Power System by VK Mehta Chapter3

Digital SIGNAL PROCESSING
Discrete-Time Signals in the Frequency

Domain
DR. MUHAMMAD IMRAN QURESHI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
FICT, BUITEMS, QUETTA, PAKISTAN
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com © 2018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi 1

Discrete Time Signals in the Frequency Domain
The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (Definition)
• The frequency-domain representation of a continuous-time signal 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) is
given by the continuous-time Fourier transform (CTFT):
∞
• 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω = 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑎 (3.1)
• The CTFT also referred as Fourier spectrum or sometimes simply spectrum
of continuous-time signal.
• The continuous time signal can be recovered from tis CTFT 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω via the
inverse Fourier transform
1 ∞
• 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ‫𝑋 ׬‬ 𝑗Ω 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑Ω (3.2)
2𝜋 −∞ 𝑎
• Where, Ω is real and dnotes the continuous-time angular frequency
variable in radians per second.

• In Eq. (3.2), the inverse Fourier transform is a linear combination of
1 𝑗Ω𝑡
infinitesimally small complex exponential signals of the form 𝑒 𝑑Ω,
2𝜋
weighted by the complex constant 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω over the angular frequency
range form −∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞.
∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑎 (3.1)
• Eq. (3.1) can be written in polar form as
• 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω = 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω ej𝜃𝑎(Ω) where, 𝜃𝑎 Ω = arg{𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω }
• The quantity |𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω | is called the magnitude spectrum.
• The quantity 𝜃𝑎 (Ω) is called phase spectrum.
• Both magnitude and phase spectrum are real function of Ω.
∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑎 (3.1)
• The CTFT 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω (defined in Eq. (3.1)) exists if the continuous-time
signal 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) satisfies the Dirchlet conditions:
1. The signal has a finite number of finite discontinuities and a finite number
of maxima and minima in any finite interval.
2. The signal is absolutely integrable; that is,
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞ (3.3)
• If the Dirichlet conditions are satisfied, the integral on the right-hand
side of Eq. (3.2) converges to 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) at values of 𝑡 where 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) has
discontinuities.

The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (Examples)
• Example: Find CTFT of following real signal and also magnitude and
phase spectra: 1.2
x(t)=e-j0.5t
𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0,
• 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ቊ 1
0, 𝑡 < 0. 0.8
• where 0 < 𝛼 < ∞ 0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com © 2018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi
in radians/sec 5
• Solution: Let 𝛼 = 0.5
• Before proceeding to solution, we will check Dirchlet condition (the
function is absolutely integrable or not?)
∞ ∞ −𝛼𝑡 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 ∞ 1
• ‫∞׬‬ 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = − |0 = < ∞ (Integrable, hence
𝛼 𝛼
CTFT is possible.
∞ −𝑗Ω𝑡 ∞ −𝛼𝑡 −𝑗Ω𝑡 ∞ −(𝛼+𝑗Ω)𝑡
• 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω = ‫𝑥 ∞׬‬ 𝑡 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑑𝑡
∞
𝑒 −(𝛼+𝑗Ω)𝑡 1
• 𝑋𝑎 (𝑗Ω) = − = Magnitude: |𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω =
1
𝛼2 +Ω2
𝛼+𝑗Ω 0 𝛼+𝑗Ω Ω
Phase: 𝜃𝑎 Ω = − tan−1 𝛼

Mangnitude Plot Phase in radianse
2 1.5
1
1.5
0.5
1 0
-0.5
0.5
-1
0 -1.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
in radians/sec in radians/sec

• Example 3.2: Continuous-Time Fourier Transform of an Impulse
Function
• Solution: Using the sampling property of the delta function, the CTFT
Δ(𝑗Ω) of an ideal impulse 𝛿(𝑡) is obtained as:
∞
• Δ 𝑗Ω = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1

• Example 3.2: Continuous-Time Fourier Transform of a Shifted Impulse
Function i.e. 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 )
• Solution: The CTFT of a shifted impulse function is obtained as:
∞
• 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω = ‫׬‬0 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡𝑜
∞
• Δ 𝑗Ω = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1

The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (Important Points)
• An absolutely integrable continuous-time signal 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) with bounded
amplitude always has finite energy; that is,
∞
• ‫׬‬0 |𝑥𝑎 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 < ∞ (3.6)
• The CTFT may exit for a finite-energy continuous-time signal that is
not absolutely integrable.
• The CTFT can also be defined using ideal impulses for some functions
that do not satisfy either integrable condition (i.e 𝐸𝑞. (3.3)) nor
energy condition (i.e. 𝐸𝑞. (3.4)).

The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (Energy Density Spectrum)
• The total energy ℰ𝑥 of a finite-energy continuous-time complex signal
𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) is given by
∞ 2 𝑑𝑡 ∞ ∞
1 ∞
• ℰ𝑥 = 𝑥𝑎 𝑡
‫׬‬−∞ = 𝑡 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑎
𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (3.7) 𝑥𝑎∗ 2
න 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 𝑑t = න 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω 2 𝑑Ω
−∞ 2𝜋 −∞
• From the definition of inverse CTFT, we know that, This is known as Parseval’s theorem
for finite-energy continuous-time
1 ∞
• 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ‫𝑋 ׬‬ 𝑗Ω 𝑒 𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑Ω signals
2𝜋 −∞ 𝑎
• Taking complex conjugate of both side will lead us to
1 ∞
• 𝑥𝑎∗ 𝑡 = ‫׬‬ 𝑋 ∗
𝑗Ω 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑Ω put this equation in Eq. (3.7)
2𝜋 −∞ 𝑎
∞ 1 ∞ ∗ 1 ∞ ∞
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 ‫𝑋 ׬‬ 𝑗Ω 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑Ω 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬ 𝑋𝑎∗ (𝑗Ω) ‫𝑎𝑥 ∞׬‬ 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑Ω
2𝜋 ∞ 𝑎 2𝜋 −∞
1 ∞ ∗ 1 ∞ 2
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω 𝑋𝑎 (𝑗Ω)𝑑Ω = ‫׬‬ 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω 𝑑Ω (3.8)
2𝜋 −∞ 2𝜋 −∞
∞ 2 𝑑t 1 ∞ 2 𝑑Ω
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ‫׬‬ 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω (3.9)
2𝜋 −∞
• Example 3.4: Find the total energy of given 1 ∞ ∗ (𝑗Ω)𝑑Ω
continuous-time signal • ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑋 𝑗Ω 𝑋
2𝜋 −∞ 𝑎 𝑎
𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0, • ℰ𝑥 =
1 ∞
‫׬‬
1 1
𝑑Ω
• 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ቊ 2𝜋 −∞ 𝛼+𝑗Ω 𝛼−𝑗Ω
0, 𝑡 < 0.
1 ∞ 1
• where 0 < 𝛼 < ∞ • ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑Ω
2𝜋 −∞ 𝛼2 +Ω2
• Solution: ∞
1 1 Ω
• As we have found its CTFT in Example 3.1, • ℰ𝑥 = tan−1
2𝜋 𝛼 𝛼 −∞
which is
1
• 𝑋𝑎 (𝑗Ω) =
1 • ℰ𝑥 = tan−1 ∞ − tan−1 (−∞)
𝛼+𝑗Ω 2𝜋𝛼
1 𝜋 𝜋
• So, the energy is given by • ℰ𝑥 = − −
2𝜋𝛼 2 2
1 ∞ 2 𝑑Ω
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω • ℰ𝑥 =
1
(For 𝛼 = 0.5, ℰ𝑥 = 1)
2𝜋 −∞
2𝛼

• The total energy ℰ𝑥 of a finite-energy continuous-time complex signal
𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) is given by
∞ 2 𝑑t 1 ∞ 2 𝑑Ω
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ‫׬‬ 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω (3.9)
2𝜋 −∞
• The term 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω 2 in above equation is called the energy density
spectrum 𝑆𝑥𝑥 Ω of the continuous-time signal 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) i.e.,
• 𝑆𝑥𝑥 Ω = 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω 2
• The energy ℰ𝑥,𝑟 over a specified range of frequencies Ω𝑎 ≤ Ω ≤ Ω𝑏
of the signal 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) is given by energy density spectrum 𝑆 Ω of the 𝑥𝑥
1 Ωb continuous-time signal 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) is given by
• ℰ𝑥,𝑟 = ‫׬‬Ω
𝑆𝑥𝑥 Ω 𝑑Ω 𝑆𝑥𝑥 Ω = 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω 2
2𝜋 a

The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (Band-Limited Continuous-Time Signals)
• A full-band, finite-energy, continuous-time signal has a spectrum occupying

the whole frequency range −∞ < Ω < ∞.
• A band-limited signal, continuous-time signal has a spectrum occupying a
limited portion of the frequency range Ω𝑎 ≤ Ω ≤ Ω𝑏 .
• An ideal band-limited signal has a spectrum that is zero outside a finite
frequency range Ω𝑎 ≤ Ω ≤ Ω𝑏 : that is,
0, 0 ≤ Ω < Ω𝑎
• 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω = ቊ i.e., the signal exisits only in range Ω𝑎 ≤ Ω ≤ Ω𝑏
0, Ω𝑏 < Ω < ∞
• An ideal band-limited signal cannot be generated in practice.
• However, for practical purposes, it is ensured that the energy of band-
limited signal outside the specified frequency range is sufficiently small.
• Lowpass Continuous-time Signal:
• A low pass continuous-time signal is defined as
𝑋𝑎 (𝑗Ω), 0 ≤ Ω ≤ Ω𝑝
• 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω = ൝ i.e., the signal exisits only in range 0 ≤ Ω ≤ Ω𝑝
0, Ω𝑝 < Ω < ∞
• Where, Ω𝑝 is called bandwidth of the signal and is less than ∞
• Highpass Continuous-time Signal:
• A highpass continuous-time signal is defined as
0, 0 ≤ Ω < Ω𝑝
• 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω = ൝ i.e., the signal exisits only in range Ω𝑝 ≤ Ω < ∞
𝑋𝑎 (𝑗Ω), , Ω𝑝 ≤ Ω < ∞
• The bandwidth of the signal is from Ω𝑝 𝑡𝑜 ∞
• Bandpass Continuous-time Signal:
• A bandpass continuous-time signal has a spectrum occupying the frequency range 0 < Ω𝐿 ≤
Ω ≤ Ω𝐻 < ∞
0, 0 ≤ Ω < Ω𝑎
• 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω = ቊ i.e., the signal exisits only in range Ω𝑎 ≤ Ω ≤ Ω𝑏
0, Ω𝑏 < Ω < ∞
• The bandwidth of the signal is Ω𝐻 − Ω𝐿 .
• Example 3.1: Find total energy fo the following signal for 𝛼 = 0.5, and
determine its 80% bandwidth 1.2
x(t)=e-j0.5t
−𝛼𝑡 1
𝑒 , 𝑡 ≥ 0,
• 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ቊ 0.8
0, 𝑡 < 0. 0.6
0.4
• Solution: (Method 1) 0.2
• The energy can be computed as: -0.2

