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Tension Reinforcement

Related terms:
Arches, Debonding, Domes, Neutral Axis, Compression Reinforcement, Tension Face Plate

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Flexural Strength and Ductility

DERIC JOHN OEHLERS, RUDOLF SERACINO, in Design of FRP and Steel Plated RC Structures, 2004

3.4.1.4 Adhesively bonded deep metal side plated beams

It is well known that the addition of tension reinforcement such as the tension face plate in Fig. 3.29(a) will always reduce the sectional ductility, and it is often
this reduction in ductility that limits the increase in flexural strength that can be achieved by plating. Extending the adhesively bonded side plates in Fig. 3.30(a)
into the compression zone as shown in Fig. 3.31(a) can increase the flexural capacity whilst maintaining and sometimes even increasing the ductility.
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Figure 3.31. Flexural analysis of a deep metal side plated beam

For an ultimate limit strength analysis, the metal side plates in Fig. 3.31 would probably be designed to yield before debonding. In which case, the assumption
that the pivotal point is at the concrete crushing strain ɛc, as shown in Fig. 3.31(b), would be a reasonable start to the analysis, with the usual checks for
debonding after the analysis is complete. If the concrete crushing strain ɛc did control the analysis at ultimate, then the neutral axis depth factor ku in Fig.
3.31(b) would control moment redistribution. For a serviceability analysis, thick plates would probably have been used to increase the flexural rigidity and
reduce deflections and crack widths and would have been designed not to yield at the low serviceability loads. In this case, the debonding strain would control
the analysis, that is ɛpmax in Fig. 3.31(b) would be ɛdb and the pivotal point would be at this position.
The stress resultants in the plate are shown in Fig. 3.31(e) and as mentioned previously, if the plates were bolted so that the bolts took over totally if the
adhesive bond deteriorated, then the bolts would have to be designed to resist these stress resultants. It is worth comparing the stress resultants in Figs.
3.29(f ) for the tension face plate which occupies a small vertical dimension, with Fig. 3.30(e) for the shallow side plate, and with Fig. 3.31(e) for the deep side
plate which occupies a large vertical dimension. It is worth noting that as a general rule that as the vertical dimension of the plate increases, the axial force in
the plate Pplate reduces and the moment in the plate Mplate increases. Let us consider an FRP plated beam as an example, when the vertical dimension of the
plate is simply the plate thickness as in the tension face plate in Fig. 3.29(a), then Mplate → 0 and Pplate is at its maximum which is the product of the cross-
sectional area of the plate and the debonding stress. As the vertical height of the plate increases as in Fig. 3.31(a), the tensile component in the plate, that is F3
increases reducing the overall axial force Pplate and increasing the moment Mplate. Hence for shallow plates the bolt forces tend to be governed by Pplate
whereas for deep plates they tend to be governed by Mplate.

Code Requirements
R. Dodge Woodson, in Concrete Portable Handbook, 2012

Structural Integrity Requirements

Cast-in-place construction requires certain minimum requirements; for example, beams along the perimeter of a structure require continuous reinforcement.
At least two bars are required. Support will consist of at least one-sixth of the tension reinforcement required for negative moment at the support. You must
provide at least one-quarter of the tension reinforcement required for positive moment at midspan. When splices are needed to provide continuity, the top
reinforcement is to be spliced at or near midspan. Bottom reinforcement must be spliced at or near the support. Class “A” tension splices are normally used.

Code Consideration
Pre-cast construction calls for the use of tension ties. They are to be provided in the transverse, longitudinal, and vertical directions and around the
 perimeter of the structure to tie everything together.

Code Consideration
With the exception of prestressed concrete, approximate methods of frame analysis are permitted for typical construction.

Construction code highlights

R. Dodge Woodson, in Concrete Structures, 2009

Structural Integrity Requirements

Cast-in-place construction requires certain minimum requirements. For example, beams along the perimeter of a structure require continuous reinforcement.
At least two bars are required. Support shall consist of at least one-sixth of the tension reinforcement required for negative movement at the support. You
must provide at least one-quarter of the tension reinforcement required for positive movement at midspan. When splices are needed to provide continuity, the
top reinforcement is to be spliced at or near midspan. Bottom reinforcement must be spliced at or near the support. Class “A” tension splices are normally
used.

