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Rashid Allayla
Hydrology:
According to the US Federal Council for Science and Technology (ad hoc Panel on
Hydrology , 1962) hydrology is a “science that treats all the waters of the earth, their
occurrence, circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties, and their
reaction with their environment including their relations to living things” Application of
hydrology include:
Hydrologic Cycle:
Hydrologic cycle is the water circulatory system on earth. The cycle has no
beginning or end as the evaporated water rises to atmosphere due to solar energy. The
evaporated water can be carried hundreds of miles before it is condensed and returned to
earth in a form of precipitation. Part of the precipitated water is intercepted by plants and
eventually returned to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration from plants and upper layers
of soil, runs overland eventually reaching open water bodies such as streams, oceans or
natural lakes or infiltrates through the ground forming deep or shallow groundwater
aquifers. A good portion of the precipitated water evaporates back to the atmosphere
thereby completing the hydrologic cycle. Elements of hydrologic cycle are:
Evaporation, E
Transpiration, T
Precipitation, P
Surface runoff, R
Groundwater flow, G, and,
Infiltration, I
A full discussion of each of the elements will be discussed in detail in subsequent chapters.
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dr. Rashid Allayla
Fate of Precipitation
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n Transpiration
P
r
e
c Atmosphere
i
p
i
t
a Evaporation
t Transpiration
i
o Surface RO
I
n Vegetation
n
f
i Surface Streams/Lakes/Rivers
i Rivers
t
r Exfiltration
a Precipitation
t Evaporation
i Soil Surface
o runoff
n Interflow
Capillary Rise Groundwate
Percolation
Aquifers r Oceans
Illustration courtesy of: Colorado Division of Water Resources, Office of theflow
State Engineer
Aquifers Oceans
Hydrologic Budget
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I – O = ∂S / ∂t
E P
Gup T
Ground Surface
Rout
Rin
Gin Gout
I
Water Table
The water budget formula is often used to estimate the amount of evaporation and
evapotranspiration. Combining & dropping subscripts to represent net flows we get
hydrologic budget formula,
P - R - G - E - T = S / ∆t
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I - O = S/ t
Where,
P-I-R-D=0
P = precipitation
I = infiltration
R = direct runoff
D = Combination of interception and depression storage
Illustrative Example:
In the above, the precipitation term P is given in cm and the runoff term R is given in discharge
unit. Since units in the equation must be consistent, and since the area of the watershed is
constant, the volume of flow into the watershed is converted to equivalent depth.
Volume due to runoff = 60 m3/s x 86400 sec/day x 365 day/yr = 1.89216 x 109 m3
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The drainage area of a river in a city is 11,839 km 2. If the mean annual runoff is
determined to be 144.4 m3/s and the average annual rainfall is 1.08 m, estimate the ET losses
for the area. Assume negligible changes in groundwater flow and storage (i.e. G and ΔS = 0) .
Solution:
R = [144.4 m3/s x 86400 s/day x 365 day/yr] / [11,839 km2 x 106 m2/km2] = 0.38 m
Precipitati
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Illustrative Example:
At a particular area, the storage in a river reach is 40 acre – ft. The inflow at that time was
measured to be 200 cfs and the outflow is 300 . The inflow after 4 hours was measured to be
260 and the outflow was 270. Determine a) the change in storage during the elapsed time
and b) The final storage volume.
S = (- 55) (4 hr) = - 220 cfs-hr = (- 220 cfs-hr) (60 x 60 Sec / 1-hr ) ( 1 acre – ft / 43,560 ft3 ) =
= - 18.182 acre-ft
b) S2 = 40 – 18.182 = 21.82 AF
Illustrative Example:
At a particular area, the storage in a river reach is 40 acre – ft. The inflow at that time was
measured to be 200 cfs and the outflow is 300 . The inflow after 4 hours was measured to be
260 and the outflow was 270. Determine a) the change in storage during the elapsed time
and b) The final storage volume.
S = (- 55) (4 hr) = - 220 cfs-hr = (- 220 cfs-hr) (60 x 60 Sec / 1-hr ) ( 1 acre – ft / 43,560 ft3 ) =
= - 18.182 acre-ft
b) S2 = 40 – 18.182 = 21.82 AF
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King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dr. Rashid Allayla
Precipitation:
Precipitation is the discharge of water out of the atmosphere. The principal form of
precipitation is rain and snow and to a lesser extent is hail, sleet. The physical factor
producing precipitation is the condensation of water droplets due to atmosphere cooling.
The chief source of moisture producing precipitation is evaporation from oceans,
seas. Only one tenth of the precipitation comes from continental sources in the form of soil
evaporation and transpiration. Some of the precipitated water returns back to oceans and
seas but the major portion is retained as replenishment to surface water bodies,
groundwater recharge and soil and plant moisture, The steps required to form precipitation
include:
Cloud
Droplet breaks
down to smaller
size & returns to atmosphere
Further Condensation
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Distribution of Precipitation:
Total Precipitation
Evap. Evap.