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
in radians/sec
∞
∞ 2 𝑑𝑡 ∞ ∞ −2𝛼𝑡 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑡
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 =
−2𝛼 0
∞
𝑒 −2𝛼𝑡 1 The total energy is 1, i.e.,
• ℰ𝑥 = = 0−1 =1 ℰ𝑥 = 1
−2𝛼 0 −2×0.5

• Example 3.1: Find total energy fo the following signal for 𝛼 = 0.5, and
x(t)=e-j0.5t
determine its 80% bandwidth 1.2
𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0, 0.8
• 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ቊ 0.6
0, 𝑡 < 0. 0.4
• Solution: (Method 2)
0.2
• The energy using Parseval’s theorem can be computed as:

-0.2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
in radians/sec
1 ∞ 2 𝑑Ω 1
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑋𝑎 𝑗Ω where, 𝑋𝑎 (𝑗Ω) = (calculated on slide 6)
2𝜋 −∞ 𝛼+𝑗Ω
1 ∞ 1 2 1 ∞ 1 The total energy is 1, i.e.,
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑Ω = ‫׬‬0 2 2 𝑑Ω =1 ℰ𝑥 = 1
2𝜋 −∞ 𝛼+𝑗Ω 2𝜋 𝛼 +Ω

• Example 3.1: Find total energy fo the following signal for 𝛼 = 0.5, and determine its 80% -j0.5t
bandwidth 1.2
x(t)=e
𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0, The bandwidth is 1
• 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = ቊ 0 ≤ Ω ≤ 1.5388 or 0.8
0, 𝑡 < 0.
0 ≤ Ω ≤ 0.4898𝜋 0.6
• Solution: (80% bandwidth) 0.4
• The 80% bandwidth Ω𝑐 can be computed as: 0.2
1 Ω𝑐 1
• ℰ𝑥 =
0
‫׬‬ 𝑑Ω
2𝜋 −Ω𝑐 𝛼 2 +Ω2 -0.2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
1 Ω𝑐 1 1 1 Ω𝑐
−1 Ω 1 Ωc Ω𝑐 in radians/sec
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑Ω = tan = tan−1 − tan−1 −
2𝜋 −Ω𝑐 𝛼 2 +Ω2 2𝜋 𝛼 𝛼 −Ωc 2𝜋𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
1 Ω Ω 1 Ω
• ℰ𝑥 = tan−1 c + tan−1 𝑐 = tan−1 c since 𝛼 = 0.5
2𝜋𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝜋𝛼 𝛼
2 1 0.8𝜋
• tan−1 2Ω𝑐 = 0.8 ⟹ Ω𝐶 = tan ⟹ Ω𝐶 = 1.5388 80% (i.e
𝜋 2 2
0.8 of 1)
is here
The bandwidth is
0 ≤ Ω ≤ 1.5388 or
0 ≤ Ω ≤ 0.4898𝜋
80% (i.e
0.8 of 1)
is here

The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (Definition)
• The discrete-time Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝑤 ) of a sequence 𝑥[𝑛] is defined
by
• ℱ 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗𝑤𝑛
(3.10)
• Where, 𝑤 is the real normalized frequency variable.
• Equation (3.10) is called analysis equation.
• Example 3.5: Discrete-Time Fourier Transform of the Unit Sample Sequence
• Δ 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝛿 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑛 = 1
(3.11)
• Example 3.5: Discrete-Time Fourier Transform of the Shifted Unit Sample
Sequence
• 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝑤 ) = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑛 𝑜 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑛 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑛𝑜
(3.11)

• Example 3.6: Discrete-Time Fourier Transform of the Exponential
Sequence
This is geometric series
• Find the DTFT of an exponential sequence given and 𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 < 1,
Because 𝛼 = 0.5
𝑛
•𝑥 𝑛 =𝛼 𝑢 𝑛 , 𝛼 < 1, 3.12 We will use the formula
𝑎
(for convergent
• Solution: 1−𝑟
geometric series)
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 =
σ∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑛 = σ∞ 𝛼 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑛 = σ∞ 𝛼 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0
𝑛 2 1
•𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = σ∞
𝑛=0 𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 =1+ 𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 + 𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 +⋯=
1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤

Discrete Time Signals in the Frequency Domain x[n]= n
[n]
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (Definition) 1.2
0.8
• Find the DTFT of an exponential sequence given
Amplitude
0.6
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑛𝑢 𝑛 , 𝛼 < 1, 3.12 0.4
Mangnitude Plot 0.2
• Solution:
2
0
1.8
1 -0.2
•𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 1.6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
in radians/sec
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
Amplitude
1.4
• Magnitude:
Phase Plot
0.6
1.2
1
0.4
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 0.8
cos 𝜔+𝛼2
phase in radians
0.2
1−2𝛼 0.6
• Phase:
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 - - /2 0 /2 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
in radians/sample
-0.2
𝛼 sin 𝜔
• 𝜃 𝜔 = tan−1 -0.4
1−𝛼 cos 𝜔
-0.6
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 - - /2 0 /2 1.5 2 2.5 3
in radians
• The DTFT 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 of a discrete-time signal 𝑥 𝑛 is a function of the
normalized angular frequency 𝜔.
• It should be noted that 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 is aperiodic signal, whereas,
its DTFF 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 is periodic function in 𝜔 with a period of 2𝜋,
which is also evident from the magnitude plot.
x[n]= n
[n] 2
Mangnitude Plot
0.6
Phase Plot
1.2
1 1.8
0.4
0.8 1.6
phase in radians
0.2
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.6 1.4
0.4 1.2
-0.2
0.2 1
-0.4
0 0.8
-0.2 0.6 -0.6

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 - - /2 0 /2 1.5 2 2.5 3 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 - - /2 0 /2 1.5 2 2.5 3
in radians/sec in radians/sample in radians

• The DTFT 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 of a discrete-time signal • 𝑋 𝑒𝑗 𝑤+2𝜋𝑘
= σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗 𝑤+2𝜋𝑘 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 is a function of the normalized
angular frequency 𝜔. • = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 −𝑗2𝜋𝑘𝑛
𝑒
• It should be noted that 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 is • As we know that 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑘𝑛 = 1, for all
aperiodic signal, whereas, its DTFF
𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 is periodic function in 𝜔 with a values of 𝑘 and 𝑛, so the above expression
period of 2𝜋, which is also evident from reduces to
the magnitude plot.
• 𝑋 𝑒𝑗 𝑤+2𝜋𝑘
= σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗𝜔𝑛
= 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )
• The periodicity property can be proved
here. • It means that For DTFT of any function
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = σ∞ −𝑗𝑤𝑛 𝑥[𝑛] repeats after 2𝜋
• Replacing 𝜔 = 𝜔 + 2𝜋𝑘, where 𝑘 is an Periodicity Property
∞
integer, the above expression reduces to
𝑋 𝑒𝑗 𝑤+2𝜋𝑘 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 = 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )
• 𝑋 𝑒𝑗 𝑤+2𝜋𝑘
= σ∞
−𝑗 𝑤+2𝜋𝑘 𝑛
𝑛=−∞
DTFF 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 is periodic function in 𝜔 with a period of 2𝜋
• The inverse discrete-Fourier transform can be computed from 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )
using following expression
1 𝜋
• ℱ −1 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 =𝑥 𝑛 = ‫𝑋 ׬‬ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔, (3.14)
2𝜋 −𝜋
• Equation (3.14) is called synthesis equation.
• Integration can be carrid out over any interval of duration 2𝜋,
however, it is common practice to choose the interval −𝜋, 𝜋 .
• A discrete-time Fourier transform pair will be denoted as
ℱ
𝑥 𝑛 ՞ 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔

• The inverse discrete-Fourier transform can be computed from 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) using following
expression
1 𝜋
• ℱ −1 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 =𝑥 𝑛 = ‫׬‬ 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔, (3.14)
2𝜋 −𝜋
• Where 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = σ∞
𝑙=−∞ 𝑥 𝑙 𝑒
−𝑗𝑤𝑙 , putting this in above equation will result
1 𝜋
• 𝑥𝑛 = ‫׬‬−𝜋 σ∞ 𝑙=−∞ 𝑥 𝑙 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑙 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔,
2𝜋
• If 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 exists i.e. the summation converges, then the order of integration and
summation can be interchanged
𝜋
1 𝜋 𝑗𝜔 𝑛−𝑙 1 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 𝑛−𝑙
• 𝑥𝑛 = σ∞
𝑙=−∞ 𝑥 𝑙 ‫𝑒 ׬‬ 𝑑𝜔 = σ∞
𝑙=−∞ 𝑥 𝑙
2𝜋 −𝜋 2𝜋 𝑗 𝑛−𝑙 −𝜋
1
• 𝑥 𝑛 = σ∞
𝑙=−∞ 𝑥 𝑙 𝑒 𝑗𝜋 𝑛−𝑙
− 𝑒 −𝑗𝜋 𝑛−𝑙
2𝜋𝑗 𝑛−𝑙

1
• 𝑥 𝑛 = σ∞
𝑙=−∞ 𝑥 𝑙 𝑒 𝑗𝜋 𝑛−𝑙
− 𝑒 −𝑗𝜋 𝑛−𝑙
2𝜋𝑗 𝑛−𝑙
𝑒 𝑗𝜃 −𝑒^−𝑗𝜃
• We know sin 𝜃 = , putting this in above formula will result
2𝑗
∞ sin 𝜋(𝑛−𝑙)
• 𝑥 𝑛 = σ𝑙=−∞ 𝑥 𝑙 = σ∞𝑙=−∞ 𝑥 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 (𝑛 − 𝑙)
𝜋 𝑛−𝑙
sin 𝜋𝜙
• Since, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝜙 =
𝜋𝜙
• Case 1: For 𝑛 ≠ 𝑙, sin 𝜋 𝑛 − 𝑙 = 0, and as a result 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝑛 − 𝑙 = 0.
sin 𝜋(𝑛−𝑙) sin 𝜋(0) 0
• Case 2: For 𝑛 = 𝑙, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝑛 − 𝑙 = = = (𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑)
𝜋(𝑛−𝑙) 𝜋(0) 0

𝜋𝑛
• As, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝑛 = sin is the sampled version of contuous-time function
𝜋𝑛
sin(𝜋𝑡) sin(𝜋𝑡) sin 𝜋𝑡 Hence, proved that the integration
for 𝑡 = 𝑛; i.e. = ቚ 1 𝜋
𝜋𝑡 𝜋𝑡 𝜋𝑡 𝑡=𝑛 න 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔,
• We will use l’Hopital’s rule, i.e. 2𝜋 −𝜋
gives the original discrete-time signal
sin(𝜋𝑡) 𝜋 cos 𝜋𝑡
• lim = lim =1 𝑥[𝑛]
𝑡→0 𝜋𝑡 𝑡→0 𝜋 back from its DTFT 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
• Therefore,
1, 𝑛 = 𝑙,
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝑛 − 𝑙 = ቊ in other words 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝑛 − 𝑙 = 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑙]
0, 𝑛 ≠ 𝑙,
• Hence,
• σ∞𝑙=−∞ 𝑥 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝑛 − 𝑙 = σ ∞
𝑙=−∞ 𝑥 𝑙 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑙 = 𝑥[𝑛]

The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (Basic Properties)
• The Fourier Transform Decomposition into Real and Imaginary Parts:
• The Fourier transform 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 is a complex function of the real variable 𝜔.
• The Fourier transform 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 can be decomposed into its real 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 and
imaginary 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 parts
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 𝑗𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 (3.17)
• Where, both 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 and 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 are functions of real variable 𝜔.
1
• 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
= 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 𝑋 ∗ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 (3.18𝑎)
2
1
• 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑋 ∗ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 3.18𝑏
2
• Where, 𝑋 ∗ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 is complex conjugate of 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 .

