TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXPERIMENTAL TITLE ............................................................................................. 2

OBJECTIVE ............................................................................................................... 2
BACKGROUND AND THEORY ................................................................................. 2
APPPARATUS AND METHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 4
RAW DATA ................................................................................................................ 7
DATA ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................... 8
DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................... 13
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 14

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1.0 EXPERIMENTAL TITLE: HEAT CONDUCTION-SIMPLE BAR

2.0 OBJECTIVE
 Investigate Fourier’s law for linear conduction of heat along a simple bar.

3.0 BACKGROUND AND THEORY

Heat conduction is the transfer of internal thermal energy by the collisions of microscopic
particles and movement of electrons within a body. The microscopic particles in the heat
conduction can be molecules, atoms, and electrons. Internal energy includes kinematic and
potential energy of microscopic particles. Heat conduction is governed by the law of heat
conduction, which is also called the Fourier's law: the time rate of heat transfer through a
material is proportional to the gradient in the temperature and to the area. The purpose of this
experiment is to investigate Fourier’s Law for linear conduction of heat along a simple bar.
According to Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

Figure 1: Flow of heat transfer

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If a plane wall of thickness (Dx) and area (A) supports a temperature difference (DT) then
the heat transfer rate per unit time (Q) by conduction through the wall is found to be:

If the material of the wall is homogeneous and has a thermal conductivity k (the constant of
proportionality) then:

Where:

Ԛ̇ = heat conduction per unit time.

𝑘 = thermal conductivity.

A= cross sectional area.

∆T = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) the temperature difference between the ends.

∆x = the characteristic length of the material for heat transfer.

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4.0 APPARATUS AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 APPARATUS

Figure 2: Vernier Caliper

Figure 3: Heat Conduction Study Bench

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4.2 METHODOLOGY

GENERAL START-UP PROCEDURES

1) Main switch was off. Intermediate section was inserted into the linear module and were
clamped together.

2) One of the cooling tubes was connected to the water supply and the other one to the drain.

3) The heater supply lead for the linear conduction module were connected into the power
supply socket on the control panel.

4) The nine sensor leads were connected to the nine plugs on top of the linear conduction
module. The left-handed sensor lead were connected from module to the place marked TT1
on the control panel. This procedure were connected for the remaining eight sensor leads.
They were connected from left to right on the module and were in numerical order on the
control panel.

5) The water supply was turn on and the water ensure flowed from the free end of the pipe to
drain. This have been checked intervals.

6) The heater power control knob on the control panel was turned to 0 watt position by turning
the knob anticlockwise.

7) The main switch were switch on and the digital readouts was illuminated.

8) The heater power control was set to give a reading of 20 watts on the digital indicator.

9) The temperature were decreased towards the water cooled end of the entire temperature
sensor.

10) The equipment were used during experiment

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GENERAL SHUT-DOWN PROCEDURES

1) The heater power control knob on the control panel was turned to 0 watt position by turning
the knob fully anti clockwise. The water cooling kept flowed for 5 minutes to cold down the test
metal.

2) The main switch and power supply were switch off. The power supply cable then unplugged.

3) The water supply was closed. The cooling water connection tube were disconnected.

4) The heater supply lead for the linear conduction module was disconnected into power
supply socket on the control panel.

5) The sensor lead were disconnected.

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5.0 RAW DATA

EXPERIMENT ID: Heat Conduction - Simple Bar

DATE AND TIME: 15 OCTOBER 2019 / 2.00 p.m. - 4.00 p.m.

SAMPLE REGION
HEATER COOLER
Material: Brass

x (mm) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

x (m) 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

𝑸̇
Test T1(°C) T2(°C) T3(°C) T4(°C) T5(°C) T6(°C) T7(°C) T8(°C) T9(°C)
(W)

1 10 42.0 41.4 40.4 35.3 34.6 33.6 27.0 26.5 25.9

2 20 68.2 66.6 65.2 52.6 50.8 48.5 31.4 30.7 28.6

3 30 96.6 94.3 92.5 74.1 71.4 68.1 34.8 32.7 30.7

Table 1: Data collected

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6.0 DATA ANALYSIS

EXPERIMENT ID: Heat Conduction - Simple Bar

DATE AND TIME: 15 October 2019 / 2.00 p.m. - 4.00 p.m.

SAMPLE REGION
HEATER COOLER
Material: Brass

x (𝑚𝑚) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

x (𝑚) 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

𝑸̇
Test T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
(W)

1 10 0.6 1.0 5.1 0.7 1.0 6.6 0.5 0.6

2 20 1.6 1.4 12.6 1.8 2.3 17.1 0.7 2.1

3 30 2.3 1.8 18.4 2.7 3.3 33.3 2.1 2.0

Table 2: Temperature difference

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EXPERIMENT ID: Heat Conduction - Simple Bar

DATE AND TIME: 15 October 2019/ 2.00 p.m. - 4.00 p.m.