Precast construction calls for the use of tension ties. They are to be provided in the transverse, longitudinal, and vertical directions and around the
perimeter of the structure to tie everything together.
With the exception of prestressed concrete, approximate methods of frame analysis are permitted for typical construction.

Seismic Collapse Analysis of the CTV Building

Daigoro Isobe, in Progressive Collapse Analysis of Structures, 2018

10.2.5 Stiffness Reduction Ratio at the Yield Point

 (10.9)

where b is the column width, D is the column height, h0 is the inner measured height of the column, d is the equivalent height = 0.9D, g1 is the distance
among the centers of gravity of the reinforcements, Fc is the compressive strength of concrete, σy is the yield stress of the tension reinforcement, σwy is the
tension yield stress of the shear reinforcement, n is the ratio of Young’s moduli of the concrete and reinforcement, N is the normal force, M/Qd is the shear
span ratio = h0/2d, η0 is the normal force ratio = N/bDFc, j is the distance between the centers of stress = 7d/8, ku is the correction factor of member
dimension = 0.7, kp is the correction factor of the tension reinforcement ratio =  , pt is the tension reinforcement ratio = at/bD, pw is the shear
reinforcement ratio = aw/bχ, at is the cross-sectional area of the tension reinforcement, ag is the cross-sectional area of all reinforcements, and χ is the distance
between each shear reinforcement.
The strength failure of the reinforced-concrete members was determined by evaluating the shear strains and tensional normal strain for the elements that
approach the bending yield strength or shear ultimate strength. The following equations were used to determine the member strength failure.

(10.10)

where γxz, γyz, εz, and γxz0, γyz0, εz0 are the shear strains along the x- and y-axes, axial tensile strain, and critical values for these strains, respectively.

Characteristics of concrete containing EPS

J.M. Khatib, ... A. Elkordi, in Use of Recycled Plastics in Eco-efficient Concrete, 2019

7.12 Structural performance of reinforced concrete beams

Due to the poor mechanical properties of EPS lightweight concrete, there is still some concern when used as a structural lightweight concrete. However, EPS
has been used in nonstructural members for buildings such as roof insulation and partition walls. Another reason that the structural use of EPS concrete is
very limited is due to the lack of information on its structural characteristics. According to ACI Committee 213 (2003) lightweight aggregate concrete should
have a compressive strength above 17 MPa. However, RILEM recommends a strength of 15 MPa for structural members.
Herki and Khatib (2016) carried out an experimental investigation on the structural performance of reinforced concrete containing varying amount of SPS
and reinforcement. Three tension reinforcement arrangements were used: 2 bars, 3 bars, and, 2 bars + shear links. There were no compression bars at the
top for all beams. The flexural test was a four-point test and was conducted at 28 days of curing. The load was applied gradually until failure. The flexural test
comprises the load-deflection at mid-span, mode of failure, crack pattern, load at first crack, strain distribution at mid-span for different locations along the
cross-section of the beam. The results showed that as the replacement levels of EPS increased, the deflection also increased regardless of the reinforcement
arrangement. The increase in deflection indicates a more ductile behavior. The mode of failure was largely a shear failure. In general, using EPS in structural

applications is possible Herki and Khatib (2016) suggested that concrete with 30% EPS can comply with the structural LWA concrete application (e g
applications is possible. Herki and Khatib (2016) suggested that concrete with 30% EPS can comply with the structural LWA concrete application (e.g.,
beams) requirements of RILEM classifications (i.e., compressive strength of 16.43 MPa strength and a density of 1814 kg/m3).

