Band resistors, the 6th band after the
(Green) 5 5 5 100000 tolerance band indicates the temperature
(Blue) 6 6 6 1000000
(Violet) 7 7 7 coefficient in ppm/°C
(Grey) 8 8 8 0.1 Gold 5% Gold
(White) 9 9 9 0.01 Silver 10% Silver
33Ω ±5% 10W
resistor

5-Band Resistor

Tolerance is ±20% if no tolerance Band is shown !! (Brown) (Black) (Orange) (Gold)

10Ω SMD resistor
10kΩ ±5% ¼W resistor

1.0 1.5 2.2 3.3 4.7 6.8 E6

1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.7 5.6 6.8 8.2 E12
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.5 8.2 9.1 E24
Table of ‘E’ standards for resistor/capacitor preferred values
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 8
Variable resistors or Potentiometers (Pots):
• Basically consist of a track of resistance material with
which a moveable wiper makes contact
• Categories in accordance with resistive material used:
• Carbon: Made of moulded carbon composition giving
a solid
lid ttrack,
k or a coating
ti off carbon/insulating
b /i l ti fill
filler Carbon type pots
onto a substrate
• Cermet: Thick film resistance coating on a ceramic
substrate
• Wire-wound: Nichrome or other resistance wire
wound on to a suitable insulating former wiper contact
moves onto uninsulated wire Cermets (potpack)
• Categories
C t i iin accordance
d with
ith number
b off resistors
i t
and control arrangement:
• Single Pots.: Variable control with 1 resistor
• Tandem Pots.: 2 identical resistors controlled byy
single spindle
• Twin Pots.: 2 resistor units controlled independently Wire-wound pots (rheostat)
using concentric spindles
• Multi-turn
M lti t P t Have
Pots.: H gear wheel/s
h l/ iincluded
l d d ffor fifine
adjustments. May have up to 40 rotations for a full
variation
• Potpack:
p Rectangular
g p
pots,, either single
g or multiturn
Multi-turn Twin pot

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 9
 ‘1’ ‘2’ ‘3’
Typical
T i l uses off variable
i bl resistors:
i t
• Potentiometer: When used to produce a
variable voltage from a fixed one
• Rheostat: When used to control a current
flow in a circuit ‘1’
• Other practical uses for pots: Setting bias ‘2’
values, time constants, gain adjustments, ‘3’

current/voltage control
control.
Variation of resistance in potentiometers:
• Linear variation: Pot resistance distributed
evenlyy over entire range
g
• Logarithmic variation: Variation follows a ‘2’ ‘1’ ‘3’
logarithmic scale. From zero to half way
resistance inreases very slowly. From then
onwards as shaft is turned further
onwards,
resistance will continue to increase at a
much rapid rate compared to the first half

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 10
Other types of resistors:
• Light dependent resistor (LDR): Made of
semiconductor material (Cadmium Sulphide).
Become more conductive when incident light
falls on glass window. Typical ‘dark’ Light
resistance 1 to 10MΩ
10MΩ. Typical ‘light’
light Dependant
p
resistance 75 to 300Ω. Resistor
• Thermistor: Have high temperature
coefficient of resistance. Resistance varies
with temperature variation
• Negative temperature coefficient Thermistor
(NTC thermistor) – Fall in resistance
value with increase in temperature
temperature.
Most commonly used.
• Positive temperature coefficient
(PTC thermistor) – Also called
P i
Posistors. R i
Resistance iincreases as
temperature increases
• Varistor: Resistance varies in accordance
with applied voltage. Typical use is in power
supply voltage regulation
• Strain Gauge: Resistive element where
Varistor
resistance varies with respect to the
mechanical
h i l fforce off pressure applied
li d on itit.
Strain Gauge
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 11
Capacitors:
• Also called ‘Condenser’. Used to store electrical chargeg
• Applications: Power supply ripple filter; Tuning resonant circuits; Timing elements in
oscillators; Amplifier coupling; Amplifier and power supply de-coupling; Spark
suppression

Types of Capacitors:
• Paper Capacitors: Thin sheets of paper
(dielectric) are wound with thin aluminium
foils (electrodes). Paper is impregnated
with oils or waxes to prevent moisture
absorption. Assembly encapsulated in
resin.
• Tend to be large in size. To reduce
thickness, aluminium is directly deposited
on dielectric.
dielectric Such capacitor is called
‘metallized capacitor’
• Typical value range: 10nF to 10µF
• Typical voltage rating: 500V
• Tolerance: ±10%

Paper Capacitor

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 12
Types of Capacitors: Metal sheet or silver ink meshes
• Mica Capacitors: Thin sheets of mica are
directly metallized and stacked together several
sheets to make a complete capacitor.
Assembly encapsulated in resin or moulded in Mica
plastic dielectric