SAMPLE

HEATER REGION COOLER

Material: Brass THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY
x (𝑚𝑚) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
𝑊
x (𝑚) 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
𝑚∙𝐾

𝑸̇
Test T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
(W)

1 10 42.0 41.4 40.4 35.3 34.6 33.6 27.0 26.5 25.9 68.04

2 20 68.2 66.6 65.2 52.6 50.8 48.5 31.4 30.7 28.6 72.34

3 30 96.6 94.3 92.5 74.1 71.4 68.1 34.8 32.7 30.7 64.34

Table 3: Thermal conductivity, k

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 Temperature VS Distance between temperature probes on the test sample
120.0

100.0

80.0 10 W
Temperature (⁰C)

20 W
60.0 y = -949.67x + 104.12
y = -563x + 71.698 R² = 0.9223 30 W
R² = 0.9425
Linear
40.0
(10 W)

y = -229.33x + 43.251
20.0 R² = 0.9484

0.0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Distance between temperature probes on the test sample (m)

Graph 1: Temperature vs distance between temperature

SAMPLE CALCULATION

Sample calculation used the parameters of:

𝐷𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 0.025m
From Table 1.1.1:

𝑄̇ = 10 Watt
T1= 42.0 °C
T2= 41.4 °C
∆𝑇 = 0.6
∆𝑥 = 0.01 𝑚

I. To convert the unit of temperatures from Celsius (℃) to Kelvin (K):

𝑇 (𝐾) = 𝑇 (℃) + 273

𝑇1 (𝐾) = 42.0 + 273

𝑇1 (𝐾) = 315 𝐾

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 II. To calculate the cross-section area, A

𝜋 2
𝐴= 𝑑
4
𝜋
𝐴= (0.025)2
4
𝐴 = 4.91 × 10−4 𝑚2 = 0.000491 𝑚2

III. To calculate the thermal conductivity, k from table

The value of ∆T and ∆x is taken from the Table 1.1.2 and the results are shown in Table 1.1.3

a. To calculate ∆𝑇

∆𝑇 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2

∆𝑇 (℃) = 42.0 − 41.4 = 0.6 ℃

∆𝑇 (𝐾) = 315 − 314.4 = 0.6 𝐾 ℃

b. To calculate ∆𝑥

∆𝑥 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2

∆𝑥 = 0.01 − 0 = 0.01 𝑚

c. Thermal conductivity, k

∆𝑇
𝑄̇ = 𝑘𝐴
∆𝑥

𝑄̇ ∆𝑥
𝑘= ( )
𝐴 ∆𝑇
10 0.01
𝑘= ( )
0.000491 0.6
𝑊
𝑘 = 339.4 𝑚∙𝐾

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IV. To calculate the thermal conductivity, k from graph
The value of ∆T and ∆x is taken from the Gradient of the Graph and the results are shown in
Table 1.2.1

∆𝑇
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = =𝑚
∆𝑥
𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝐶
From the graph showing 10 W power input,
𝑦 = −229.33 𝑥 + 43.251

∆𝑇
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ∆𝑥
= 𝑚 = −299.33
∆𝑥
= 3.34 × 10−3
∆𝑇

∆𝑇
𝑄̇ = 𝑘𝐴
∆𝑥

𝑄̇ ∆𝑥
𝑘= ∙
𝐴 ∆𝑇
10
𝑘= (4.91×10−4 )
(3.34 × 10−3)
𝑊
𝑘 = 68.04
𝑚∙𝐾

V. To calculate the percentage error:

𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 −𝑘𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | 𝑘𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
| × 100%

68.04 − 109
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
109
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 37.58 %

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7.0 DISCUSSION

Conduction is transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substances to

adjacent substance with less energetic particles, one as a result of interactions between the
particles. In this experiment, the conduction is transfer or heat or energy from hot place
(heater) to cold place (cooler).

For Fourier’s law of heat conduction as stated as formula 1. In order to achieve the
objective, the temperature of T1T2T3 were measured at the cooler, T4T5T6 at the material
sample and T7-9 at the water heater. As stated, the heat were transferred from hot to cold
places. The temperature at the heater should be the highest meanwhile the temperature at
the cooler were lowest. The temperature in the sample should be constant which is steady
implies no change with time at any point within the medium.

From the table, test 1 until test three, the change variable is Q which is from 10 Watt
until 30 Watt. It was shown that the temperature gradient is decreasing within the distance. T1
until T9 have different temperature which is suitable and shown the formula 1.

In this experiment, k was needed to obtain too. K is thermal conductivity. The thermal
conductivity (k) of a material is defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of
a material per unit area per unit temperature difference. For this experiment we used brass
which have k equal to 109 W/mK. From the experiment, k obtained for test 1 is 68.04
meanwhile for test 2 and test 3 72.34 W/mK and 64.34 W/Mk. It was slightly different due to
some errors such as the power supply not showed the consistent values as the value easily
to increased and dropped at the same time. It is difficult to record the precise and accurate
values of power supply. This affected the temperature reading. In order to deal with this error,
the reading taken two or three times to get average value of the temperature.

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8.0 CONCLUSION

Heat conduction is the flow of internal energy from a region of higher temperature to
one of lower temperature by the interaction of the adjacent particles (atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons, etc.) intervening space. Heat conduction simple bar experiment is success in
showing its objective which is to investigate Fourier’s law for linear conduction of heat along a
simple bar. Fourier’s law of thermal conduction stated that the rate of heat transfer is linearly
proportional to the temperature gradient. In this experiment, the thermal conductivity increases
as the heat transfer rate increases and this can prove the Fourier’s law of thermal conductivity.
Based on the graph 1, when the distance between temperature probes on the test sample
increases, the temperature decreases. This shows that temperature is directly proportionally
to distance between temperature probes on the test sample.

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