• The Fourier Transform Polar Form Representation:
• The Fourier transform 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 can be represented in the polar form as
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝜔 (3.19)
• Where 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 is called the Fourier spectrum

• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 is a magnitude function, also called magnitude specturm, and is a
function 𝜔.
• 𝜃(𝜔) is a phase function, called phase specturem, and is also function of real
variable 𝜔.

• Relationship Between Rectangular and Polar Form Representation:
• The rectangular and polar form are related as follows:
• 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 cos 𝜃 𝜔 3.21𝑎
• 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 sin 𝜃 𝜔 3.21𝑏
• The magnitude spectrum is given as
2 2
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 𝑋𝑖𝑚 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 3.21𝑐
• The phase sepcturm is given as
𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
• tan 𝜃 𝜔 = 3.21𝑑
𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔

• Principal Value: 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃 𝜔 +2𝜋𝑘) = cos 𝜃 𝜔 + 2𝜋𝑘 + 𝑗 sin(𝜃 𝜔 + 2𝜋𝑘)
• The phase function is not uniquely specified cos 𝜃 𝜔 + 2𝜋𝑘 = cos 𝜃 𝜔 cos 2𝜋𝑘 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜔 sin 2𝜋𝑘
for the discrete-time Fourier transform. sin 𝜃 𝜔 + 2𝜋𝑘 = cos 𝜃 𝜔 sin 2𝜋𝑘 + sin 𝜃 𝜔 cos 2𝜋𝑘
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝜔 cos 2𝜋𝑘 = 1
• Replacing 𝜃 𝜔 with 𝜃 𝜔 + 2𝜋𝑘 (where 𝑘 is sin 2𝜋𝑘 = 0
an integer), the above equation reduces to 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃 𝜔 +2𝜋𝑘) = cos 𝜃 𝜔 + 𝑗 sin(𝜃 𝜔 ) = 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝜔
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃 𝜔 +2𝜋𝑘)
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝜔
• The above expression indicates that changing
phase does not change the Fourier transform.
• The phase function 𝜃(𝜔) is restricted to
following range of values, called principal
value
• −𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 𝜔 < 𝜋

The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (Symmetry Relations)
• Symmetry relations of the discrete-time Fourier transform of the real
signals: Sequence Discrete-Time Fourier Transform
𝑥[𝑛] 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + j𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
We know that the magnitude
spectrum is obtained as 𝑥𝑒𝑣 [𝑛] 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
2
𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑋 ∗ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑥𝑜𝑑 [𝑛] 𝑋𝑜𝑑 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
For real singlas
𝑋 ∗ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 ∗ 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
So, the magnitude spectrum 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
reduces to
𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
2
=𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑋 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
Symmetry Relations 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = −𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
arg 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = − arg 𝑋 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
• Symmetry relations of the discrete-time Fourier transform of the
complex signals: Sequence Discrete-Time Fourier Transform
𝑥[𝑛] 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 𝑗𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
Here, 𝑋𝑐𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 and 𝑋𝑎𝑐 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑥[−𝑛] 𝑋 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
are conjugate-symmetric and
conjugate-antisymmetric part 𝑥 ∗ [−𝑛] 𝑋 ∗ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
of 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 . 1
Likewise, 𝑥𝑐𝑠 [𝑛] and 𝑥𝑐𝑎 [𝑛] 𝑥𝑟𝑒 [𝑛] 𝑋𝑐𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 𝑋 ∗ 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
are conjugate-symmetric and 2
conjugate-antisymmetric 1
𝑗𝑥𝑖𝑚 [𝑛] 𝑋𝑐𝑎 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑋 ∗ 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
parts of 𝑥 𝑛 . 2
𝑥𝑐𝑠 [𝑛] 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
𝑥𝑐𝑎 [𝑛] 𝑗𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
• Example 3.7: Find DTFT, real & • Real & Imaginary Functions
imaginary, and magnitude & phase • 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 =
1
×
1−𝛼𝑒 𝑗𝜔
functions of following discrete-time 1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 1−𝛼𝑒 𝑗𝜔
real: • 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 =
1−𝛼𝑒 𝑗𝜔
1−𝛼 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 +𝑒 𝑗𝜔 +𝛼2
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑛𝑢 𝑛 , 𝛼 < 1, 1−𝛼(cos 𝜔+𝑗 sin 𝜔)
• Solution: • 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 =
1−2𝛼 cos 𝜔+𝛼2
1−𝛼 cos 𝜔 𝑗𝛼 sin 𝜔
• Discrete-Time Fourier Transform • 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 =
−
• We have found its DTFT (slide 20) of • 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 + 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝑤
this function; that is, 1−𝛼 cos 𝜔
• So, 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 =
1 1−2𝛼 cos 𝜔+𝛼2
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = 𝑗𝛼 sin 𝜔
1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 • 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = −

The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (Symmetry Relations) 2
Real Part
• Real & Imaginary Functions Real function

1.8
𝑗𝑤 1−𝛼 cos 𝜔
• is an even 1.6
𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 =
Amplitude
function and 1.4
𝑗𝛼 sin 𝜔
• 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = − also periodic 1.2
1−2𝛼 cos 𝜔+𝛼2 of period 1
𝟐𝝅. 0.8
Since cos 𝜔 and sin 𝜔 are periodic function

of 𝜔 with period of 2𝜋, as a result both
0.6
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 - - /2 0 /2 1.5 2 2.5 3
in radians/sample
𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 and 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 are also periodic of 0.8
Imaginary Part
function 𝜔 with period of 2𝜋. 0.6
Imaginary 0.4
function is an
Since cos 𝜔 and sin 𝜔 are even and odd 0.2
Amplitude
odd function
function, respectively, as a result 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 and also
0
and 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 are also even and odd,

-0.2
periodic of -0.4
respectively. period 𝟐𝝅. -0.6
-0.8
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 - - /2 0 /2 1.5 2 2.5 3
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com © 2018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi in radians
36
• Magnitude Function • Phase Function
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 2 + 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 2 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤
•𝜃 𝜔 = tan−1 𝑖𝑚
OR 𝑋𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝑤
𝛼 sin 𝜔
𝑗𝑤 −
• 𝑋 𝑒 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 . 𝑋∗ 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 1−2𝛼 cos 𝜔+𝛼2
• 𝜃 𝜔 = tan−1 1−𝛼 cos 𝜔
1 1 1−2𝛼 cos 𝜔+𝛼2
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = ×
1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 1−𝛼𝑒 𝑗𝑤 −1 −𝛼 sin 𝜔
• 𝜃 𝜔 = tan
1 1−𝛼 cos 𝜔
1−𝛼 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 +𝑒 𝑗𝜔 +𝛼2
1

The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (Symmetry Relations) Mangnitude Plot
2
• Magnitude & Phase Functions

1.8
Magnitude 1.6
1 function
Amplitude
𝑗𝑤
• 𝑋 𝑒
1.4
= 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 is
1−2𝛼 cos 𝜔+𝛼2 1.2
−𝛼 sin 𝜔 an even
•𝜃 𝜔 = tan−1
1
function
1−𝛼 cos 𝜔 0.8
0.6
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 - - /2 0 /2 1.5 2 2.5 3
in radians/sample
Both 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 and 𝜃 𝜔
Phase Plot
0.6
are periodic functions of 𝜔 0.4
Phase
with a period of 2𝜋.
function
phase in radians
0.2
𝜽 𝝎 is an 0
odd
-0.2
function
-0.4
-0.6
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com © 2018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 - - /2 0 /2 1.5 2 2.5 3
38
in radians
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (Convergence Condition)
• The Fourier transform 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 of a discrete-time sequence 𝑥[𝑛] exists if the following series
converges.
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗𝑤𝑛 3.10
• Let Eq. (3.24) denote the partial sum of the weighted complex exponentials in Eq. (3.10).
• 𝑋𝐾 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = σ𝐾
𝑛=−𝐾 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗𝑤𝑛 3.24
𝑗𝑤 • Thus, the condition: σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 < ∞
• The uniform convergence of 𝑋 𝑒 is given by
is sufficient for the existence of the
• lim 𝑋𝐾 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 Fourier transform 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 of the
k→∞
sequence 𝑥 𝑛 .
• Now, if 𝑥[𝑛] is an absolutely summable sequence; that is, if
• In other words, for an absolutely
• σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 < ∞ (3.25) summable sequence, the Fourier
• Then transform converges for all values of 𝜔
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = σ∞
−𝑗𝜔𝑛 ≤ σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 ≤ σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 < ∞ ∀𝜔
• Gaurantees the existence of 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 .
• Example: Find out whether the sequence given
below is absolutely summable or not. Its Fourier
transform is possible, if yes, does that converges
too? (the presence of 𝜇 𝑛 here 1.2
x[n]= n [n], where =0.5<1
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑛𝜇 𝑛 𝛼<1 indicates that limit is

Decaying Exponential Curve
from 0 to ∞ 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛 = 0 → ∞) 1
• Solution:
0.8
• σ∞𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 = σ ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝛼 𝑛
𝜇𝑛 =
Amplitude
0.6
• = σ∞ 𝑛=0 𝛼 𝑛 = 1 + 𝛼 + 𝛼2 + ⋯
• Since 𝛼 < 1, it means the series will𝑎converge, 0.4
and we will apply the formula 𝑆 = , the 0.2

1−𝑟
above expression reduces to
∞ 1 0
• 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 =
σ < ∞ Hence the sequence
1− 𝛼
is absolutely summable. -0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com © 2018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi Time Index 40