If pervious Infilt- ii
Ration
Aquifers t
Direct RO Intercep-
tion
& Depr-
ssion ii
Storage
t
Impervious
Overland
Flow
(Direct ii
RO)
t
Stream/lake/river/sea
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Measurement of Precipitation:
Measuring
tube (0.1
inch of rain
will fill tube
to 1 inch
depth)
Errors:
Splashing Measuring
Moisture deficiency of gage stick
Wind blowing
Counter
(Will tip over
when filled
by 0.01 inch
of rain) to
record
intensity of
- Interception: The amount of precipitation that is intercepted by vegetation.
To measuring tube rain
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Average PPT = ∑ Ai pi / AT
Illustrative Method:
P1 A1 P1 A1
P2 A2 P2 A2
P3 A3 P3 A3
Pn An Pn An
Average P = ( P1 A1 + P2 A2 + P3 A3 + …. + Pn An ) / (A1 + A2 + A3 + …. + An )
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Perpendicular bisector
Area a representing gage P1
Computation Procedure:
c) Isohyetal Method: The area between two successive isohyets is measured using
planimeter or simply by counting sub grids. The average precipitation is computed by
multiplying the average precipitation between two successive isohyets by the inter-
Isohyetal area, adding them and dividing by the total area of the watershed.
Average PPT = ∑ ai pi / AT
o a1”
o
o o
a2”
o o
o a3”
o
o
o a4”
o
a5”
The method of calculation is similar to that of Thiessen method except the area is the one
bounded by two isohyets.
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Illustrative Example:
80 mm
100 mm
90 mm
110 mm
100 mm
80 mm
95 156 14820
Ave PPT = 65610/ 666
105 190 19950
= 98.51 inch
105 140 14700
95* 60 5700
Σ 666 Σ 65610
Adjusted values
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Alternative Method:
Inverse Distance Method: The method is based on the assumption that the precipitation at a
given point is influenced by all stations. The method of solution is to subdivide the
watershed area into m rectangular areas. The mean precipitation is calculated using the
following formula:
m n n
P = 1/A ∑ Aj ( ∑ dij –b )-1 ∑ d ij –b P i
j=1 i=1 i=1
Where: m is the number of the subareas, Aj is the area of the jth sub area, A is the total area,
dij is the distance from the center of the jth area to the ith precipitation gage, n is the number
of gages and b is a constant and in most applications, it is taken as equal to 2. Note that if b
is 0, the equation is reduced to the following: P = 1/A ∑ Aj Pi
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
O d2,18 O d5,18
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
O d22,18 O d26,18
O: Precipitation Gage
Illustrative Example:
The sub areas shown below are 4.5 km2 each, find the precipitation x in subarea shown below:
Y = 1.5 km
X = 3 km X = 3 km X = 3 km
1 d= 3 km 2 d = 4.5 km 3
X
Unknown PPT
P = 0.2 “ P = 0.15”
P2 = ∑ d -2 i , 2 Pi / (∑d -2 i , 2)
P2 = [d-21,2] P1 / [d -2 1 , 2 + d -2 3,2] + [d-23,2] P3 / [d -2 1 , 2 + d -2 3,2]
P2 = [ (3) -2 ] (0.2) / (0.111+ 0.0494) + (4.5) -2 (0.15) / (0.111+ 0.0494 = 0.13854 + 0.04619 = 0.1847
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Where Ai is the average annual rainfall at gage i, Ax is the average annual rainfall at station x
in question.
Illustrative Example:
Solution:
Px = wA PA + wB PB + WC PC + WD PD
= (26 / 4 x 32) (2.2) + (26 / 4 x 28) (2.0) + (26 / 4 x 25) (2.0) + (26 / 4 x 35) (2.4) = 1.877 cm
Then: Px = 1.877 cm
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dr. Rashid Allayla
b) Quadrant Method:
To account for the closeness of gage stations to the missing data gage, quadrant method is
employed. The position of the station of the missing data is made to be the origin of the four
quadrants containing the rest of stations. The weight for station i is computed as:
4
wi = ∑ ( 1 / d2i )
i=1
Illustrative Example:
Point PPT PPT ∆Y ∆X (D2)* W=1/D2 PxW ∆x
xC
A ?? 0 0 - ++ ++ xD ∆y xB
PA = 0.5677 / 0.3345
* D2 = ΔX2 +ΔY2 ∑ 0.3345 0.5677
= 1.7
Gauge Consistency:
Double Mass Curve
This is a method used to check inconsistency in gage reading. The inconsistency could be
attributed to environmental changes such as sudden weather changes that adversely effect
gage reading, vandalism, instrument malfunction, etc. Double Mass Curve is a plot of
accumulated annual or seasonal precipitation at the effected station versus the mean
values of annual or seasonal accumulated precipitation for a number of stations
surrounding the station that have been subjected to similar hydrological environment and
known to be consistent. The double mass curve produced is then examined for trends and
inconsistencies which is reflected by the change of slope. A typical Double Mass Curve of
infected station (station A) versus mean values of similar stations is shown below:
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Station A (mm)
PA
Part 1 Part 2
PA2
2000
1995
PA1
1990
1985
1980
m2
m2
m1
P1 m1
P2
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Gage H was permanently relocated after a period of 3 years. Adjust the double mass curve and find the values
of h79, h80 and h81.
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Evaporation:
Evaporation is the process by which water is transferred from liquid state to gaseous state
through transfer of energy. When a sufficient kinetic energy exists on the surface, water
molecules can escape to the atmosphere by turbulent air.