• Typical range: 5pF to 10nF

• Typical voltage rating: 50V to 500V
• Tolerance: ±0.5% Mica Capacitor
• Ceramic Capacitors: Generally employ
barium titanate as dielectric medium. Low-loss
ceramic capacitors use steatite (natural
mineral) Thin plate of ceramic is metallized on
mineral).
both sides and connecting leads soldered to it.
Body then coated with layers of lacquer.
• Monolithic type ceramic: Made of alternate
l
layers off thin
hi ceramic i di
dielectric
l i and
d electrodes,
l d
fired and compressed to form a monolithic
block. Comparatively small in size
• Typical range: 5pF to 1µF (1nF to 47µF –
monolithic)
• Typical voltage rating: 60V to 10kV (60V to
400V – monolithic)
• Tolerance:
T l ±10%
10% tto ±20%
20% Ceramic Capacitors

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 13
Types of Capacitors:
• Plastic Capacitors: Construction very similar to paper
capacitors. Polystyrene film are very popular in high
stability, low tolerance, and low temperature coefficient use.
Bulky in size. Polyethylene dielectric used in less critical
applications.
li ti Also
Al referred
f d tto as ‘Polyester
‘P l t Capacitors’
C it ’
• Electrolytic capacitors: Provides considerably greater
capacitance compared to the physical size. However it
must be connected in the proper direction in a circuit to Plastic capacitors
work properly. Such capacitor is called a Polarized
Component. Physical construction is formed of an
aluminium foils separated by paper saturated in an
electrolyte
l t l t liquid.
li id Th
The electrolyte
l t l t iis a conducting
d ti solution.
l ti
When dc current flows through the capacitor the electrolyte
causes an oxide layer (insulating layer) to form on the
aluminium foil. This creates a dielectric for the capacitor. Aluminium
This layer is extremely thin, giving high capacitance per electrolytics
unit volume (helps reducing physical size)
• Tantalum capacitors: Another polarized capacitor which
uses tantalum
t t l material
t i l instead
i t d off aluminium.
l i i It can bbe iin
the form of rolled foil as in the electrolytic or in the form of a
porous pellet, the irregular surface of which provides a
Tantalum
g area in a small volume. Very
large y reliable and efficient

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 14
Capacitor Performance:
• Capacitance: Nominal value in Farads at 25°C
• Tolerance:
T l ±% %D Deviation
i ti off actual
t l capacitance
it ffrom nominal i l value
l
• Working Voltage: ac or dc maximum voltage that can be applied continuously across
capacitor. Breakdown voltage is the maximum voltage that causes dielectric permanent
damage – generally is double the working voltage
• Temperature coefficient: Indicates change in value of capacitance with temperature
(expressed in ppm/°C)
• DC leakage: The amount of dc current which flows through a charged capacitor due to
l
losses caused db by conductivity
d ti it iin di
dielectric
l ti
• Parasitic Effects:
• Capacitor Impedance: Function of frequency. Capacitors have a self-resonant frequency
when the impedance
p is at minimum.
• Aluminium electrolytics: Resonate at mid-frequencies (few hundreds of kHz)
• Tantalums: Mid-range self resonance (up to several MHz)
• Ceramics and Mica: Higher self resonant frequencies (ranging into hundreds of MHz)
• Paper
P and d Polyester:
P l t Hi hl stable.
Highly t bl G Good
d ffor llow ffrequency and
d titiming
i applications.
li ti
Have low leakage current and low dielectric absorption
• Equivalent Series Resistance: Effective resistance
at the operating frequency resulting from internal
structure of capacitor. Ideally must be zero to avoid
unnecessary voltage drops which result in heat losses
• Quality (Q) factor: Measure of reactance purity, i.e.
h
how close
l it iis tto b
being
i zero

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 15
Variable Capacitors:
• Constructed by using any dielectric (including Air)
• Plates
Pl t are divided
di id d b
between
t the
th stator
t t andd a rotor.
t
• Varying the rotor between 0 to 180° will vary the
amount of plate surface exposed, i.e. varying the
capacitance
• Types:
• Button type: Has variable rotor
• Tubular type: Has an adjustable core
• Notice
N ti ththatt when
h using i a metal
t l screwdriver
di tto adjust
dj t
a variable capacitor, the capacitance value will alter Button type
when the screwdriver is removed. variable
• Metal screwdriver changesg the effective area of capacitor
capacitor plate/s.
• Use of non-metallic screwdriver is
recommended

SMD type capacitors:

• As for resistors, even capacitors are available in very
small sizes suitable to be used in surface mount
technology.
• Both polarized and non-polarized SMD capacitors are Tubular type
available variable
capacitor

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 16
Reading Capacitors Value:
• Colour Coding: Similar system as in resistors used. Figure below on the left shows
how to read colour coding on capacitors
capacitors. Resulting value will be in pico
pico-Farads.
Farads
• Ceramic Capacitor Marking: Value can be read by interpreting an alpha numeric code
on the capacitor. Figure below on the right gives some examples on how markings on
capacitors
p are interpreted
p to obtain the value of the capacitor
p
• Capacitor values are normally found up to E6 stabdards, while resistors to the E12
standards