• Example: Find out whether the sequence given • Its discrete-time Fourier
below is absolutely summable or not. Its Fourier
transform is possible, if yes, does that converges transform is possible
too? and it converges.
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑛𝜇 𝑛 𝛼>1 1
• Solution: •𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 =
1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤
• σ∞𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 = σ ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝛼 𝑛
𝜇𝑛 =
• = σ∞ 𝑛=0 𝛼 𝑛 = 1 + 𝛼 + 𝛼2 + ⋯
• Since 𝛼 < 1, it means the series will𝑎converge,

and we will apply the formula 𝑆 = , the
1−𝑟
above expression reduces to
∞ 1
• 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 =
σ < ∞ Hence the sequence
1− 𝛼
is absolutely summable.
• Example: Find out whether the sequence x[n]= n [n], where =2>1
given below is absolutely summable or 9
Growing Exponential Curve

not. Its Fourier transform is possible, if 8
yes, does that converges too? 7
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑛𝜇 𝑛 𝛼<1 6
Amplitude
• Solution: 5
• σ∞ σ ∞ 𝑛𝜇 𝑛 = 4
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛=−∞ 𝛼
3
• = σ∞ 𝑛=0 𝛼 𝑛
= 1 + 𝛼 + 𝛼 2
+⋯ 2
• Since 𝛼 > 1, it means the series will not 1
converge and hence its DTFT does not 0
exit. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time Index
7 8 9 10 11 12

• Mean-Square Convergence
• An absolutely summable sequence always has a finite energy.
• However, a finite-energy signal is not necessarily absolutely summable.
• To represent such sequence by a discrete-time Fourier transform, it is
necessary to consider a mean-square convergence of 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 , in which case
the total energy of the error ℰ 𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 − 𝑋𝐾 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 must approach 0 at
each value of 𝜔 as 𝐾 goes to ∞; that is,
𝜋 2
• lim ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 − 𝑋𝐾 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 𝑑𝜔 = 0 (3.26)
𝐾→∞

H LP(ej )
• Example: Consider the Fourier transform of a
lowpass filter, shown in figure,
𝑗𝑤 1, 0 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝑐 , 1
• 𝑋𝐿𝑃 𝑒 =൜ (3.27)
0, 𝜔𝑐 < 𝜔 ≤ 𝜋.
• Solution:
• The inverse DTFT of 𝑋𝐿𝑃 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) is given by
1 𝜋
• ℎ𝐿𝑃 𝑛 = ‫𝐻 ׬‬ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −𝜋 𝐿𝑃
1 𝜔𝑐 𝑗𝜔𝑛 1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑐 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑐 𝑛
•= ‫𝑒 ׬‬ 𝑑𝜔 = −
2𝜋 𝜔𝑐 2𝜋 𝑗𝑛 𝑗𝑛
1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑐 𝑛 −𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑐 𝑛
•= - - c
𝜋𝑛 2𝑗 c
sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑛 normalized angular frequency ( )
•= , −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞ 𝑛 ≠ 0. (3.28)
𝜋𝑛
1 𝜋 H LP(ej )
• ℎ𝐿𝑃 𝑛 = ‫𝐻 ׬‬ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔
sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑛
•= , −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞ 𝑛 ≠ 0. (3.28) 1
𝜋𝑛
• For 𝑛 = 0, the inverse DTFT is given by
1 𝜋
• ℎ𝐿𝑃 0 = ‫𝐻 ׬‬ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔(0) 𝑑𝜔
1 𝜔𝑐 𝜔𝑐
• ℎ𝐿𝑃 0 = ‫𝜔𝑑 ׬‬ = (3.29)
2𝜋 −𝜔𝑐 𝜋
• The overall function for ℎ𝐿𝑃 𝑛 is obtained by
combining (3.28) and (3.29)
𝜔𝑐
, 𝑛 = 0,
𝜋 - - c
• ℎ𝐿𝑃 𝑛 = ൞sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑛 (3.30) c
, 𝑛 ≠ 0. normalized angular frequency ( )

𝜋𝑛
𝜔𝑐
, 𝑛 = 0,
𝜋
• ℎ𝐿𝑃 𝑛 = ൞sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑛 (3.30)
, 𝑛 ≠ 0.
𝜋𝑛
• The above function is often written as shown in Eq. (3.31) with the tacit assumption that
𝜔
at 𝑛 = 0, ℎ𝐿𝑃 𝑛 = 𝑐 .
𝜋
sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑛
• ℎ𝐿𝑃 𝑛 = , −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞ 3.31
𝜋𝑛
𝜔𝑐
• The energy of the above sequence ℎ𝐿𝑃 [𝑛] is and it converges, where the sequene
𝜋
ℎ𝐿𝑃 [𝑛] is not absolutely summable. As a result its DTFT 𝑋𝐿𝑃 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ), shown in (3.27) does
not converge uniformly for all values of 𝜔, but converges in mean-square sense.

K=5 K = 10
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ /
K = 15 K = 20
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 © 2018 Dr.
1 Muhammad Imran Qureshi
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 47
/ /
K=5 K = 10
1.2 1.2
• The mean-square convergence 1 1
property of the sequence ℎ𝐿𝑃 𝑛 0.8 0.8
Amplitude
Amplitude
cn be further illustrated by 0.6
0.4
0.6
examining the plot of the

0.4
0.2 0.2
function 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ /
sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑛 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
• 𝐻𝐿𝑃,𝐾 = σ𝐾
𝑛=−𝐾 𝑒 (3.32) 1.2
K = 15
1.2
K = 20
𝜋𝑛
• For various values of 𝐾.
1 1
0.8 0.8
Amplitude
Amplitude
• The plots for various values of 𝐾 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
are shown in the figures. 0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ /

K=5 K = 10
1.2 1.2
• The number of ripples increases as 1 1
𝐾 increases. 0.8 0.8
Amplitude
Amplitude
• The height of the largest ripple
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
remains the same for all values of 0.2 0.2
𝐾. 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/
• The oscillatory behavior in the plot

/
K = 15 K = 20
1.2 1.2
of 𝐻𝐿𝑃,𝐾 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) approximating a 1 1
Fourier transform 𝐻𝐿𝑃 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) in the 0.8 0.8
Amplitude
Amplitude
mean-square sense at a point of 0.6 0.6
discontinuity, known as Gibbs 0.4 0.4
0.2
0.2
phenomenon. 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ /

• There are sequences that are neither absolutely summable nor square-summable. For
examples:
1. Unit Step Sequence:
• It is denoted by 𝜇 𝑛 and is defined by
1, 𝑛 ≥ 0,
• 𝜇 𝑛 =൜ (2.46)
0, 𝑛 < 0.
2. Sinusoidal Sequence:
• A real sinusoidal sequence with constant amplitude (𝐴) has the form
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴 cos 𝑤𝑜 𝑛 + 𝜙 −∞≤𝑛≤∞ (2.48)
3. Complex Exponential Sequence
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝛼 𝑛 − ∞ ≤ 𝑛 ≤ ∞ 2.51
• Where, 𝛼 = 𝑒 (𝜎𝑜 +𝑗𝑤𝑜 )
• The Fourier transform for such signals (singals neither absolutely summable nor square-
summable) is possible by Dirac delta functions.

• Dirac delta Function or Ideal Impulse Function 𝛿(𝜔):
p
• It is a function of normalized angular frequency 𝜔, having following
( )
features:
1. Infinite height
2. Zero width
3. Unit area
• It is defined by the equation
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝜔 𝑑𝜔 = 1, 𝛿 𝜔 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜔 = 0. 3.33
• In terms of limiting form of a unit area pulse function 𝑝Δ 𝜔 , shown in
figure, can be defined as:
• 𝛿 𝜔 = lim 𝑝Δ 𝜔 ,
Δ→∞
• Where,
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑝Δ 𝜔 𝑑𝜔 = 1, 𝑝Δ 𝜔 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜔 = 0. 3.33
- 0
• The sampling property of the delta function is given by Unit Area Pulse Function

• Dirac delta Function or Ideal Impulse p ( )
Function 𝛿(𝜔):
• The sampling property of the delta function
is given by
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝐷 𝜔 𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔𝑜 )𝑑𝜔 = 𝐷(𝜔𝑜 )
• Where 𝐷(𝜔𝑜 ) is an arbitrary function of 𝜔
that is continuous 𝜔𝑜 .
• The Fourier transforms resulting from the
use of Dirac delta functions are not
continuous functions of 𝜔. - 0
Unit Area Pulse Function

• Example 3.9: Find the Fourier • The term
transform representation of following σ∞
complex exponential sequence 𝑘=−∞ 2𝜋𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔𝑜 + 2𝜋𝑘) is
periodic function of 𝜔 with a
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑛
period of 2𝜋 and is called a
• Where, 𝜔𝑜 is real. periodic impulse train.
• Solution:
• The Fourier transform is given by
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = σ∞
𝑘=−∞ 2𝜋𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔𝑜 + 2𝜋𝑘) 3.34
• Where 𝛿(𝜔) is an impulse function of
𝜔 and −𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑜 ≤ 𝜋.

Sequence Discrete-Time Fourier Transform
𝛅[𝐧] 𝟏
∞
𝟏 (−∞ < 𝐧 < ∞) ෍ 𝟐𝛑𝛅 𝛚 + 𝟐𝛑𝐤

𝐤=−∞
∞
𝟏
𝛍𝐧 + ෍ 𝛑𝛅(𝛚 + 𝟐𝛑𝐤)
𝟏 − 𝐞^ − 𝐣𝛚
Commonly Used 𝐤=−∞
∞
Discrete-Time 𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐨𝐧 ෍ 𝟐𝛑𝛅 𝛚 − 𝛚𝐨 + 𝟐𝛑𝐤
Fourier 𝐤=−∞
transform pairs 𝟏
𝛂𝐧 𝛍 𝐧 , 𝛂 <𝟏
𝟏 − 𝛂𝐞−𝐣𝛚
𝟏
(𝐧 + 𝟏)𝛂𝐧 𝛍 𝐧 , 𝛂 <𝟏
𝟏 − 𝛂𝐞−𝐣𝛚 𝟐
𝛚𝐜
, 𝐧 = 𝟎,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐧 𝛑
𝐡𝐋𝐏 𝐧 = (−∞ < 𝐧 < ∞) 𝐡𝐋𝐏 𝐧 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚 𝐧
𝛑𝐧 𝐜
, 𝐧 ≠ 𝟎.
𝛑𝐧 54
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Linearity Theorem)
• Let 𝑔[𝑛] and ℎ[𝑛] are two discrete-time sequences, and ℱ 𝑔 𝑛 =

𝐺(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) and ℱ ℎ 𝑛 = 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) then
ℱ
• 𝛼𝑔 𝑛 + 𝛽ℎ 𝑛 ՞ 𝛼𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 𝛽𝐻 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 (3.39)
• Where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are two constants.