Humidity and Vapor Pressure: The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is very small
compared to the other elements that exist (like Oxygen, Nitrogen, CO2, etc.). However, Water
vapor in the air plays an important part in controlling weather patterns and evaporation
processes. When the air is dry, evaporation takes place, causing an increase in the quantity
of vapor in the air and an increase in vapor pressure. This process will continue until vapor
pressure in the air is equal to vapor pressure at the surface. At this point, saturation will
occur and further evaporation ceases.
Dry air O O O O O O O O O O
Denoting e as the vapor pressure and es as the saturated vapor pressure, the relative
humidity is defined as,
R = e / es
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m s−1 in vacuum) by way of joint (orthogonal) oscillations in the electric and magnetic fields.
This process is to be distinguished from other forms of energy transfer such as 1.
conduction and convection. 2. Propagation of energy by any physical quantity governed by
a wave equation.
Wind Speed: Wind speed varies with the height above water surface. It can be calculated
using the empirical formula,
V/VO = (Z/ZO)0.15
Where V is the wind speed in mi/hr at Z height, VO is the wind speed at height ZO measured
in ft of the anemometer (instruments designed to measure total wind speed)
Measurement of Evaporation:
a) Evaporation Pans: The most popular method of estimating evaporation. The best known
is the US Weather Bureau Class A Pan. (complete description of Class A Pan can be found
in AMS Glossary link): The U.S. Weather Bureau evaporation pan (Class-A pan) is a cylindrical container
fabricated of galvanized iron or other rust-resistant metal with a depth of 25.4 cm (10 in.) and a diameter of
121.9 cm (48 in.). The pan is accurately leveled at a site that is nearly flat, well sodded, and free from
obstructions. The water level is maintained at between 5 and 7.5 cm (2 and 3 in.) below the top of the rim, and
periodic measurements are made of the changes of the water level with the aid of a hook gauge set in the still
well. When the water level drops to 17.8 cm (7 in.), the pan is refilled. Its average pan coefficient is about 0.7.
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From: The Earth & Geographic Sciences Department / University of Mass, Boston
b) Empirical Formulas:
E = C f(u)(e –ea)
Where K is constant, f(u) is a function of wind speed at a given height, e is the actual vapor
pressure at a given height, and es is the saturated vapor pressure at water surface,
The rate of evaporation from a lake can be calculated using empirical laws,
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Illustrative Example:
Use Meyer formula and Dunn formula to find the lake evaporation for a lake with mean value of air temperature
is 87 F, and for water temperature is 63 F, average wind speed is 10 mph and relative humidity is 20%.
Solution:
-Using Meyer formula: From table, the saturated vapor pressure, e s (@63oF= air temp) = 0.58 in. Hg
es (@87oF = water temp) = 1.29 in. Hg
E = C (es – e) (1 + W/10)
e = 1.29 x 0.20 = 0.26 in Hg / (0.03 Hg/mb) = 8.7 mb
For open water, C = 0.36 then E = 0.36 (0.58 – 0.26) [1+10/10 = 0.23 in/day
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u = speed of wind
Horton E (i/mo) = 0.4 [2 – exp(-2u)]) (eO-ea)
αP = 0.13 + 0.0065T0 – (6.0 x 10-8 T03) + 0.016 uP0.36 (Use Chart below to obtain αP)
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NO SCALE
Start
EL (in/d)
αP
Pan water temperature
T0 - Ta in O F
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Infiltration:
Infiltration: is a process of water entry into a soil through surface it is influenced by the
extent of vegetal cover, conditions of soil, rainfall intensity, physical properties of soil and
quality of water.
Percolation: is the movement of water within soil profile, a process that follows infiltration.
Infiltration Rate: is the rate at which water enters soil measured in L/T.
Infiltration Capacity: Is the maximum rate at which a given soil can absorb, a potential value
that may or may not be satisfied following rain. It is measured in L/T.
Elements of Infiltration
Infiltration Capacity:
Infiltration capacity is an aspect of infiltration that is associated with soil. It is
defined as the maximum amount of water per unit time that can be absorbed under given
conditions. The greater the infiltration capacity of soil, the greater amount of water that can
be infiltrated.
Infiltration capacity is measured using infiltrometers which is a device consisting of ring
tube inserted into the soil. Water is poured and maintained at constant level and
replenishment rate is measured.
A better method for measuring infiltration rate is through the use of hydrograph analysis.
Hydrographs will be discussed in detail later.
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Horton Model:
Horton theorized that the process of infiltration is analogues to exhaustion process where
the rate of performing work is proportional to the amount of work remaining to be
performed. At the beginning of rainfall, the soil surface possesses a high degree of soil
absorption capacity. At this point, the infiltration capacity is maximum. As more water
enters the soil, the infiltration capacity is reduced with time and eventually reaching a
constant value.
Initial
Initial infiltration
infiltration capacity
capacity (Very hungry for dinner!)
f f
Rain (FOOD!)
Rain Final infiltration
Final capacity
infiltration capacity
(L/T)
(L/T) (Cant eat anymore but can
Horton Curve munch forever!)
time
Horton Curve) time
Amount of infiltrated water
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Observations:
- If rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity, the infiltration capacity
decreases exponentially.