100V
33K
Ceramic
Colour-coded capacitor Capacitors
marking

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 17
Inductors:
• A device which resists changes g in current p passing
g
through it.
• In practice an inductor is a coil of wire. When a
current flows a magnetic field is produced. During
the build up of the magnetic field an emf is induced
which opposes the flow of current. Once the
magnetic field reaches saturation (i.e. No more
changeg in magnetic
g field)) there is no more induced
emf and hence no more resistance to current flow
• When the supply current is switched off the magnetic
field collapses which causes a voltage of reverse
polarity to be induced in the coil
coil. This is called Back
EMF and can be very high since the magnetic filed
collapses very rapidly. Also it would cause a reverse
current to flow and damage g any y semi-conductor
devices connected to the coil
• To prevent this reverse current flow, a diode is
connected in parallel with the coil which becomes
forward biased by the back emf emf, hence shorting out
the reverse current flow, preventing it from flowing to
the devices connected. The diode is called Flywheel
Diode
• Inductance is measured in Henries (H)
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 18
Inductors in practice:
• Inductors are available in different sizes and shapes.
• Value may be printed on the component body or it may be printed with colour bands, like
resistors.
• Colour coded reading is expressed in micro Henries (µH)

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 19
Inductors in practice (cont.): Winding Core
• Primary use of an inductor is filtering (blocks ac)
• Basic inductor components: Toroidal
inductor
• Moulded plastic former (or Bobbin) onto which core
and winding are mounted
• Termination pins contained within the mould
• Winding is usually enamelled (insulated) wire. Bobbin
Diameter of wire calculated to keep temperature rise
under control
• Core material: laminated steel
steel, ferrite or powdered Stick Coil
iron
• Core can vary in shape (i.e. Inductor shape varies)
• Toroidal Coil: Copper wire wound on a circular cylindrical
core. Less flux leakage since it is concentrated at centre –
i.e. Better efficiency and nearby components less affected
by magnetic field. Difficult to wind. Air-cored
• Stick Coil: Copper wire wound around a straight cylindrical inductor
core. Less efficient than toriodal but easier to construct.
• Air core inductor: Coil wound around free air. Used
mainly at high frequencies.
• Epoxy potting: Provide mechanical protection and reduce
voltage corona effect. Potting increases stray capacitance.
• High current Inductors: Very bulky since they require big
High current
and heavy cores to reduce losses
losses. Used mainly in power
inductor/choke
supplies
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 20
More inductors in practice:
• Use of inductors: Low current inductors are more likely used as filters in signal
processing circuits. An inductive/capacitive
/ (LC
( C circuit)) ffilter is more effective.
ff
• Most of the times an inductor is specially manufactured for a particular circuit according to
specific requirements.
• Variable inductors: Ferrite core is made like a screw
screw. Inductance varied by moving core
inside/outside of inductor. Use of special plastic screwdriver is recommended!!
• SMD inductor: Inductors are also available in Surface Mount Technology. Also called
‘Chip Inductors’

Variable inductors: RF tuning coil Surface mount

Di t ib t d iinductor
Distributed d t ttype & core variable inductor inductors

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 21
Transformers:
• Electrical device that transforms electrical energy from one circuit to the other at the same
frequency,
q y, but usuallyy at a different voltage/current
g
• Can have either an air or an iron core. Air-core transformer is used for coupling signals
between stages at high frequencies. Power transformers are usually of the iron-core type
• Usually a power transformer is not PCB mounted. However some miniature transformers
can be fo
found
nd mo
mounted
nted on a PCB
PCB, like in some popowerer ssupplies.
pplies

Winding 1

Chassis mounted
Winding 2
PCB mounted

Iron Cored Power

Transformers

Air Cored
Transformer
Toroidal transformer (Chassis mounted)

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 22
Relays:
• Electromechanical device depending upon energizing a magnetic coil (solenoid) in one
circuit to control the opening/closing of contact/s in a completely different circuit
• Solid State Relays: Suited to ac switching applications. No moving parts. Long life and
high reliability. Control input optically isolated from the zero voltage switching circuit (no rf
interference). Available in SIL/DIL PCB mounting IC packaging.
• Reed Relays: Encapsulated in DIL PCB mounting package. A coil operates contact/s
capable of switching ac mains (230V)

DIL

SIL
High Power
PCB Mounted Electro-
Reed Relay S lid St
Solid State
t RRelay
l mechanical relay