The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Time-Reversal Theorem)
• The Fourier transform of the delayed sequence 𝑔[−𝑛] is given by

𝐺(𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 ); that is,
ℱ
• 𝑔 −𝑛 ՞ 𝐻 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 (3.40)
• Proof:
• The Fourier transform of the sequence 𝑔[𝑘] is given by
• ℱ 𝑔 𝑘 = σ∞ 𝑘=−∞ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑘 = 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
• Let 𝑘 = −𝑛, the above expression reduces to

• ℱ 𝑔 −𝑛 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 −𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑛 = 𝐺 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔

The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Time-Shifting Theorem)
• The Fourier transform of the time-reversed sequence 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑔[𝑛 − 𝑛 𝑜 ] is

given by e−j𝜔𝑛o 𝐺(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ); that is,
ℱ
• 𝑔 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 ՞ e−j𝜔𝑛o 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 (3.41)
• Proof:
• The Fourier transform of the sequence 𝑔[𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 ] is given by
• ℱ 𝑔 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 𝑒
−𝑗𝑤𝑛 = 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
• Let 𝑘 = 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 , the above expression reduces to Since

∞ −𝑗𝑤 𝑘+𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛𝑜 = 1,
• ℱ 𝑔 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 = σ𝑘=−∞ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑒 𝑜 =
−𝑗𝜔𝑛 ∞ −𝑗𝑤𝑘 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑗𝜔 thereby
• =𝑒 𝑜 σ𝑘=−∞ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑒 =𝑒 𝑜 𝐺 𝑒 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ;
• Similarly, that is , the magnitude
ℱ of the spectrum is
• 𝑔 𝑛 + 𝑛𝑜 ՞ ej𝜔𝑛o 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 unchanged by shifting a
signal in time.
• Find the Fourier transform of a Finite-length

Exponential Sequence 1
𝛼 𝑛 , 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑀 − 1, 0.9
•𝑦 𝑛 =ቊ 𝛼 < 1 0.8
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒, 0.7
• Solution: 0.6
Amplitude
0.5
• The above sequence can be written as 0.4
• 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 − 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛 − 𝑀] 0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time Index
• Example 3.10: Find the Fourier transform • Using Geometric series formula
of a Finite-length Exponential Sequence
𝑎1 1−𝑟 𝑛
𝛼 𝑛 , 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑀 − 1, 𝑆𝑛 = (for a finite-length
• 𝑦 𝑛 =ቊ 𝛼 <1 1−𝑟
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒, convergent series of total n
• Solution: (Method 1) terms)
• 𝑦 𝑛 = 1 + 𝛼 1 + 𝛼 2 + ⋯ + 𝛼 𝑀−1 . −𝑗𝜔 𝑀
𝑗𝜔 1− 𝛼𝑒
• The Fourier transform is obtained as •𝑌 𝑒 =
1−𝛼𝑒 −j𝜔
• 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑦 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗𝑤𝑛 1
0.9
• 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = σ𝑀−1 𝑛 −𝑗𝑤𝑛
𝑛=0 𝛼 𝑒
0.8
0.7
0.6
Amplitude
• 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
=1+ 𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 +⋯+ 0.5
−𝑗𝜔 𝑀−1 0.4
𝛼𝑒 0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com © 2018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 59
Time Index
• Example 3.10: Find the Fourier transform • Using the time-shifting property
of a Finite-length Exponential Sequence
the DTFT for 𝛼 𝑛−𝑀 𝜇 𝑛 − 𝑀 is
𝛼 𝑛 , 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑀 − 1,
• 𝑦 𝑛 =ቊ 𝛼 <1 obtained as
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒,
𝑛−𝑀 −𝑗𝜔𝑀 1
• Solution: (Method 2) • ℱ{𝛼 𝜇 𝑛−𝑀 }=𝑒
• The above sequence can be written as
𝑛 𝑛 • The overall DTFT of 𝑦[𝑛] is
• 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝛼 𝜇 𝑛 − 𝛼 𝜇[𝑛 − 𝑀]
obtained as
• The above sequence can be written as
1 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑀
• 𝑛 𝑀 𝑛−𝑀 𝑗𝜔 𝑀
𝑦 𝑛 =𝛼 𝜇 𝑛 −𝛼 𝛼 𝜇[𝑛 − 𝑀] •𝑌 𝑒 = −𝑗𝜔 +𝛼 −𝑗𝜔
• 𝑛
The DTFT for 𝛼 𝜇 𝑛 was found on slide # 1−𝛼𝑒 1−𝛼𝑒
34; that is, 𝑗𝜔 1+𝛼𝑀 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑀
•𝑌 𝑒 =
• ℱ{𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 }=
1 1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
2.2 0.6
2
0.4
1.8
Phase in Radians
0.2
1.6
Amplitude
1.4 0
1.2
-0.2
1
-0.4
0.8
0.6 -0.6
-3 -2 - 0 2 3 -3 -2 - 0 2 3
Normalized Frequencey ( ) Normalized Frequencey ( )

• Example 3.11: Find the Fourier transform • So the overall DTFT is obtained as
of a sequence defined by a difference
equation • 𝑑𝑜 𝑉 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 𝑑1 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 𝑉 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑝𝑜 +
• 𝑑𝑜 𝑣 𝑛 + 𝑑1 𝑣 𝑛 − 1 = 𝑝𝑜 𝛿 𝑛 + 𝑝1 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
𝑑1
𝑝1 𝛿 𝑛 − 1 , < 1. 𝑗𝜔 𝑝 +𝑝 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
𝑑2 •𝑉 𝑒 = 𝑜 1
• Solution: 𝑑𝑜 +𝑑1 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
• The DTFT of 𝛿 𝑛 is 1; that is,
• 𝑉 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 1,
• The DTFT of 𝑣 𝑛 − 1 = 𝛿[𝑛 − 1] is
obtained by using shifting property
• 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 𝑉 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔

The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Freqeuncy-Shifting Theorem)
• The Fourier transform of the sequence 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑛 𝑔[𝑛] is given by X ej𝜔 =

𝐺 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔−𝜔𝑜 ; that is,
ℱ
• 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑛 𝑔
𝑛 ՞ 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔−𝜔𝑜 (3.45)
• Proof:
• ℱ 𝑔 𝑛 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 = 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ….. (A)
• Similarly, the DTFT of 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑛 𝑔[𝑛] is obtained as

• ℱ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑛 𝑔 𝑛 = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑒
𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑛 𝑔 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛
• ℱ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑛 𝑔 𝑛 = σ∞𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗 𝜔−𝜔𝑜 𝑛 … . (𝐵)
• Comparing (A) and (B) will result

• ℱ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑛 𝑔 𝑛 = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗 𝜔−𝜔𝑜 𝑛 = 𝐺 𝑒𝑗 𝜔−𝜔𝑜

• Example 3.12: Find the Fourier • Using Geometric series formula

transform of a Finite-length 𝑎1
Exponential Sequence 𝑆𝑛 = (for a infinite-length
1−𝑟
• 𝑦 𝑛 = −1 𝑛 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛] 𝛼 < 1 convergent series)
• Solution: (Method 1) 1 1
•𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = =
1−(−𝛼𝑒 −j𝜔 ) 1+𝛼𝑒 −j𝜔
• 𝑦 𝑛 = 1 − 𝛼1 + 𝛼 2 − ⋯ .
1
• The Fourier transform is obtained as 0.8
0.6
• 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔= σ∞𝑛=−∞ 𝑦 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗𝑤𝑛
0.4
Amplitude
0.2
• 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = σ∞ 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑗𝑤𝑛
𝑛=0 −1 𝛼 𝑒 0
-0.2
• 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 1 + −𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 + -0.4

2
−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 + ⋯ -0.6
-0.8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com © 2018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi Time Index 64
• Example 3.12: Find the Fourier • Applying frequency-shifting

transform of a Finite-length
Exponential Sequence theorem, the DTFT of 𝑦[𝑛] is
• 𝑦 𝑛 = −1 𝑛 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛] 𝛼 < 1
obtained as:
1
• Solution: (Method 2) • ℱ{𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑛 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 }=
1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔−𝜋)
• The above sequence can be written
as • Where, 𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔−𝜋) = −𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
• 𝑦 𝑛 n = 𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑛 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛] (because 𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑛 = • The above expression reduces to
−1 )
1
• The DTFT of 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛] is (as we found • ℱ{𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑛 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 } =
in previous slides) 1+𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
1
• ℱ{𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 }=
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Frequency-Shifting Theorem)
4 1
3.5
3 0.5
Phase in Radians
Amplitude
2.5
0
2
1.5
-0.5
1
0.5
-3 -2 - 0 2 3 -1
-3 -2 - 0 2 3
Normalized Frequencey ( )
Normalized Frequencey ( )
It can be seen that the spectrum of the sequence −1 𝑛 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛] is same as that of 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛] (shown on
slide 22), except the spectrum of 𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑛 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛] is shifted by 𝜋 radians
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Differentiation-in-Frequency-Theorem)
• The Fourier transform of the sequence 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑔[𝑛] is given by

j𝜔 𝑗𝑑
X e = 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ; that is, ∞
𝑑𝜔 𝑑 𝑗𝜔
𝑑
ℱ 𝑑𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝐺 𝑒 = ෍ 𝑔 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
• 𝑛𝑔 𝑛 ՞ 𝑗 (3.46) 𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜔
𝑛=−∞
𝑑𝜔 ∞
𝑑
Proof: 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = −𝑗 ෍ 𝑛𝑔 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑑𝜔
The DTFT of sequence 𝑔[𝑛] is obtained as 𝑛=−∞
∞ Multiplying both sides by 𝑗
∞
𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = ෍ 𝑔 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑗𝑑
𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = ෍ 𝑛𝑔 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑛=−∞
𝑑𝜔
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝜔. 𝑛=−∞
𝑗𝑑
𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = ℱ 𝑛𝑔 𝑛
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com © 2018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi 𝑑𝜔 67
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Differentiation-in-Freqeuncy-Theorem)
• Example 3.13: Find out the 1.8
discret-time Fourier transform 1.6
representation of following 1.4
sequence 1.2
Amplitude
• 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1 𝛼𝑛𝜇 𝑛 , 𝛼 < 1 1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Time Index

• Example 3.13: Find out the discrete- • The𝑛 discrete-time Fourier transform for
𝑛𝛼 𝜇 𝑛 can be found using
time Fourier transform differentiation theorem of DTFT
representation of following 𝑗𝑑
sequence • ℱ{𝑛𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 } = ℱ{𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 }
𝑑𝜔
• 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1 𝛼𝑛𝜇 𝑛 , 𝛼 < 1 • ℱ{𝑛𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 } =
𝑗𝑑 1
𝑑𝜔 1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
• Solution: −𝑗𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
• ℱ{𝑛𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 }= 𝑗
• 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 + 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 … (𝐴) 1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
2
• We have found discrete-time • ℱ{𝑛𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 }=

𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
2 … (𝐶)
Fourier transform for 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
1 • Using (B) and (C) in (A), will results

• ℱ{𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 }= −𝑗𝜔 … … (𝐵) 1
1−𝛼𝑒 • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 2
2
16
1.5
14
1
Phase in Radians
12
0.5
10
Amplitude
0
8
6 -0.5
4 -1
2 -1.5
0 -2
-3 -2 - 0 2 3 -3 -2 - 0 2 3
Normalized Frequencey ( ) Normalized Frequencey ( )