- The area under the curve is the volume of infiltration. However, the actual
infiltration rate is equal the infiltration capacity f only when rain intensity, less
the rate of retention, equals or exceeds the capacity f (see figure below).
Depression Storage
Horton Curve
f = f∞ + (f0 – f∞) e-Kt
- When rain intensity at any given time is less than the infiltration capacity,
adjustments to the infiltration capacity curve must be made.
Illustrative Example
Given initial infiltration capacity of 60 cm/day and time constant, k of 0.4 hr-1. Derive infiltration
capacity vs. time curve if the equilibrium capacity is 10 cm/day. Estimate the total infiltrated
water in m3 for the first 10 hours for a 100 km2 watershed.
Solution:
Horton curve: f = f∞ + (f0 – f∞) e-Kt Substituting yields: f = 10 + (50) e-0.4t Integrating yields:
V = ∫[10 + 50 e-0.4t] dt
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Problem!!
مشكله τ
0 t1
Equivalent time τ for the actual The accumulated water, which is found here by
Accumulated infiltration integrating Horton formula between 0 and t1 ,
does not represent the actual infiltrated water
because the actual rain is less than what Horton
formula predicted.
∆t
τ
Volume of water infiltration that has been over- estimated by Horton curve!
What to do? It is clear that if the total intensity of rain at the first time increment is less
than the infiltration capacity, it is more reasonable to assume that the reduction in f is
dependent on the infiltrated volume of water rather than the elapsed time. Therefore, it
becomes necessary to shift the curve to t = τ, which would produce an infiltrated volume
equal to the volume of the actual rainfall.
In order to accommodate for the possible infiltration deficiency, the following procedure is
employed:
Let f(t) be the maximum infiltration capacity of the soil at given time (as prescribed by
infiltration capacity curve), then
∆F = ∫t to ∆t f (t) dt
Where ∆F is the amount of infiltrated water between t and ∆t. Depending on the initial
intensity of rain compared to the maximum infiltration capacity f, the equation for f(t) can
take one of two forms:
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Application of the above equations for every time step results in actual infiltration.
Steps:
1) Draw the infiltration Capacity curve (Horton Curve, fig. A).
2) Establish Mass curve (f vs. volume) by finding the area under Horton curve at Δt.
This is calculated by multiplying the average value of f by Δt
Horton Curve
( fi + fi+1 ) / 2
Δt
fi fi+1
3) After establishing the mass curve from Horton curve (Fig. B), compute the volume of
rain that is actually infiltrated during the interval when i < f and find the
corresponding infiltration capacity (f1) from the established mass curve (f fig. B)
revised Horton
f1 curve
Fig C Fig D
τ
t t
Actual infiltrated water (total rain @ t)
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Given: A storm pattern shown below on a watershed that has the following elements of
Horton Curve:
f0 = 11.66 in/hr, h∞ = 0.83 and k = 0.07
Required: Find the revised Capacity curve and the excess rain.
Solution:
The infiltration capacity curve (Horton Curve); f = 0.83 + 10.83 e-0.07t
Steps:
1) Find the cumulative infiltration under Horton Curve by finding the area under Horton
curve. This is accomplished by multiplying ∆t (column 3) by average f (column 4), finding
∆F (column 5) and adding the cumulative values of ∆F ’s (column 6):
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2) During the first 20 minutes, the amount of rain fell is < the infiltration capacity as
prescribed by the Horton Curve. The amount of rain is:
Plot accumulated infiltration F against f to establish mass curve. For example plot f = 11.66
correspond to F = 0, f = 6.21 correspond to F = 1.49 and so on. The resulting cumulative
infiltration curve is shown below:
f
12
10
7.5
8
0 1 2 3 4
F
3) Horton Curve can now be shifted by setting f0 = 7.5 instead of 11.66 occurring at t’ = 0
where t’ is the time counted 20 minutes after the start of the rain. The modified Horton
equation become:
4) Using the revised equation, the infiltration capacity for different times is calculated as
shown in the following table:
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10 Horton Curve
9 Excess Rain
7 Modified Horton
Curve
4 3.5
3 3.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
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PHI INDEX, Φ:
A simple way of approximating the amount of direct surface runoff is through the use of Φ-
Index. It is defined as the average rainfall intensity above which the volume of excess rain
equals direct runoff. The value of Φ is adjusted (up or down) such that the computed
direct runoff equal that of excess rain.
Method of Estimating Φ:
Unfortunately the Φ-Index determined from a single storm is not generally applicable
to other storms.
Runoff:
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Surface runoff is a term used to describe the flow of water, from rain, snowmelt, or
other sources, over the land surface. Runoff is a major component of the water cycle
Measurement of Streamflow:
Bottom of channel
From USGS
Measurement of Discharge:
The USGS Type AA current meter is commonly known as the Price-type current
meter. This current meter is suspended in the water using a cable with sounding weight or
wading rod (taking the tail section off) and will accurately measure streamflow velocities
from 0.1 to 25 feet per second (0.025 to 7.6 meters per second). The main features of this
meter are the uniquely designed bucket wheel shaft bearings and the two post contact
chamber. The bucket wheel has six conical shaped cups, is five inches in diameter.