BENDING
E.J. HEARN Ph.D., B.Sc. (Eng.) Hons., C.Eng., F.I.Mech.E., F.I.Prod.E., F.I.Diag.E., in Mechanics of Materials 1 (Third Edition), 1997

Example 4.4
(a) A reinforced concrete beam is 240 mm wide and 450 mm deep to the centre of the reinforcing steel rods. The rods are of total cross-sectional area 1.2 ×
10−3 m2 and the maximum allowable stresses in the steel and concrete are 150 MN/m2 and 8 MN/m2 respectively. The modular ratio (steel : concrete) is
16. Determine the moment of resistance of the beam.
(b) If, after installation, it is required to up-rate the service loads by 30% and to replace the above beam with a second beam of increased strength but
retaining the same width of 240 mm, determine the new depth and area of steel for tension reinforcement required.

Solution
(a) From eqn. (4.16) moments of area about the N.A. of Fig. 4.19.
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Fig. 4.19.

From which
h = 200 mm

Substituting in eqn. (4.17),

and from eqn. (4.18)

Thus the safe moment which the beam can carry within both limiting stress values is 69 kN m.
(b) For this part of the question the dimensions of the new beam are required and it is necessary to assume a critical or economic section. The position of the
N.A. is then determined from eqn. (4.19) by consideration of the proportions of the stress distribution (i.e. assuming that the maximum stresses in the
streel and concrete occur together).
Thus from eqn. (4.19)

From (4.17)

Substituting for h/d = 0.46 and solving for d gives

∴ From (4.20)

i.e.
A = 1.44 × 10−3 m2
Design provisions
Hwai-Chung Wu, Christopher D. Eamon, in Strengthening of Concrete Structures using Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP), 2017

4.2.4.3 AASHTO
AASHTO requires that the strain developed in the FRP reinforcement at the ultimate limit state shall be equal to or greater than 2.5 times the strain in the FRP
reinforcement at the point where the steel tension reinforcement yields (Eq. (4.10)). This limitation is present to ensure that the tension steel reinforcement
yields before the point of incipient debonding of the externally bonded FRP reinforcement, thereby enabling the development of a ductile mode of flexural
failure.
(4.10)

With a maximum useable strain of 0.005 at the FRP reinforcement/concrete interface, the maximum strain developed in the FRP reinforcement is (Eq. (4.11)):
(4.11)
where is the initial tensile strain at the bottom concrete surface as a result of the moment due to dead load (the existing tensile strain prior to FRP
installation).

Recommendations
Hwai-Chung Wu, Christopher D. Eamon, in Strengthening of Concrete Structures using Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP), 2017

8.1.3.4 Strength reduction factors and ductility provisions considering prestressed sections
To ensure ductility, AASHTO limits specify that the strain developed in the FRP reinforcement at section ultimate capacity must be equal to or greater than 2.5
times the strain in the FRP reinforcement at the point where the centroid of steel tension reinforcement yields. With a maximum useable strain of 0.005 at the
FRP reinforcement/concrete interface, the maximum effective strain developed in the FRP reinforcement is ε=0.005−εbo, where εbo is the initial tensile strain at
the bottom concrete surface as a result of the moment due to dead load (the existing tensile strain prior to FRP installation). When the FRP is applied, the steel
will have some initial strain due to dead load moment (εd). Since the FRP is bonded to the outside of the beam, it is placed further away from the neutral axis in
the section than the steel. Therefore the FRP will have a minimum strain value of εy−εd when the steel yields, where εy is steel yield strain. Following the
AASHTO provisions, at ultimate flexural capacity, strain in the FRP must be greater than the minimum possible value of 2.5(εy–εd). For prestressed beams, the
steel effective prestrain (εp) must also be considered, such that the strain in the FRP at ultimate flexural capacity must be greater than 2.5(εy−εd−εp). However,
for the high-grade steel used for prestressing, εy is large, and the value of 2.5(εy−εd−εp) may exceed the allowable FRP strain limit of 0.005−εbo. This limitation
will not allow any flexural FRP strengthening to be applied to prestressed beams in many cases. Reasonable changes in the concrete constitutive model does
not alter this result. ACI provisions solve this problem by allowing such sections to be strengthened, but to account for the possible loss in ductility, the section