The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Convolution Theorem)
• The Fourier transform Y ej𝜔 of the
convolution sum of two sequence ∞
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑔 𝑛 ∗ ℎ 𝑛 , is given by the • Y ej𝜔 = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ σ𝑘=−∞ 𝑔 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛 − 𝑘 𝑒
−𝑗𝜔𝑛
product of their Fourier transforms • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = σ∞ ∞

𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑘 σ𝑘=−∞ ℎ 𝑛 − 𝑘 𝑒
−𝑗𝜔𝑛
G ej𝜔 H ej𝜔 ; that is, • Let 𝑚 = 𝑛 − 𝑘 ⟹ 𝑛 = 𝑚 + 𝑘
ℱ 𝑗𝜔 = σ∞ ∞ −𝑗𝜔(𝑚+𝑘)
• 𝑔 𝑛 ∗ ℎ 𝑛 ՞𝐺 𝐻 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 (3.46) • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑘 σ 𝑘=−∞ ℎ[𝑚]𝑒
∞
• Proof: • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = σ∞
𝑛 𝑔 𝑘 σ𝑘=−∞ ℎ[𝑚]𝑒
−𝑗𝜔𝑚 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑘
• The convolution of 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑔 𝑛 ∗ • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = σ∞
𝑛 𝑔 𝑘 𝐻 𝑒
𝑗𝜔 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑘
ℎ 𝑛 , is given by • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = σ∞
𝑛 𝑔 𝑘 𝑒
−𝑗𝜔𝑘 𝐻 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
• 𝑦 𝑛 = σ∞ 𝑘=−∞ 𝑔 𝑘 ℎ[𝑛 − 𝑘] • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝐻 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
• Taking DTFT of above equation
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Convolution Theorem)
• Example 3.14: Find the convolution • The convolution is obtained as
sum of following two sequences using • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝐻 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
DTFT
1
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 𝛼 < 1 and • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 =
1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 1−𝛽𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
• ℎ 𝑛 = 𝛽𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 𝛽 < 1 • Using partial fraction by parts above
• 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 ∗ ℎ[𝑛] expression can be written as
𝛼 𝛽
• Solution: 𝛼−𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
• 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = −
• The DTFT of 𝑥 𝑛 and 𝑦 𝑛 of the two 1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 1−𝛽𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
sequences are obtained as follows: • After taking IDFT, we have
1 𝛼 𝛽
•𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = •𝑦𝑛 = 𝛼𝑛𝜇 𝑛 + 𝛽𝑛 𝜇[𝑛]
1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 𝛼−𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
𝑗𝜔 1 𝛼𝑛+1 −𝛽𝑛+1
•𝐻 𝑒 = •𝑦𝑛 = 𝜇[𝑛]
1−𝛽𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 𝛼−𝛽
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Modulation Theorem)
• The Fourier transform Y ej𝜔 of the product • 𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = σ∞
1 𝜋
‫𝐺 ׬‬ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 𝑑𝜃 ℎ 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
of two sequence 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑔 𝑛 ℎ 𝑛 , is given 𝑛=−∞ 2𝜋 −𝜋
by the convolution integral of their Fourier 1 𝜋
1 𝜋
transforms ‫׬‬−𝜋 G ej𝜃 H ej 𝜔−𝜃 𝑑𝜃; that • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = ‫𝐺 ׬‬ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 σ∞
𝑛=−∞ ℎ 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗 𝜔−𝜃 𝑛
𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 −𝜋
2𝜋
is, • Where
ℱ 1 𝜋
• 𝑔𝑛ℎ𝑛 ՞ ‫׬‬−𝜋 G ej𝜃 H ej 𝜔−𝜃
𝑑𝜃 (3.50)• H ej 𝜔−𝜃 = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ ℎ 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗 𝜔−𝜃 𝑛
2𝜋
• Proof: • Putting in above equation will reduce to
• The DTFT of 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑔 𝑛 ℎ 𝑛 , is given by • 𝑌 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 =
1 𝜋
‫𝐺 ׬‬ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 H ej 𝜔−𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 −𝜋
• 𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = σ∞𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛 ℎ 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗𝜔𝑛
• Taking inverse DTFT of 𝑔 𝑛 is given below Modulation theorem is

1 𝜋 also called Windowing
• 𝑔 𝑛 = ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 𝑑𝜃 put this in
2𝜋 Theorem, used in
above equation will result
amplitude modulation
and FIR filter design
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems (Parseval’s Theorem)
• The Parseval’s theorem states that the sum of sample-by-sample
product of two complex sequences in terms of an integral of the
product of their Fourier transforms.
1 𝜋
• σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛ℎ 𝑛 = ∗
‫ ׬‬G ej𝜔 H ∗ ej𝜔 𝑑𝜔 (3.51)
2𝜋 −𝜋
• Proof:
1 𝜋
• σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛 ℎ ∗
𝑛 = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛 ‫׬‬ 𝐻 ∗
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −𝜋
1 𝜋 The Parseval’s
• = ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝐻∗ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑑𝜔 theorem is used in
2𝜋
the computation of
1 𝜋
• σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛 ℎ ∗
𝑛 = ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝐻∗ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝐺(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )𝑑𝜔 the energy of a
2𝜋 finite-energy
sequene.
Energy Density Spectrum of a Discrete-Time Sequence
• The total energy of a finite-energy sequence 𝑔 𝑛 is
given by The quantity
2
• ℰ𝑔 = σ∞ 2 𝑆𝑔𝑔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛
Is called the energy density
• ℰ𝑔 = σ∞ 𝑛 𝑔∗ [𝑛]
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 spectrum of the sequence.
• From Paseval’s theorem, we know that
1 𝜋
σ∞ ∗
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛 ℎ 𝑛 = 2𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 G e
j𝜔 H ∗ ej𝜔 𝑑𝜔,
so the above expression reduces o The area under

this curve
1 𝜋 j𝜔
• ℰ𝑔 = ‫׬‬ G e G∗ ej𝜔 𝑑𝜔 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
2
2𝜋 −𝜋
1 𝜋 2 in the range
• ℰ𝑔 = G ej𝜔 𝑑𝜔 3.52
‫׬‬
2𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋 ≤ 𝜔 < 𝜋
2 divided by 2𝜋 is
• 𝑆𝑔𝑔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 (3.53) the energy of the
sequence
• Example 3.15: Find the energy of a lowpass filter,
shown in figure, H LP(ej )
𝑗𝑤 1, 0 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝑐 ,
• 𝑋𝐿𝑃 𝑒 =൜ (3.27) 1
0, 𝜔𝑐 < 𝜔 ≤ 𝜋.
• Solution:
1 𝜋 2
• ℰ𝑔 = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ ℎ𝐿𝑃 𝑛 2
= ‫׬‬−𝜋 HLP ej𝜔 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋
1 𝜔𝑐 1 𝜔𝑐 𝜔𝑐
• ℰ𝑔 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝜔 = 𝜔 −𝜔𝑐 =
2𝜋 −𝜔𝑐 2𝜋 𝜋
𝜔𝑐 - - c
• ℰ𝑔 = <∞ Hence, ℎ𝐿𝑃 [𝑛] is a finite-energy c
normalized angular frequency ( )
𝜋
sequence
• Example 3.6: Find the energy of 1 𝜋 1 1
following causal exponential sequence • ℰ𝑔 = 2𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 1−𝛼𝑒 𝑗𝑤 𝑑𝜔
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑛𝑢 𝑛 , 𝛼 < 1, 1 𝜋 1
• ℰ𝑔 = ‫׬‬−𝜋 2 𝑑𝜔
• Solution: 2𝜋 1+𝛼 −2𝛼 cos 𝜔
• Using MATLAB command we have following integration
• The energy is given by • >> syms a w
1 𝜋 2 • >> f=1/(1+a^2-2*a*cos(w));
• ℰ𝑔 = ‫ ׬‬X ej𝜔 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −𝜋 • >> int(f)
1 𝜋
• ℰ𝑔 = ‫ ׬‬X ej𝜔 X ∗ ej𝜔 𝑑𝜔 • For 𝛼 = 0.5
2𝜋 −𝜋
• Where, 𝜋
𝑗𝑤 1 ∗ 𝑗𝑤 1 • ℰ𝑔 = 0.8488 tan−1 3 tan
•𝑋 𝑒 = , 𝑋 𝑒 = 2
1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 1−𝛼𝑒 𝑗𝑤
• So, • ℰ𝑔 = 1.333333
1 1 1
• = 𝜔 𝜔 = 𝜔 𝜔
1+𝛼2 −2𝛼 cos 𝜔 1+𝛼 2 −2𝛼 cos2 −sin2 1+𝛼2 −2𝛼 cos2 +2𝛼 sin2
2 2 2 2
1 1
• = 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
1+𝛼 2 −2𝛼 cos 𝜔 cos2 2 +sin2 2 𝛼 2 + cos2 2 +sin2 2 −2𝛼 cos2 2 +2𝛼 sin2 2
1
• =
1+𝛼 2 −2𝛼 cos 𝜔
1
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
cos2 2 𝛼 2 −2𝛼 cos2 2 +cos2 2 + sin2 2 𝛼 2 +2𝛼 sin2 2 +sin2 2
1 1
• = 2𝜔 𝜔
1+𝛼 2 −2𝛼 cos 𝜔 cos 2 𝛼−1 2 +sin2 2 𝛼+1 2

(Band-Limited Discrete-Time Signals)
• The spectrum of a discrete-time signal is a periodic function of 𝜔 with a period of
2𝜋 (i. e 0 ≤ 𝜔 < 2𝜋 𝑜𝑟 − 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜋).
• A full-band, discrete-time signal has a spectrum occupying a whole frequency
range −𝜋 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜋.
• A band-limited, discrete-time signal has a spectrum occupying a limited portion
of the above frequency range −𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑎 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝑏 ≤ 𝜋.
• An ideal band-limited signal has a spectrum that is zero outside a finite frequency
range 0 ≤ 𝜔𝑎 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝑏 < 𝜋: that is,
𝑗𝜔 0, 0 ≤ 𝜔 < 𝜔𝑎
•𝑋 𝑒 =ቊ i.e., the signal exisits only in range 𝜔𝑎 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝑏
0, 𝜔𝑏 < 𝜔 < 𝜋
• An ideal band-limited signal cannot be generated in practice.
• However, for practical purposes, it is ensured that the energy of band-limited
signal outside the specified frequency range is sufficiently small.