From USGS
b) Weirs:
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Rectangular Weir:
1 2 L
Equation: Kinetic Energy is
Neglected H h
h H
H + V21/2g = h + V22/2g
V2 = SQRT[2g(H-h)]
V-Notch Weir:
θ
H h H
H θ
dA = b dh
dA = 2h tan θ/2 dh
Since: V2 = SQRT[2g(H-h)] dA = b dh
dQ = Cd (2h tan θ/2 dh) SQRT[2g(H-h)]
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H = h + v2/2g h h H
Q = Cd L h SQRT[2g(H-h)]
Q = Cd √2g L (2/3 H) SQRT[H-2/3 h) Then: h
H
Overflow Spillways:
+x
Ho
+y
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If the slope of the energy line is approximately the same as the slope of the water surface,
the discharge is proportional to the square root of the water surface (Manning & Chezy
Equations):
Q = f ( S1/2 )
The ratio of any two discharges Q and Q0 at a given station corresponding to the same
stage but different slopes S and S0, then,
Q/Q0 = (S/S0)1/2
From above, it is evident that if we establish an auxiliary stage downstream from the main
gage, then:
Q/Q0 = (F/F0)m
Where F0 is constant fall that corresponds to Q0, m is constant between 0.4 and 0.6.
V22
Datum
2g
Bottom of Channel y
Methodology:
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1.0 0.8
1.1 Q/Q0
0.6 F/ F0
Q Q0
Discharge →
log Q/Q0
m
1
log F/F0
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Illustrative Example:
For a given river, the following data were obtained by stream gauging. Estimate the flow rate when the main
gage reads 30.0 ft and auxiliary gage reads 28.0 ft.
Solution:
Q1 / Q2 = [(F1/L) / (F2/L)]m
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Hydrograph Analysis:
Rain
Basin
Outlet
Rising limb: f (rain, basin) Crest: All water reached outlet Drainage from underground
Components of Hydrograph:
- Surface Runoff: It is the component of rain, which flows overland eventually
reaching stream or channels.
- Interflow: It is the component of rain, which moves at shallow depths
underground eventually reaching stream channels.
- Channel Precipitation: It is the component of rain, which falls directly on the
stream.
- Base flow: It is part of stream water that is contributed by groundwater and
delayed subsurface runoff.
The part of precipitation that contributes directly to direct runoff is often referred to as
effective runoff. The time to peak of hydrograph depends on rain characteristics, which
include intensity and duration, and characteristics of watershed, which include size, slope,
shape and storage capacity. The last segment of the hydrograph is the recession curve
which depends on the characteristics of the watershed and independent of the rain
characteristics.
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Storm Duration
Point of inflection
Direct R.O.
i
Recession Curve
Q (independent Hydrograph here represents period of
of rain no direct runoff and water coming into
The Crest characteristics stream reflects discharge from
groundwater. The shape depends
characteristics of the watershed.
Groundwater depletion
Beginning of
new storm
Time of concentration t
Time Base
Physical Analogy:
Direct R.O.
Channel PPT
GW Flow
Interflow
Watershed
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After Storm
Separation Techniques:
- Fixed arc-length Separation: This procedure extends the recession curve of the
previous rain to a point directly below the peak then a straight line is drawn to a
point N days after the peak where N is calculated as,
N = A0.2
N is the time in days and A is the drainage area in square miles. The reason for extending
the recession curve and, in effect, reducing the base flow is that contribution from
groundwater is reduced considerably due to the bank storage effect.
Travel time: The time it takes for the direct runoff originating at a point in the channel inside
the watershed to reach the outlet of the watershed.
Access –rainfall release time (time of concentration): The time it takes for the last drop of rain to
reach the outlet of the watershed. It is the same as the time difference between the end of
rain and the cessation of direct runoff. Time of concentration is the same for a given
watershed regardless of the characteristic of the storm. This is the bases for constructing
unit hydrographs.
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King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dr. Rashid Allayla
Time base: It is the time between the beginning and end of direct runoff. Ideally, time base is
the same if rain characteristics are the same for a given catchment area.
Where tb is the time base, ts is the duration of rain and tc is the time of concentration.
Example:
Shown is a hydrograph of a particular rain in a particular basin. Separate the direct runoff using
straight-line separation and Arc length separation and find the direct runoff. Assume the drainage area = 1000
mi2.
Solution: N = (1000)0.2 = 3.98 days
Discharge m3/s
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
3.98 d
0
0 2 4 6 8 t Day 10 12 14 16 18
Time : 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Q: 30 45 70 84 74 50 30
Base Flow (Straight.Line): 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
D.R.O (Str.Line) : 0 15 40 54 44 20 0
Base (Arc L): 30 25 23 20 35 50 -
D.R.O. (Arc L ) 0 20 47 64 39 30 -
Vol. of D.R.O (SL) = {(1/2) [(0 + 15) + (15 + 40) + (40 + 54) + (54 + 44) + (44 + 20) + (20 + 0)}(2 dayx86400 s/d) = 2.989 x 10 7 m3
Amount of direct runoff in meters = 2.989 x 107 / (1000 mi2 x 2590000 m2 /mi2 ) = 0.012 m
Volume of D.R.O. (AL) = {(1/2) [(0 + 20) + (20 + 47) + (47 + 64) + (64 + 39) + (39 + 30)} (2 day x 86400) = 3.1968 x 107 m3
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King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dr. Rashid Allayla
There are inherent weaknesses in the unit hydrograph theory as well. It is obvious that if the
catchment area is saturated prior to the rain, much of the rain will contribute to direct runoff
and any extra rainfall in the same time period will produce proportionally extra runoff. This
is obviously not the case for catchment areas of high initial moisture deficiency. Another
weakness in the theory pertains to the assumption of uniform time and areal distribution of
rain in the basin. It is obvious that this assumption fails for both complex rains and for
catchment areas having nonhomogeneous composition.