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 23
Diodes:
• Active component through which current flows more easily in
one direction than in the other.
• Main functions: Switching device, detector, rectifier
• Glass encased diodes – Cathode is indicated by a stripe,
series of stripes (widest stripe indicates the cathode)
cathode), or a dot
• Colour code on a diode may indicate manufacturer part Signal/switching/rectifier diodes
number
• Signal diode: General purpose diodes used in applications
involving low currents and wide range of voltage (up to 50kV)
• Switching diode: Change state from conducting to non-
conducting and vice-versa in a very short time
• Rectifiers: Much more similar to signal diodes but designed
for higher currents
• Low/Medium Power diodes: Usually available in axial leads
packages. Physical size vary according to power rating
• High power diodes: Have a thread for mounting onto PCB Diode
or heatsink. Usually the body (threaded part) is the Cathode. Arrays
• Diode arrays: Available in the form of IC packages and may
contain up to 48 devices
devices. Four diodes are found combined in
one package to form a single bridge rectifier.
• Data Sheets: Along with useful information about the
High
electrical characteristics, will provide information about
Power
outline and physical dimensions Diode

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 24
Special types of diodes:
• Zener Diode: Used as a constant voltage source. Normally distinguished from normal
diodes by labeling with the breakdown voltage
voltage.
• Varactor diode: Works as a variable capacitor in response to a range of reverse voltages.
Nominal capacitance 1 to 500pF and maximum rated voltage range 10 to 100V.
Applications:
pp Automatic frequency
q y control.
• Light emitting diode: Emits light when forward biased. May be arranged to form a 7-
segment displays (7/8 Led’s arranged in an array having common anode or cathode
connection). Have higher forward voltage drop.
• Photo diode: Incident light causes diode to conduct
conduct.
• Tunnel diode: Exhibits a negative resistance interval. Utilized in switching circuits.

Zener Varicap
p

Photo
Diode
Tunnel
LED’s

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 25
Transistors:
• Bi-polar Transistors
• Basic device for all solid state circuits (including IC’s)
IC s).
• Provides amplification, rectification and switching.
• 3 terminals: Base, Collector, Emitter. NPN or PNP
• Transistor packages:
p g
• Metallic: TO-3, TO-5 and TO-8. High power transistors
• Plastic: Low to medium power applications. Some have metallic tabs to improve heat
dissipation.

(a). Metal cased power transistor

(b). Plastic case low-power
(c) Metal cased low-medium
(c). low medium power transistors
(d). Medium to high power transistors

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 26
Transistor Packages:

SOT23
TO92

TO18
TO32
Low power. Plastic package. Low power. Surface mount
device (SMD) transistor

Low power (TO18) to medium power (TO32). Metallic case

TO126 TO220
connected to Collector. Notch indicates Emitter

TO3 Collector
Tab

SOT186
Medium power transistor. Medium Power. T0220 -
TO126 – metallic rear metallic tab connected to
Emitter Base SOT32 – Isolated case Collector. Tab bolted to
heatsink
Non-isolated power transistor require an isolating kit to be
inserted between device and heatsink. Good practice to use
heatsink compound for better heat dissipation. Plastic
High Power Transistor. Case is the Collector and packaged transistor connections are not standard
standard. Consult
normally bolted to a large heatsink for heat dissipation data sheets.

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 27
Power Transistors:
• Have junctions that are comparatively larger in area than small signal transistors.
• Characteristics:
• Lower forward resistance values
• Lower reverse resistance values
• Usuallyy mounted on heat sinks or heat radiators and are sometimes mounted on the
chassis using silicone grease (Heatsink compound) to increase heat transfer
(*) Places where to apply
silicone grease

TO220
(*)
(*)
(*)
(*)
Heat
sink TO-3
TO-220
heatsink heatsink
mounting TO3
mounting

1. Mica insulating thermo pad

5
2 3 6 4 2. Mica washer
1 3. Metal flat washer
7
4. Nut
5. Screw
6
6. Lock washer
7. Terminal Lug (for TO-3 collector connection)
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 28
Darlington Pair Transistors:
• Special
S i l ttype off transistor
t i t configuration
fi ti
consisting of 2 transistors mounted on
one single chip or package
• Often used in amplifiers to provide high
input impedance, where drive is limited
and a high gain is needed
• A Darlington Pair behaves like a single
t
transistor
i t butb t the
th currentt gains
i off the
th 2
individual transistors are multiplied and
base-emitter volt drops are added
together
• Available in all transistor packages,
physical size depending upon the power
rating of the device

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 29
Field effect transistors:
• Three terminal device, similar in physical
appearance to the bi-polar
bi polar transistor.
transistor
• Terminals names:
• Source (correspond to function of
emitter in bi-polar)
• Drain (correspond to function of
collector in bi-polar)
• Gate (correspond to function of Base
in bi-polar)
bi polar)
• Source and drain leads are connected to a
channel (block) made of N or P type
material
• Band of oppositely doped material around
the channel is connected to the Gate
• Unlike in bi-polar, the input circuit (Gate to
Source) is reversed biased
biased, making the FET
High
to present a high impedance to the signal Power
input source. Hence no input current flows,
and so FET emits less noise than bi-polar
transistors
i