• Lowpass Discrete-time Signal:
• A low pass discrete-time signal exists only in the range 0 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝑝 < 𝜋, is defined as
𝑗𝜔
𝑋 𝑒 , 0 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝑝
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = ൝ i.e., the signal exisits only in range 0 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝑝
0, 𝜔𝑝 < 𝜔 < 𝜋
• Where, 𝜔𝑝 is called bandwidth of the signal.
• Highpass Discrete-time Signal:
• A highpass discrete-time signal exists in the range 𝜔𝑝 ≤ 𝜔 < 𝜋, and is defined as
0, 0 ≤ 𝜔 < 𝜔𝑝
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = ൝ i.e., the signal exisits only in range 𝜔𝑝 ≤ 𝜔 < 𝜋
𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 , 𝜔𝑝 ≤ 𝜔 < 𝜋
• The energy of the signal is split evenly between the positive and negative frequency range, and 𝜋 − 𝜔𝑝 is the
bandwidth of the signal.
• Bandpass Discrete-time Signal:
• A bandpass discrete-time signal has a spectrum occupying the frequency range 0 < 𝜔𝐿 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝐻 < 𝜋
0, 0 ≤ 𝜔 < 𝜔𝑎
• 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = ቊ i.e., the signal exisits only in range 𝜔𝑎 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜔𝑏
0, 𝜔𝑏 < 𝜔 < ∞
• The bandwidth of the signal is 𝜔𝐻 − 𝜔𝐿 .
𝜔 +𝜔
• A bandwidth signal with a bandwidth much smaller than 𝐻 𝐿 is referred as narrow-band signal.
2
• Example : Find total energy of the following signal for 𝛼 = 0.5, and
determine its 80% bandwidth
1
𝑛
• 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝛼 𝜇[𝑛]
• Solution: (Total Energy) 0.8
• The energy can be computed as:
Amplitude
0.6 The total energy is 1, i.e.,
∞ ℰ𝑥 = 1.3333
• ℰ𝑥 = σ∞𝑛=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛] 2
= σ𝑛=0 𝛼 2𝑛
0.4
2 4
• ℰ𝑥 = 1 + 𝛼 + 𝛼 + ⋯
1 1 0.2
• ℰ𝑥 = = = 1.333
1−𝛼2 1−0.25
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time Index 81
• Example 3.1: Find total energy of the following signal for 𝛼 = 0.5, and determine
its 80% bandwidth
• 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛] Mangnitude Plot
2
• Solution: (80% Bandwidth)
1.8
• The energy can be computed Parseval’s theorem as:
1 𝜋 j𝜔 2 1.6
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬ X e 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −𝜋
Amplitude
1.4 80% Energy lies
1 𝜔𝑐 1 2 Between these two lines
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝜔 1.2
2𝜋 −𝜔𝑐 1−𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤
4 1 𝜔𝑐 1
• 0.8 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝜔 1
3 2𝜋 −𝜔𝑐 1+𝛼2 −2𝛼 cos 𝜔
0.8
• 𝜔𝑐 ≤ 0.5081 × 𝜋 The bandwidth is
0 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 1.5962 radiansor 0.6
-3 -2 - 0 0.5081 2 3
0 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 0.5081𝜋 radians
Mangnitude Plot
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
Amplitude
80% Energy lies

Between these two lines
1.2
0.8
0.6
-3 -2 - 0 0.5081 2 3

• Example : Find total energy of the following signal for 𝛼 = 0.5, and
determine its 80% bandwidth
1
𝑛 𝑛
• 𝑦 𝑛 = −1 𝛼 𝜇[𝑛] 𝛼 < 1 0.8
• Solution: (Total Energy) 0.6 The total energy is 1, i.e.,

ℰ𝑥 = 1.3333
• The energy can be computed as: 0.4
Amplitude
0.2
∞
• ℰ𝑥 = σ∞𝑛=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛] 2
= σ𝑛=0 𝛼 2𝑛
0
• ℰ𝑥 = 1 + 𝛼 2 + 𝛼 4 + ⋯ -0.2
-0.4
1 1 4
• ℰ𝑥 = = = = 1.333
1−𝛼2 1−0.25 3 -0.6
-0.8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Time Index 84
𝜔 𝜋
1 2 𝛼−1 tan 2
• Example : Find total energy fo the following • ℰ𝑦 = tan−1
signal for 𝛼 = 0.5, and determine its 80% 2𝜋 𝛼2 −1 𝛼+1
−𝜋
bandwidth
• Put 𝛼 = 0.5
• 𝑦 𝑛 = −1 𝑛 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛] 𝛼 <1
4 𝜋
−1 1 𝜔
• Solution: (Total Energy Using Parseval’s Theorem) • ℰ𝑦 = tan tan
3𝜋 3 2 −𝜋
• The energy can be computed as:
4 1 𝜋 1 −𝜋
1 𝜋 2 • ℰ𝑦 = tan−1
tan − tan−1 tan
• ℰ𝑦 = ‫׬‬ Y ej𝜔 𝑑𝜔 3𝜋 3 2 3 2
2𝜋 −𝜋
4 1 𝜋 8
1 𝜋 1 2 • ℰ𝑥 = 2tan−1 tan = 1.5708
• ℰ𝑦 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝜔 3𝜋 3 2 3𝜋
2𝜋 −𝜋 1+𝛼𝑒 −𝑗𝑤
4
• ℰ𝑦 =
1 𝜋
‫׬‬
1
𝑑𝜔 • ℰ𝑥 = 1.333 =
2𝜋 −𝜋 1+𝛼2 +2𝛼 cos 𝜔 3
• >> syms a w
• >> f = 1/(1+a^2+2*a*cos(w)); The total energy is 1, i.e., ℰ𝑥 = 1.3333
• >> F=int(f)

𝜔 𝜔𝑐
• Example : Find total energy fo the 16 1 2
tan−1
𝛼−1 tan 2
following highpass signal for 𝛼 = 0.5, • 15
=
2𝜋 𝛼2 −1 𝛼+1
and determine its 80% bandwidth −𝜔𝑐
• 𝑦 𝑛 = −1 𝑛 𝛼 𝑛 𝜇[𝑛] 𝛼 < 1 • Put 𝛼 = 0.5

16 4 1 𝜔 𝜔𝑐
• Solution: (80% Bandwidth) • = tan−1 tan
15 3𝜋 3 2 −𝜔𝑐
• The energy can be computed Parseval’s
theoremas: 4𝜋 −1 1 𝜔𝑐 8
• = 2tan tan = 1.5708
5 3 2 3𝜋
1 𝜋 2
• ℰ𝑦 = ‫׬‬ Y ej𝜔 𝑑𝜔 • ℰ𝑥 = 2 × tan−1 3 tan
2𝜋
= 2.9258 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
2𝜋 −𝜋 5
1 𝜔𝑐 1 2
80% energy at 𝜔𝑐 = 2.958 𝑜𝑟 0.9313𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
• ℰ𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −𝜔𝑐 1+𝛼𝑒 −j𝜔 20% energy at 𝜔𝑝 = 1.5452 𝑜𝑟 0.4919𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
4 1 𝜔𝑐 1 70% energy at 𝜔𝑝 = 2.8051 𝑜𝑟 0.8929𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
• 0.8 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝜔
3 2𝜋 −𝜔𝑐 1+𝛼2 +2𝛼 cos 𝜔
The bandwidth of highpass signal is
1.5452 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜋radiansor
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com © 2018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi 0.4919𝜋 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜋radians 86
Mangnitude Plot
4
0.4919𝜋 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜋
The bandwidth is
1.5452 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 𝜋
3.5
radiansor
radians
3
2.5
Amplitude
100% energy at
2 𝜔 = 𝜋 radians
1.5
0.5
-3 -2 - 0 0.49 0.89 2 3
20% energy at 𝜔𝑝 =
1.5452 70% energy at
𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝑝 = 2.8051
0.4919𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑟
Contact: imran.muet@gmail.com © 2018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi 0.8929𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 87
(DTFT Compuation Using MATLAB)
• The function freqz can be used to calculate the values of the Fourier
transform of a sequence, described as a rational function in 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 as
shown below, at a prescribed set of discrete frequency points.
0.008 − 0.033𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 + 0.05𝑒 −𝑗2𝜔 − 0.055𝑒 −𝑗3𝜔 + 0.008𝑒 −𝑗4𝜔
𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 =
1 + 2.37𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 + 2.7𝑒 −𝑗2𝜔 + 1.6𝑒 −𝑗3𝜔 + 0.41𝑒 −𝑗4𝜔
Real part Imaginary part Magnitude Spectrum Phase Spectrum
1 1 1 4
3
0.8
0.5 0.5 2
Phase, radians
1
Magnitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.6
0 0 0
0.4 -1
-0.5 -0.5 -2
0.2
-3
-1 -1 0 -4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ / / /

Real part Imaginary part
1 1
Amplitude 0.5 0.5
Amplitude
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ /
Magnitude Spectrum Phase Spectrum
1 4
3
0.8
2
Phase, radians
1
Magnitude
0.6
0
0.4 -1
-2
0.2
-3
0 -4
Contact:0imran.muet@gmail.com
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 ©12018 Dr. Muhammad Imran Qureshi 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 189
/ /
(The Unwrapped Phase Function) 4
Phase Spectrum
• In numerical computation, when 2
Phase, radians
the computed phase function is 1
outised the range −𝜋, 𝜋 , the 0
phase is computed modulo 2𝜋 to -1

bring the computed value to this -2
range. -3
• As a result, the phase functions of -4

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
some sequence exhibit /
discontinuities of 2𝜋 radians in the The is the

Discontinuity discontinuity, as the
plot. phase reaches to −𝜋,
at frequency
• The discontinuity of 2𝜋 at around 𝜔 = 0.72 instead of going
𝜔 = 0.72 can be seen in the graph. further onward, it
jumps to 𝜋 (modulo
2𝜋) and starts over
(The Unwrapped Phase Function)
• In numerical computation, when the computed phase function is outised
the range −𝜋, 𝜋 , the phase is computed modulo 2𝜋 to bring the
computed value to this range.
• As a result, the phase functions of some sequence exhibit discontinuities of
2𝜋 radians in the plot.
• The discontinuity of 2𝜋 at around 𝜔 = 0.72 can be seen in the graph.
• Unwrapping the Phase: In such cases, an alternate type of phase function
that is a continuous function of 𝜔 derived from the original phase function
by removing the discontinuity of 2𝜋.
• The new phase function (𝜃𝑐 (𝜔)) is formed, and it is continuous function of
𝜔.

(The Unwrapped Phase Function)
Phase Spectrum Unwrapped Phase Spectrum
4 0
3 -1
2
-2
Phase, radians
Phase, radians
1
-3
0
-4
-1
-5
-2
-3 -6
-4 -7
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ /

Digital Processing of Continuous-Time Signals
• Most signals, such asspeech, music, and images, in real world are
continuous in time.
• For processing by digital systems, such signals are needed to be
converted to digital form (in binary form) using analog-to-digital
converter.
• After processing the discrete-time signals are converted back to
continuous-time signals using digital-to-analog converter.

• A/D converter and D/A converter are enough to convert analog to
digital and digital to analog, respectively.
• In addition to A/D converter and D/A converter, we need several
additional circuits.