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King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dr. Rashid Allayla
Steps: - Separate direct runoff from groundwater using one of the methods described earlier.
- Measure the total volume direct runoff
Q
Volume of direct runoff : QTi
QBi
= ∑ [ (QTi+1 + QTi) / 2 - (QBi+1 + QBi) / 2 ] x ∆t
= VRO = Area Under Curve (R.O.)
Δt t
- Divide the ordinates of the total runoff (QT - QB) by the total
volume of direct runoff measured above to obtain the
ordinates of the unit hydrograph (QUH = QS / VRO). Where VRO
is Volume of runoff measured in (L) and
QS = QT - QB
-The effective duration of the unit hydrograph is the same as the original hydrograph.
It is important to note that the unit hydrograph represents a given basin and rain of specific
duration. Since most storms do not have the same characteristics of the unit hydrograph, it
is necessary to construct another unit hydrograph having the same rain characteristics
before any attempt to construct the hydrograph.
Q i
2 hr effective rain NO SCALE!
400
Losses =0.1
1.2” 2.2” 1.8”
300 NO SCALE!
Q
cfs
200
100
t ( hr) t ( hr)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 4 6
1 75 75 0
2 110 75 35
3 205 75 130
4 305 75 230
5 280 75 205
6 205 75 130
7 130 75 55
8 75 75 0
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King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dr. Rashid Allayla
Volume of direct runoff = (1/2) [(0+35) + (35+130) + (130+230) + (230+205) + (205+130) + (130+55) + (55+0)] (3600
s/hr) = 2.826 x 106 ft3
Effective runoff in inches = (2.826 x 106 ft3) (12 inches / ft) / [(2 mi2) (5280 ft/mi)2] = 0.61 inches
Now calculate the ordinates of U.H. by dividing the ordinates of the hydrograph by 0.61”
The hydrograph of the complex rain is found by multiplying the ordinates of U.H. by the effective rain
(rainfall minus the losses) and shifting the resulting hydrographs by two hours and adding ordinates.
t (hrs) QU.H QUH x 1.1 QUH x 2.1 QUH x 1.8 Hydrograph Ordinates
Important Note: Add base flow (75 cfs) to ordinates to obtain full hydrograph.
NO SCALE!
0 2 4 ….
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Add t-hr unit hydrograph to another t-hr unit hydrograph but shifted by t-hours. The two unit
hydrographs will produce a hydrograph of 2t duration totaling two inches of rain. The new hydrograph
represents rain intensity of 1/t (because intensity is 2”/2t). The new 2t unit hydrograph is obtained by dividing
ordinates by 2.
Resulting 4-hr
hydrograph
2-hr U.H.
Two 2-hr U.H.
2 hours shift
t
S curve:
Q I x t = 1 inch
T-hr S Curve
ΔQ
Q
T-hr
U.H.’s
Ordinates of U.H. of t-
hr duration
t = (T/t) ΔQ
T t
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The following unit hydrograph results from 2–hr storm. Determine the 1-hr unit hydrograph.
Time (hr): 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q (m3/s): 0 0 1.42 8.5 11.3 5.66 1.45 0
Inserting numbers:
Time (hr) 2-hr U.H. S-Curve additions 2-hr S-Curve
0 0 - -
1 1.42 - = 1.42
2 8.5 - = 8.5
3 11.3 = (1.42) 11.3+1.42 = 12.72
4 5.66 = (8.5) 5.66+8.5 = 14.16
5 1.45 = (11.3+1.42) 1.45+11.3+1.42 = 14.17
6 0 = (5.66+8.5) 0+5.66+8.5 = 14.16
7 = (1.45+11.3+1.42) 1.45+11.3+1.42 = 14.17
The 1 hour unit hydrograph is calculated by lagging the 2 – hr S-Curve by 1 hour and
multiplying ordinates by 2/1 (old duration divided by new duration)
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Flood Routing:
Flood routing is a “bookkeeping” technique that uses continuity to predict temporal and
spatial variation through river reach or a reservoir. It is a mathematical description of the
behavior of the flood waves that move through a point along the stream. The outcome of the
routing is a discharge hydrograph Q = Q(t) measured at a prescribed point along a stream
from a known hydrograph upstream or downstream and a known characteristics of the
stream. Waves are generated as a result of inflow or outflow into the channel as a result of
rain, channel failure, tides or releases from reservoirs.
Event
Q = Q(t) Q = Q(t)
Inflow Outflow
Storage Routing:
Reservoir Routing:
Referring to the figure below, the inflow and outflow are plotted in the same graph. Area A
represents the volume of water that is available in the reservoir at time t 1. At t > t1 , outflow
exceeds inflow and the reservoir empties by an amount equal to B.