Medium to
high power FET SMD FET
Low power Array
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 30
Types of FET’s:
• Junction Gate FET (JUGFET): It is basically an ‘ON’
d i
device. D
Device
i iis bi
biased
d ‘OFF’ b
by applying
l i a negative
ti
Gate to Source voltage which widens depletion layer,
hence reducing drain current. Gate connection not
insulated.
• Insulated Gate FET (IGFET) or Metal Oxide
Semiconductor FET (MOSFET): Gate connection is
insulated from internal FET structure. Forms a
capacitive connection to FET. Insulation is so thin that
can easily be damaged by static electricity
• IGFET/MOSFET further divided in two types:
• Depletion type MOSFET: Like JUGFET it is an ‘ON’
device. Device is biased ‘OFF’ by applying negative
Gate to Source voltage which repels electrons
coming from source,
source hence reducing the Drain
current. Putting Vgs positive will drive MOSFET
further into conduction.
• Enhancment type MOSFET: Unlike other FET’s it is
basically an ‘OFF’ device. Channel is created by
applying a positive gate to source voltage which
attracts electrons to connect drain to source. The
more positive the gate voltage
voltage, the more will be the
FET conduction
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 31
Insulated gate bi-polar transistor (IGBT):
• MOSFET has excellent fast switching capabilities
b t will
but ill b
be lilimited
it d iin currentt att hi
high
h voltages
lt d
due tto
insreased ‘ON’ resistance as voltage is increased
• Bi-Polar transistor has excellent on-state
characteristics due to the low forward voltage drop drop.
However switching capabilities are limited
compared with the MOSFET
• Insulated g gate bi-polar
p transistor (IGBT)
( ) has the
combined advantages of both bi-polar and
MOSFET. IGBT structure is a combination of power
MOSFET and a power bi-polar transistor
• The input channel (biasing section) is comprised of
a MOSFET. The output channel is comprised of a
power PNP transistor.
• In appearance the schematic will show a darlington
pair formed of a MOSFET and a PNP transistor.
• Power MOSFETs have an integral reverse recovery
diode which exist parasitically
p y
• In IGBTs this diode must be connected externally
when required
• Application:
pp Switch mode p power supplies
pp

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 32
Silicon controlled switches:
• Used in all solid state power control and
switching circuits
circuits, replacing old relay circuits
circuits.
• Device is switched ON (ie: Current will flow
between Anode and Cathode or Main terminals 1
and 2) by applying a current to a third electrode
called Gate
• Types of such switches:
• Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) or
Thyristor: A rectifier which is turned on by
applying a gate current. Switched OFF by
reducing the Anode Current below ‘holding
level’ or by reversing the Anode Current
level Current. Thyristor symbol
Triac: Similar to the thyristor but works on
both positive and negative half cycles.
Turned on by applying a gate current and
switches OFF when Anode current is
reduced below the break-over current value
• Diac: Practically a triac without the gate
terminal The only way to switch it on is by
terminal.
exceeding the break-over voltage
• In both thyristor and triac, increasing the value of Triac/diac characteristics
gate cu
current
e t will reduce
educe tthe
e value
a ue o
of tthe
ebbreak-
ea
over voltage
Diac symbol
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 33
Silicon controlled switches application:
• Thyristors and Triacs: AC power applications such as lamp dimmers, motor speed and
t
temperature
t control.
t l Also
Al employed
l d ffor over-voltage
lt protection
t ti in i power supplies
li
• Diacs: Mainly used in gate triggering circuits of triacs or thyristors.
Packages:
• Thyristors and Triacs are normally packaged in a case similar to transistors.
Diac
• Some special packaging however exists especially for high power devices
• Diac package is similar to glass encapsulated diodes

TO92
TO220 TO202-2
TO225 TOP3 TO202-1
TO5
Low Power p
packages
g Medium Power Packages

High power SCR/Triac

in a TO3 or a threaded
stud package. Usually
the body is the Anode
or Triac Main terminal
Rigid Terminals Flexible Terminals TO3

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 34
Integrated Circuits (ICs):
• Contain transistors, capacitors, resistors and other parts in a
circuit
i it fformation,
ti contained
t i d iin a single
i l package,
k also
l
IC socket
technically known as a ‘chip’.
• Components are in miniature form and packed in high density
on a silicon base
• An IC can be directly soldered or mounted on an IC socket for
easier replacement
• Linear Integrated circuits: Characterized by an output that is
proportional to the input. Families of linear ICs comprise:
Operational Amplifiers, Instrument amplifiers, Audio/Video
amplifiers, RF amplifiers, voltage/current regulators, Analog-
Metal
Digital or Digital to Analog converters (ADC/DAC) cased
• Linear IC’s are commonly available in different packages, the Op-amp
Index
most popular being the Dual in line (DIL) and the Single in line
(SIL) packages
• IC normally contain a number of pins (Pin number depends
upon the complexity of the circuit inside the chip and the
number of input
p and outputs
p p
present
• An index mark (dimple) on the package indicates the first or
SIL
the last pin. Other pins counted in a ccw movement normally
(chip viewed from Top). Function of every pin can be found on
the relevant data sheet of the particular IC
DIL
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 35
Three terminal voltage regulator IC:
• Provide a fixed regulated output voltage for a
range of input voltages
• Centre pin is usually the common or ground pin.
Input is applied between either of the remaining
pins and ground. Regulated output is taken from
either of the outer pins and ground
• Package is usually the TO TO-220.
220
• Part number usually starts with a 7, followed by
an 8 if the regulator operates on a positive
voltage
g or a 9 if the operation
p is on the negative
g
voltage side. The last 2 numbers indicate the
regulated voltage output:
7805 = IC regulator with +5V output
• Input voltage range varies (consult data sheets)
and current capability depends whether a heat-
sink is used, and upon the type of heat-sink used
• Typical
T i l regulator
l t voltages:
lt 5V
5V, 9V
9V, 12V
12V, 15V
15V, 18V
• Such regulators usually incorporate an internal
short circuit protection