strength is penalized with a lower resistance factor. However, for the practical cases of prestressed concrete girders investigated, it was found that the ACI
approach often leads to high requirements of FRP reinforcement as well as a resistance factor of 0.65. The former occurs because the ACI debonding limit,
which limits the usable strain in the FRP (Eq. (4.8)), is a function of the amount of FRP applied; as the amount of FRP is increased to meet flexural demand, this
strain limit decreases. It was found that the resulting value is often lower than the value of 0.005 specified with the AASHTO provisions. Moreover, as FRP area
is increased, strain in the prestressing steel at failure generally decreases, thus lowering resistance factor, often to 0.65. Therefore direct use of the ACI
strengthening provisions with prestressed griders was also found to be impractical in many cases. Therefore an alternative approach is recommended for
consideration, based on a modification of the existing AASHTO procedure.
This approach utilizes the AASHTO FRP strain limit addressed in Section 8.1.2. For consistency, the same methodology is recommended for both
nonprestressed as well as prestressed sections, with appropriate adjustments in strain limits. This approach combines AASHTO and ACI limits and reduction
factor concepts to produce a more practical strengthening procedure for some cases. For nonprestressed sections the resistance factor for flexural capacity for
concrete beams with FRP strengthening is recommended to be taken as
(8.2)

where εt=strain in the lowest layer (i.e., furthest away from the compression side of the beam) of steel at ultimate capacity, where ultimate capacity is limited by
either (whichever occurs first) concrete crushing, FRP rupture, or FRP debonding (at an assumed maximum interface strain of 0.005 given by AASHTO);
εFRPu=strain in the FRP at ultimate capacity; εFRPy=strain in the FRP when steel yields.
The above factor is to be applied to the entire flexural capacity expression, including steel and FRP-based capacity components. In addition the FRP portion of
capacity is further reduced by the additional resistance factor given as
(8.3)

Note that practically, due to the usable FRP strain limit specified by AASHTO of 0.005, ϕ=0.90 cannot be achieved due to the requirement of εt≥0.005.
However, in most cases, if maximum FRP strain is set to 0.005, εt will only be slightly less than this value, resulting in ϕ between 0.85 and 0.90.
For prestressed concrete members (using 250–270 ksi prestress steel), the following is recommended:
(8.4)
where εps=the prestressing steel strain (at steel centroid) at ultimate capacity. The same FRP reduction factor as above is applied to the FRP portion of
resistance.
(8.5)

(8.6)

(8.7)

Note that practically, due to the usable FRP strain limit specified by AASHTO of 0.005, εps≤0.010 and thus =0.65. However, the above equations retain validity
if the AASHTO FRP strain limit of 0.005 is adjusted to a new value. Increasing this value will allow an increase in the strength reduction factor for prestressed
members beyond 0.65.
In most cases, this approach will provide a resistance factor that is very close (slightly conservative) to that specified by AASHTO if AASHTO ductility criteria are
met. If AASHTO criteria are not met, beam strengthening is allowed but with a reduced resistance factor similar to the ACI approach as a function of beam
ductility.
Here the reader is strongly cautioned. Note that, to determine the most appropriate resistance factors and associated strain limits, a structural reliability
analysis of FRP-strengthened prestressed concrete girders is needed. However, this analysis is beyond the scope of this book. Therefore with the recognition
that the existing AASHTO provisions were not specifically developed for strengthening prestressed concrete bridge girders, the procedure presented above
may be a reasonable alternative to consider until desired reliability or revised guidelines results become available. Some design examples using the
recommendations are given in Chapter 9, Design examples.