(Inflow Volume) A
Inflow outflow Storage in channel (outflow volume) B
Water released
I = O here
Reservoir Peak of
outflow
I – O = ∂S / ∂t
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If the average rate of flow during a given time period is equal to the average flow at the
beginning and the end of the period (i.e. short time period), the routing equation takes the
following form:
( I1 + I2 ) ∆t - ( O1 + O2 ) ∆t = s2 – s1
2 2
Where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the beginning and end of the time period. In the above
equation all elements are known except O2 and s2 and a second equation is needed in order
to solve for O and s.
Routing procedure:
For a large reservoir where water velocity is low, the pool level of the reservoir is near
horizontal which allows a relationship between upstream head H and weir geometry to be
established. The form of equation which was discussed earlier is:
O = CLH 3/2
Where C is the weir coefficient, H is the upstream depth and L is the width of the weir. The
active storage can be found by measuring the height of the reservoir and the planimetering
the reservoir surface area from topographic maps. The storage and the outflow can now be
established as shown in the following graph:
Spillway Discharge O = CLH 3/2 →
s Vs. H (Measured)
H
Reservoir volume s →
The routing equation can be written as: (I 1 + I 2) + (2s 1 / ∆t – O 1) = (2s 2 / ∆t + O 2)
Solution Method:
Establish 2s / ∆t + O as a function of H from H vs. s data and from the spillway discharge formula O =
CH3/2.
At the beginning of routing period, all values in the left-hand side are known and the values at the
right-hand side are computed.
From the computed value of 2s/∆t + O, a new value of H is interpreted from 2s/∆t + O vs. H data.
From the computed value of 2s/∆t + O, and O, find s.
Using Spillway formula, find O from H.
From the new values of s and O find 2s/∆t – O.
Add (I1 + I2) and 2s/∆t – O to obtain a new value of 2s/∆t + O.
Repeat step 3-7 to find new values of s, O, H, 2s/∆t – O and 2s/∆t + O.
Obtain a new value of s from the calculated value of 2s/∆t + O curve established earlier.
From the values of 2s/∆t + O and O, a new value of s is calculated.
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Illustrative Example:
I (cfs)
200 ( cfs)
150
100
50
Time
(days): 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Flow
(cfs): 0 50 100 150 200 100 66.67 33.33 0.00
O = C L H3/2
Where: O is the outflow, L is the length and H is the head above the crest. The characteristics of the
spillway are as follows: C = 3, L (Length of the spillway) = 35 ft and H0 (Initial crest height of the
spillway) = 50 ft.
Stage (ft)
208.75
52.0 175.00
141.25
51.5
(ft)
107.50
51.0
73.70
50.5
Storage ( x 106 ft3)
50 .
0 50 100 150 200
50.0
50
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Table 1:
Water Surface El. Head H (1) Storage(From Data) Outflow (2) 2s/∆t + O
(ft) (ft) (ft3 x 106) (cfs) (cfs)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
50.0 0.0 40.00 0.00 160.00
50.5 0.5 73.70 37.1 331.9
51.0 1.0 107.50 105.0 535.00
51.5 1.5 141.25 192.0 757.00
52.0 2.0 175.00 297.0 997.00
52.5 2.5 208.75 415.00 1250
O = C L H3/2
(1) Elevation above the crest
(2) From spillway formula
Table 2:
Time Inflow I1 + I2 Outflow Storage, s 2s1/∆t – O1 2s2/∆t + O2 Water Elevation
(Day) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs) (ft3 x 106) (cfs) (cfs) (ft)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
--- 0 0 0 40 160 160 50.0
0 0 50 0 40 160 210 50.15
0.5 50 150 6.10 52.5 203.9 353.90 50.55
1.0 100 250 42.83 86.95 304.97 554.97 51.05
1.5 150 350 112.97 128.04 399.17 749.17 51.52
2.0 200 300 196.77 159.05 439.43 739.43 51.46
2.5 100 100 185.23 135.67 357.43 457.43 50.81
3.0 0 0
From: H = 0.55 → O = CLH3/2 From: (I1+I2) + (2s/∆t-O1)→(150) + 203.9) = 353.9 From Table 1 @ 353.9 cfs
= 42.83
From: 2s/∆t + 6.1 = 353.9 → s = 86.95
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Q = CiA
Where: Q is the peak flow, C is runoff (rational) coefficient and A is the area of the
watershed. Note that if Q is in m3 / s, i in mm / hr, A in km2, the equation should be written
as,
Q = 0.278 CiA
Although the rational equation is dimensionally consistent, it yields correct values for Q in
cfs, i in inches per hour and A in acres. The figure below is provided by the US Department
of Transportation for frequency correction factor. The table shows some typical values of
the rational coefficient C for various surface areas.
Note that the runoff coefficient varies from 0 to 1 which embodies a number of variables
that include rainfall duration and intensity, soil type, shape and slope of the watershed,
design frequency, amount of depression storage and interception
1) Estimate the time of concentration which is the time required for water to travel from
the most remote area to reach the outlet. For combination of various routes, t c is
taken as the longest time of travel to the outlet.
3) Select a return period Tr and find the intensity of rain that will be equaled or
exceeded once every Tr. This is obtained from IDF curves (Published by US National
Weather Service See Figure)
4) Determine peak flow from the rational formula. This value is then used for design of
storm systems.