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 36
Digital Integrated circuits:
• Circuits that operate from defined voltage levels, SSI Chip
which
hi h reduces
d any uncertainty
t i t about
b t the
th resulting
lti
output and the behaviour of the circuit.
• Digital circuits cover a wide range of applications,
from high current industrial applications to
microprocessors. Basic elements are always logic
gates which perform logical operations depending
upon the inputs applied
• Categories depend upon Packing density. Depends MSI memory
upon integration level: chips
• SSI (Small scale integration): Typically have up to
12 logic
l i gates
t or circuits
i it ini a 14 or 16 pin
i DIL chip
hi
• MSI (Medium scale integration): Typically have
between 12 and 100 circuits per chip. Available in 24- LSI
processor
pin DIL or Flat pack,
pack or 28-pin ceramic chip carrier
chip
package
• LSI (Large scale integration): Integration typically up
to 1000 circuits/gates.
g Includes memory y chips
p and
some microprocessor circuits
• VLSI (Very large scale integration): Integration level Modern VLSI
with extra high number of gates (up to 1,000,000) per processor
chip
chip.
hi

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 37
Digital IC packages:
• Dual in line (DIL): Most SSI, MSI and LSI
technology is packed in 14
14, 16
16, 24
24, or 40
40-pin
pin DIL
IC’s
• Mini Dual in Line (Mini DIL): Usually 8-pin DIL
package
• TO-5, TO-8 Metal Can: Number of pins can vary DIL
from 2 to 12
IC identification:
• Information printed on package can give clear
indication Metal Can
• IC numbering system can vary from manufacturer
to manufacturer

Date Code:
Manufacturer Logo
g 05 = Year Manuf
Manuf. (2005)
67 = Production Batch
74LS74 = TTL Low power
schottky dual D-type flip-
flop
p
Suffix – Indicates Package
type and temperature range
Prefix – Manufacturer Code: IC Core number:
SN = Texas Instruments 74 LS 74

Logic family + sub-family + IC function identifier

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 38
 Orientation Tab
IC Pin-Outs:
• Metal Case TO type packages:
Pins are in circle and are
numbered in ccw direction when
viewed from the top. Pin closest
t the
to th orientation
i t ti tab
t b has
h theth Metal Case TO type package
highest number.
• Dual in Line (DIL or DIP) Index
packages: Leads arranged in 2 dot
parallel lines. Pins are numbered
in ccw direction when IC viewed
from the top. Pin on the left of Notch
the index mark (notch) or pin
Dual in line type package
nearest to the index dot is Pin 1
• Flat Packages: Small in size
and allows for higher packing
density. Surface mounted on bot
sides of the PCB. Pins numbered
ccw ((in Topp view).
) Pin 1 is the
one on the left or most near to
the index point. Index point can
Index Point
be found either on the centre or
near the edge Fl t SMD package
Flat k

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 39
Surface Mount Devices:
• Miniature components that are directly attached and soldered to the PCB
• Very suitable for automated circuitry assembly
• Aids reducing PCB size and are more reliable.
• Can be assembled to both sides of the PCB
• SMD components are first attached to the PCB with non conductive glue and then
soldered
• Hybrid technology: PCB contains embedded components (attached or formed during
PCB manufacture)
f t ) and d SMD d devices
i which
hi h are soldered
ld d llater
t
• SMD chips have a limit in the number of leads that they can accommodate.
• Small Outline (SO) Package: Used in SMD technology chips to overcome the
above limitation in VLSI IC’s

Through hole PCB technology

‘Embedded component’
SMD technology

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 40
Surface Mount technology:
• 80% of total available SMD’s are
represented by resistors,
resistors ceramic Metallized
M t lli d tterminations
i ti
capacitors, and discrete
semiconductors Flat leads
• Cubic shapep p prevails over J-leads
cylindrical version to accommodate
semiconductor devices such as Gull-wing
transistors and chips Lead Styles
• Commonly
C l used d lead
l d styles:
t l G ll
Gull-
wing, J-lead, Ball and Metallized
terminations, I-leads (Through hole Ball terminations
curt short for surface mounting)
• Lead pitch: measured from centre
to centre of neighbour leads
• Component
p Packaging:
g g SMD Lead Pitch
• Proper packaging protects
Tubes
components during transportation
Tape and reel
and aids automated assembling of
modern
d PCA’
PCA’s using
i pick-and-place
i k d l
machines
• Packaging methods: Trays,
Tubes Tape and Reel,
Tubes, Reel Bulk Feed
Cassettes SMD packaging
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 41
SMD chip size codes:
• 4-digit code defines the width and length. Thickness
i nott defined
is d fi d iin th
the code.
d L

• Size code may be stated in inches or in metric.