• A/D converter and D/A converter are enough to convert analog to
digital and digital to analog, respectively.
• In addition to A/D converter and D/A converter, we need several
additional circuits.
• Anti-aliasing Filter
• Sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit:
• Reconstruction (Smoothing) Filter

• Sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit:
• It has dual purposes:
1. It samples the input continuous-time signal at periodic intervals.
2. Since the A/D conversion usually takes a finite amount of time, therefore the analog
signal at the input of the A/D converter remains constant in amplitude until the
conversion is complete to minimize the error in its representation. This is achieved by
S/H circuit.
• Reconstruction (Smoothing) Filter:
• The output of a D/A converter is a staircase-like waveform. In order to smooth
that waveform an analog reconstruction(smoothing) filter is used.
• Anti-aliasing Filter
• To prevent aliasing, an anti-aliasing filter is used before S/H circuit.

• In general, there exists an infinite number of continuous-time signals
that, when sampled at the same sampling rate lead to the same
discrete-time signal.
• However, under certain conditions,
• it is possible to relate a unique continuous-time signal to a given discrete-time
sequence.
• It is possible to recover the original continuous-time signal from its sampled
value.
• In following slides, we will study those conditions.

Digital Processing of Continuous-Time Signals:
Effect of Time-Domain Sampling in Frequency Domain
• Let 𝑔𝑎 𝑡 be a continuous-time signal.
• A discrete-time sequence 𝑔 𝑛 is obtained by sampling 𝑔𝑎 𝑡 uniformly at 𝑡 =
𝑛𝑇, where 𝑇 is the sampling period, i.e.,
• 𝑔 𝑛 = 𝑔𝑎 𝑛𝑇 , −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞ 3.61
• The reciprocal
1
of sampling period 𝑇 is called the sampling frequency 𝐹𝑇 ; that
is, 𝐹𝑇 = .
𝑇
• The frequency-domain representation of 𝑔𝑎 𝑡 and 𝑔 𝑛 are given by
continuous-time Fourier transform (CTFT) and discrete-time Fourier transform
(DTFT), respectively:
∞
• 𝐺𝑎 𝑗Ω = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑔𝑎 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ωt 𝑑𝑡, (3.62)
• 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = σ∞
𝑛 𝑔 𝑛 𝑒
−𝑗𝜔𝑛
. (3.63)

• To establish the relation between 𝐺𝑎 (𝑗Ω) and 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 , let’s treat the
sampling operation mathematically as a multiplication of the
continuous-time signal 𝑔𝑎 (𝑡) by a periodic image train 𝑝(𝑡):
• 𝑔𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑔𝑎 𝑡 𝑝 𝑡 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑔𝑎 𝑛𝑇 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 . (3.65)
• Where,
• 𝑝 𝑡 is an impulse train with a period of 𝑇, such that
• 𝑝 𝑡 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇
• It should be noted that the signal 𝑔𝑝 𝑡 consists of a train of
uniformly spaced impulses with the impulse at 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇 weighted by
the sampled value 𝑔𝑎 𝑛𝑇 of 𝑔𝑎 𝑡 .

• To establish the relation between 𝐺𝑎 (𝑗Ω) and 𝐺 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ,
let’s treat the sampling operation mathematically as a
multiplication of the continuous-time signal 𝑔𝑎 (𝑡) by a
periodic image train 𝑝(𝑡):
• 𝑔𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑔𝑎 𝑡 𝑝 𝑡
• 𝑔𝑝 (𝑡) = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔𝑎 𝑛𝑇 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 . (3.65)
• Where,
• 𝑝 𝑡 is an impulse train with a period of 𝑇, such that
• 𝑝 𝑡 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇
• It should be noted that the signal 𝑔𝑝 𝑡 consists of a
train of uniformly spaced impulses with the impulse at
𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇 weighted by the sampled value 𝑔𝑎 𝑛𝑇 of
𝑔𝑎 𝑡 .

There are two different forms of the continuous-time Fourier transform 𝐺𝑝 (𝑗Ω) of
𝑔𝑝 (𝑡)
• One form is obtained by taking CTFT • The second form, given below, is derived
of Eq. (3.65) using Poisson’s formula
1
• ℱ 𝑔𝑝 𝑡 = • 𝐺𝑝 𝑗Ω = σ∞
𝑘=−∞ 𝐺𝑎 𝑗 Ω + 𝑘Ω 𝑇
𝑇
. . (3.70)
∞
‫׬‬−∞ σ∞𝑛=−∞ 𝑔𝑎 𝑛𝑇 𝛿 (𝑛 −
𝑛𝑇)𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞
• 𝐺𝑝 𝑗Ω = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑔𝑎 𝑛𝑇 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 (𝑛 −
𝑛𝑇)𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• 𝐺𝑝 𝑗Ω = σ∞ 𝑔
𝑛=−∞ 𝑎 𝑛𝑇 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑛𝑇

• The second form, given below, is derived using Poisson’s formula
1 ∞
• 𝐺𝑝 𝑗Ω = σ 𝐺
𝑗 Ω + 𝑘Ω 𝑇 (3.70)
𝑇 𝑘=−∞ 𝑎
• 𝐺𝑝 (𝑗Ω) is a periodic function of frequency Ω.
• 𝐺𝑝 (𝑗Ω) consists of a sum of shifted (shifted by integer multiples of
Ω 𝑇 ) and scaled (scaled by 1/𝑇) replica of 𝐺𝑝 (𝑗Ω)
• Putting 𝑘 = 0, in Eq. (3.70) will give the baseband portion of 𝐺𝑝 𝑗Ω .
The remaining terms are the frequency-translated portions of 𝐺𝑝 𝑗Ω .
Ω𝑇 Ω𝑇
• The frequency range − ≤Ω≤ is called the baseband or Nyquist
2 2
band.

• 𝐺𝑝 𝑗Ω , shown in Figure (a), is the frequency
spectrum of a band-limited signal.
• Consider the spectrum 𝑃(𝑗Ω) of the periodic
impulse train 𝑝(𝑡) with a sampling period 𝑇 =
2𝜋
, shown in Figure (b).
Ω𝑇
• The impulses are chosen in such a way that
Ω 𝑇 ≥ 2Ω𝑚

For Ω 𝑇 ≥ 2Ω𝑚 the
It can be seen that
original analog signal
chosing Ω 𝑇 ≥ 2Ω𝑚 ,
can be recovered
resulted in no-
overlap between
shifted replica of
𝐺𝑝 𝑗Ω and 𝐺𝑎 (𝑗Ω)

• 𝐺𝑝 𝑗Ω , shown in Figure (a), is the frequency
spectrum of a band-limited signal.
• Consider the spectrum 𝑃(𝑗Ω) of the periodic
impulse train 𝑝(𝑡) with a sampling period 𝑇 =
2𝜋
, shown in Figure (b).
Ω𝑇
• The impulses are chosen in such a way that
Ω 𝑇 < 2Ω𝑚

For Ω 𝑇 < 2Ω𝑚 the
It can be seen that
original analog signal
chosing Ω 𝑇 < Ω𝑚 ,
cannot be recovered
resulted in an overlap
between shifted
replica of 𝐺𝑝 𝑗Ω and
𝐺𝑎 (𝑗Ω)

• If Ω 𝑇 ≥ 2Ω𝑚 , 𝑔𝑎 (𝑡) can be

recovered exactly from 𝑔𝑝 (𝑡) by
passing it through an ideal
lowpass filter 𝐻𝑟 (𝑗Ω) with a gain
𝑇 and a cutoff frequency Ω𝑐
greater than Ω𝑚 and less than
Ω 𝑇 − Ω𝑚 as illustrated in the
figure.

Recovery of the Analog Signal
• If the discrete-time sequence 𝑔[𝑛] has obtained by uniformly
sampling a band-limited continuous-time signal 𝑔𝑎 (𝑡) with the
2𝜋
highest frequency Ω𝑚 at a rate Ω 𝑇 = satisfying the condition
𝑇
Ω 𝑇 ≥ 2Ω𝑚
Then the original continuous-time signal 𝑔𝑎 (𝑡) can be fully recovered
by passing the equivalent impulse train 𝑔𝑝 (𝑡) through an ideal lowpass
filter 𝐻𝑟 𝑗Ω with a cutoff frequency at Ω𝑐 satisfying the condition
Ω𝑚 < Ω𝑐 < Ω 𝑇 − Ω𝑚
With a gain of 𝑇.

Recovery of the Analog Signal
• The frequency response 𝐻𝑟 (𝑗Ω) is given by
𝑇, Ω ≤ Ω𝑐 ,
• 𝐻𝑟 𝑗Ω = ൝ (3.78)
0, Ω > Ω𝑐,
• The impulse response ℎ𝑟 𝑡 of the above ideal lowpass filter is
obtained simply by taking the inverse continuous-time Fourier
transform of 3.78 .
1 ∞ 𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑇 Ωc 𝑗Ω𝑡
• ℎ𝑟 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞
𝐻𝑟 𝑗Ω 𝑒 𝑑Ω = ‫׬‬−Ω
𝑒 𝑑Ω
2𝜋 2𝜋 c

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Digital SIGNAL PROCESSING

Discrete-Time Signals in the Frequency

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• where 0 < 𝛼 < ∞ 0.6

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• A full-band, finite-energy, continuous-time signal has a spectrum occupying

• Solution: (Method 1) 0.2

• The energy can be computed as: -0.2

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• The energy using Parseval’s theorem can be computed as:

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𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0, The bandwidth is 1

• The 80% bandwidth Ω𝑐 can be computed as: 0.2

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• Find the DTFT of an exponential sequence given

• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑛𝑢 𝑛 , 𝛼 < 1, 3.12 0.4

Mangnitude Plot 0.2

-0.2 0.6 -0.6

in radians/sec in radians/sample in radians

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• Where 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 is called the Fourier spectrum

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• Real & Imaginary Functions Real function

1−2𝛼 cos 𝜔+𝛼2 of period 1

Since cos 𝜔 and sin 𝜔 are periodic function

function 𝜔 with period of 2𝜋. 0.6

and 𝑋𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝑤 are also even and odd,

respectively. period 𝟐𝝅. -0.6

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• Magnitude & Phase Functions

are periodic functions of 𝜔 0.4

• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑛𝜇 𝑛 𝛼<1 indicates that limit is

• Since 𝛼 < 1, it means the series will𝑎converge, 0.4

and we will apply the formula 𝑆 = , the 0.2

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• Since 𝛼 < 1, it means the series will𝑎converge,

Growing Exponential Curve

yes, does that converges too? 7

• Since 𝛼 > 1, it means the series will not 1

converge and hence its DTFT does not 0

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, 𝑛 ≠ 0. normalized angular frequency ( )

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• The mean-square convergence 1 1

property of the sequence ℎ𝐿𝑃 𝑛 0.8 0.8