Introduction
DERIC JOHN OEHLERS, RUDOLF SERACINO, in Design of FRP and Steel Plated RC Structures, 2004

1.2.1.1 Bolted and adhesively bonded plates

It is common practice to adhesively bond plates to the tension faces of slab structures as in Fig.1.2(a). Plates can also be adhesively bonded to the sides of
beams as in Section A-A in Fig.1.3. However, if a ductile connection is required or if the adhesively bonded plate is prone to premature debonding or peeling,
then the plate can be bolted as shown in Figs. 1.2(b) and 1.3. Although plates can be bolted to the tension face as in Fig.1.3, this may be difficult in beams due
to congestion of the longitudinal tension reinforcement, in which case the plates can be bolted to the sides of the beam where only the stirrups have to be
to congestion of the longitudinal tension reinforcement, in which case the plates can be bolted to the sides of the beam where only the stirrups have to be
avoided.

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Figure 1.2. Retrofitting bridges

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Figure 1.3. Bonding plates by adhesion and/or bolting

Plates can be both bolted and adhesively bonded but it should be remembered that each bonding technique works independently of the other; they do not
enhance each other as bolts form a ductile connection that requires slip, whereas, adhesion forms a stiff but brittle connection. For additional safety, a plate
can be designed as both bolted and adhesively bonded so that the bolts take over should the adhesive deteriorate. Bolts act as shear connectors in the
composite plated structure so that they can be designed using the principles applied to stud shear connectors in composite steel and concrete beams (Oehlers
and Bradford 1995, 1999) that are available in national standards. A bolted FRP plate is probably more expensive to install than an adhesively bonded FRP plate,
but bolting does allow the full strength of the plate to be achieved, whereas, adhesively bonded FRP plates often debond at strains between one-quarter to one-
third of their fracture strain.

Design and specification of marine concrete structures

P.E. Smith, in Marine Concrete Structures, 2016

3.7.6.2 Beams
A frequently used technique in jetty superstructures is the use of precast beam elements that are stitched together with in situ casts. Limitations in the lifting
capacity of the construction crane often means that it is not possible to place the full beam section as it would be too heavy. A partial beam is therefore used,
and this can be designed and detailed as either the lower portion of the beam, including all the flexural tension reinforcement, or a hollow U-shaped box.
These two approaches are illustrated in Figs 3.8 and 3.9.
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Figure 3.8. Staged construction sequence for beams and slabs in jetty construction.
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Figure 3.9. Beam cross-sections for staged construction using hollow U precast beams. The U beam eliminates the need for side formwork for the second stage cast.

The use of precast elements reduces or eliminates overwater formwork but results in a staged construction, and when flexural crack widths are calculated, care
must be exercised to take into account the stresses that are built in with each stage of construction. Crack widths would be underestimated if they were to be
calculated for the full sustained load applied on the complete cross-section. The self-weight of the section is increased incrementally as it is constructed, but in
the early stages of the assembly, the load is resisted by the intermediate configurations of the structure, and not the full section. Flexural stresses are generated
and then locked into the structure with each stage as it is built. In the early stages of the construction, the self-weight of the first components are resisted by
smaller sections than the full one, and therefore the total stresses that are generated will be greater than if all self-weight was applied to the full section.
Fig. 3.8 illustrates a typical staged deck construction using half-height precast beams and deck slabs.
• Stage 1: the precast beam is placed on the pile caps, and it only supports its own weight.
• Stage 2: the beam in situ concrete is cast. The precast beam has to support its own weight and the weight of the plastic concrete in the in situ beam cast. As
the second cast gains strength and hardens, the stresses are locked into the precast portion, and the new concrete has no flexural stresses.
• Stage 3: the precast deck slabs are placed onto the beam grillage, and the in situ slab topping is cast. The resisting beam now has the section properties of
the combined precast and first in situ cast, and this determines the stresses generated from the weight of the precast and in situ slab. The upper part of the

composite section has now started functioning and developed stresses.

• Stage 4: by the time that in-service live loads are applied, the composite section will include the in situ deck slab, and a full-depth T section is used to
determine the member resistance.

The tensile stresses in the bottom of the precast beam section are cumulative and must be determined for each stage, and the effect added. It is possible that
the precast beam will be uncracked for the early stages if the tensile stresses are low, and cracking will only occur as the stresses accumulate.