Ceramic capacitors and resistors are normally H

coded in inches
inches. Tantalums are coded in metric
SMD semiconductor packages:
• SOIC (Small Outline Integrated Circuit): Plastic
package available in different number of pins with
standard widths of 4mm or 7.6mm. Leads formed
outwards so that tips lie in contact with PCB pad.
• VSO (Very small outline): Extra version of SOIC SOIC Package SOT-23
with more pins
• SOT (Small Outline Transistor): Used for SMD
discrete diodes and transistors. Most common
packages are SOT-23
SOT 23 and SOT-89
SOT 89 (later renamed SOT 89
SOT-89
TO-236 and TO-243) for low power applications. For
higher powers the SOT-194 is used. SOT-143 is a SOT-194
4-pin
p version for dual g gate devices
• Cylindrical diode packages: The SOD (Small
outline diode) is for lower power diodes up to
250mW. MELF (Metal electrode face bonded) is SOT-143
usedd ffor higher
hi h power ratings
ti SOD 80
SOD-80
MELF Diode
SMD Cylindrical Diodes
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 42
More on SMD Packages:
• Chip Carriers: Square or nearly square IC packages with terminations brought out of all
f
four sides.
id
• LCCC (Leadless ceramic chip carriers): Do not carry any leads and excess packaging
material. Suitable for direct soldering or for attachment by sockets with added leads. IC chip
is bonded to a ceramic base and connections are brought out with wire to solderable
contact pads.
• PLCC (Plastic leaded chip carriers): Same sizes, lead pitches and format of LCCC.
Majority
j y available with ‘J’ leads. Difficult to test and inspect.

Type B Type C Type D

LCCC type A

LCCC IC socket
PLCC type Other LCCC types

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 43
• Flat packs and quad packs: Lead frame is co-planar to the IC body. Originally they had
leads on 2 sides but nowadays have leads on all 4 sides (that’s why they are called quad
packs).
packs)
• LGA (Land Grid Array): Pins emanate from an array on the underside of the package. IC
is then inserted and locked in a socket. Solderable version has pads instead of pins at the
base.

LGA IC
bottom

LGA IC top
p

Flat Quad Pack IC

Solderable
LGA detail
LGA IC socket
LGA technology

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 44
• BGA (Ball grid arrays):
• Refer to any type of SMD IC package that routes from the die and connects to the PCB via
solder
ld bbumps. F For hihigh
h pin-out
i t application.
li ti Pi
Pin counts
t nowadays
d approach
h 1000 !!
• BGA package consists of a substrate with two metal layers and through hole vias. IC die
mounted on top of substrate and enclosed in a plastic mould.
• For high reliability,
reliability ceramic substrate is used.
used
• Chip on board: Bare semiconductor attached directly to PCB, wire bonded and then
encapsulated with epoxy directly on PCB. Advantages: High packaging density and fast
signal speed

Structure

Ball Grid
Array Different BGA pattern types Chip on board

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 45
Packaging of Passive Components and Diodes as SMDs:
• Passive components are manufactures as SMDs to utilize the full potential of this modern
PCB technology
• Available in cubic dimensions or rectangular format (resistors and capacitors), and in
cylindrical format (diodes and electrolytics)
• Solderable terminations are placed at the end faces (1-Face), or else they could extend on
t /b tt / id edge
top/bottom/side d corners off both
b th endfaces
df (3 F
(3-Face, 5-Face)
5F )

SMD Inductors
SMD Capacitors SMD Diodes
Solderable terminations

SMD Resistor

SMD resistor construction SMD capacitor construction SMD inductor construction

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 46
Heat Sinks:
• Electronic components, especially
semiconductors have temperature dependant
characateristics (i.e. Resistance decreases with
temperature rise)
• Can be ppermanently y damaged
g if temperature
p
not maintined within specified limits (i.e.
Thermal Runaway)
• Necessary to determine how much heat an
active component generates and make
arrangements for heat dissipation – Job done
by a Heat Sink
• Power devices are usuallyy supplied
pp in p
packages
g
that can be easily assembled on to a heat sink
• Importance of good thermal contact between
package and heat sink. Thin layer of silicon
grease between component surface and
heatsink surface, and sufficient pressure aids
for good contact
• Power devices are p provided with a metal slug
g or
tab on the body to which good thermal contact
can be made with external heat sink. Tab can
be directly soldered to heat sink or attached by
bolt and nut

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 47
• Types of Heat Sinks: Stamped, extruded, casted and folded fin heat sinks
• Heat Sink Material: Often made of Aluminium Alloy. Pure aliminium is too soft –
easily distorted and it is difficult to drill and/or machine
The heat dissipation process:
• Heat is generated by device (device junction or die)
• Heat is transferred from jjunction to device case ((thermal resistance: jjunction to case))
• Heat is transferred from device case to heat sink (thermal resistance: Case to heat
sink)
• Heat is transferred from heat sink to ambient air (thermal resistance of heat sink)
• Thermal resistance is the resistance offered to heat transfer/dissipation
transfer/dissipation. Must be
kept to a minimum

Die-Cast Heat Sink

Stamped heat sinks

Extruded heat sinks

Extruded heat sinks

Folded Fin Heat Sink
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 48
• Case to heat sink thermal Microscopic
resistance: air-gaps
when
surfaces are
• Material used to electrically not flat
insulate device from heat sink
will increase the thermal
resistance.

• How to reduce case to heat

sink thermal resistance?

• Insulating Material must be

as thin
hi as possible
ibl
• No air gaps between case
and heat sink as air will
increase thermal resistance.
Air gaps reduced by using
thermal compounds and Compound applied on both sides of mica washer
polished heat sink and device
mating
ti ffaces
• Minimum amount of thermal
compound as too much will
increase thermal resistance Heat Sink
Compounds
MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 49
 • Materials used as insulators:

• Mica: Most commonly used. Good electrical insulator (Dielectric strength

up to 1500V per 0.025μm thickness). Low thermal resistance/good heat
conductivity (0.75 – 1.0 °C/W)). Practically infusible (no noticeable effect at
700°C) M
700°C). Moisture
i t proof.
f
• Kapton: Very robust but has higher thermal resistance than Mica
• Aluminium Oxide: Very fragile as can be easily damaged
• Berryllium
y Oxide: Good p
properties
p but toxic
• Silicon Pads: Convenient as no thermal compound is necessary. However
has higher thermal resistance and is not re-useable as it gets deformed
after first use

• Thermal Inertia:

• Time for material to heat up.p The larger

g the heat sink,, the longer
g it takes for
it to heat up.
• Good thermal inertia allows heat sink to absorb transient power surges and
to dissipate heat to air during low power operation – This is good for
a dio applications
audio
• Low thermal inertia helps for high power operation in prolonged periods.
Larger heat sink and air cooling required

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 50
• Minimizing Thermal Resistance:
• Thermal resistance can never be zero
• Key for obtaining maximum power from a device is keeping minimum thermal resistance
from device junction to free air as low as possible
• How to keep overall thermal resistance low?
• When mounting device to heat sink: Proper pressure – Too much will lead to
material distortion/damage. Too little will keep thermal resistance high
• Transistors in parallel: Power will be divided between transistors. Overall
temperature rise will be lower
• Avoid deformation of aluminium heatsink: No riveting as it can cause distortion
and shock to materials.
• Thermal Compound application: Proper amount – Too much will increase thermal
resistance.
i N
Not enoughh will
ill result
l iin microscopic
i i air
i gaps unfilled
fill d (i
(i.e. thermal
h l
resistance increased). Rub Mica washer between thumb and first finger, or, Rub
device in circular motion on heatsink before tightening
• Heat sinks threaded holes recessed to avoid ‘raised raised edges’
edges when mounting screws
tightened
• TO220 flat pack transistors properly tightened. Too much tightening may cause
transistor case to raise up, creating air-gap. Transistor may be clamped from case
i t d off tightening
instead ti ht i with ith screw ththrough h th
the ttab-hole.
bh l H However clamp
l nott over-
tightened to avoid damage to device case
• Device mounting: Close to the geometric centre of the heat sink.

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 51
Deformation caused by over-tightening Transistors in parallel

Device clamped from case instead of

attaching by a screw to the Tab. Prevents
raising up of case by over
over-tightening
tightening

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 52
Heat-Sink Physical Properties:
• Larger surface area: Heat disposed of more easily
• Edges in form of vertical protruding fins: Helps heat dissipation into air by conduction
or convection. Air-flow passing through fins will aid conduction/convection further
• Heat-Sink Colour: Helps radiation (Heat emission from surface). Matt Black colour helps
for good radiation.
radiation Thick coating of paints will serve as thermal insulator
insulator. Aluminium can
be anodized and then a matt black dye is introduced in the porous layer of aluminium
oxide. Such system produce a thinner coat than the thinnest one that could be achieved
by paint.
• Ribbed Fins: Increases the surface area of heat sink further.
• Heat sink base: Thick at centre and tapers away from centre. This increases thermal
inertia and saves metal.

Heat Sink Section showing Heat Sink with Ribbed fins

Heat Sink with vertical
Base which tapers away and in Matt Black Surface
protruding fins
from centre finish

MCAST EEI Industrial Electronics (Year 2): PCB Design 53