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Illustrative Example:
Find the 50 year design storm for a the following composite area: A business downtown area
with C = 0.8 in the left and a park with C = 0.2 in the right. The lateral time of flow in the left
portion is 10 minutes and in the right is 40 minutes. The travel time in the gutter is 8 minutes.
10 minutes 10 minutes
40 minutes
Business Park
8 minutes
2000 ft
18 minutes
500 ft 2000 ft
From IDF chart, for 50 year design and tc = 18 minutes, i = 7 inches / hr.
Area of the watershed = Area of the business section + effected portion of the park
Q = C1 i1 A1 + C2 i2 A2
Since Q business > Q Park , then Q = 196.07 cfs is used for drainage design.
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Illustrative example:
A composite residential and park areas is proposed for construction. The inlet times to the
manholes for areas AA to AC are 20, 35, 41 and 53 minutes respectively. The coefficients C for
areas AA to AC are 0.8, 0.3, 0.6 and 0.25 respectively. The time of travel between manhole 1 to 2 is
5 minutes, 2 to 3 is 7 minutes and between 3 and 4 is 10 minutes. Find the 10-year peak flow at
each inlet that will be used for storm design.
AA = 3.3 Acres
AB = 4 Acres
AC = 4.5 Acres
A4 AD = 5.4 Acres
1
2 3
Inlet 1:
Contribution from area A = 20 minutes, then from IDF chart @ 10-yr storm and @ tC = 20
minutes, i A = 5.6 in/hr
Q1 = CiA =(0.8) (5.6 in/hr) (3.3 acres) = 14.78 cfs
Inlet 2:
Contribution from area A = 20 minutes + 5 minutes = 25 minutes
Contribution from area B = 35 minutes
Therefore, since (tc)B > (tc)A , contribution from area B to inlet 2 controls, then from the IDF @ 10-
yr storm and @ tC = 35, i B = 4.6 in/hr
Q2 = CiA =(0.8) (4.6 in/hr) (3.3 acres) + (0.3) (4.6 in/hr) (4 acres) = 17.66 cfs
Inlet 3:
Contribution from area A = 20 minutes + 5 minutes + 7 minutes = 32 minutes
Contribution from area B = 35 minutes + 7 minutes = 42 minutes
Contribution from area C = 41 minutes
Therefore, since (tc)B > (tc)A and (tc)B > (tc)C , contribution from area B to inlet 3 controls, then
from the IDF @ 10-yr storm, and @ tc = 42 minutes, i B = 4.0 in/hr
Q3 = CiA =(0.8) (4 in/hr) (3.3 acre) + (0.3) (4 in/hr) (4 acres) + (0.6) (4 in/hr) (4.5 acre) = 26.16 cfs
Inlet 4:
Contribution from area A = 20 minutes + 5 minutes + 7 minutes + 10 minutes = 42 minutes
Contribution from area B = 35 minutes + 7 minutes + 10 minutes = 52 minutes
Contribution from area C = 41 minutes + 10 minutes = 51 minutes
Contribution from area D = 53 minutes
Therefore, since (tC)D > (tc)A , (tc)D > (tc)B and (tc)D > (tc)C , contribution from area B to inlet 3
controls, then from the IDF @ 10-yr storm, and @ tD = 53 minutes, i B = 3.5 in/hr
Q4 = CiA = (0.8) (3.5 in/hr) (3.3 acre) + (0.3) (3.5 in/hr) (4 acres) + (0.6) (3.5 in/hr) (4.5 acre) + (0.25)
(3.5 in/hr) (5.4 acre) = 27.61 cfs
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Groundwater Hydrology
Aquifer is any porous formation that can transmit water at economic (usable) quantity. It
comes from the Latin words aqua (means water) and Ferro (to bear).
Classification of Aquifers:
Piezometric Surface
Piezometer
Direction of
Flow
Lower Rock
Formation
Direction 59
Of
Flow
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Piezometric Surface
H = P/γ + Z
Piezometer
nn Water Table
P/γ = 0
P/
Confined Unconfined
Aquifer Aquifer Aquifer
Z P/γ
Porosity: It is the ratio of the volume of interconnected voids within the soil to the total
volume of the soil. If VV designates the volume of “interconnected” voids, VS is the bulk
volume and VT is the total volume of the soil media, the porosity θ is defined as:
θ = VV / VT = (VT-VS) / VT = 1 – VS/VT
Volumetric Water content: It is the ratio of the volume of water to total volume of soil
sample.
θW = VW / VT
Degree of Saturation: It is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids. The
soil is said to be saturated when the degree of saturation is 100%.
S = VW / VV
Moisture Content: It is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solid.
W = WW / WS
Effective Porosity: It is the ratio of the volume of interconnected voids that allow free
water flow to the total volume of soil sample. The value of effective porosity is always
less than soil porosity because of the existence of micro voids that do not allow free
flow of water. The difference between effective porosity and porosity is more
pronounced in silt and clay than in medium to coarse sand.
VV Va
VW VT
VS VS
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EXAMPLE:
A 130 cm3 soil sample weighs 200 grams when it was at field moisture. After drying the
sample, it weighed 180 grams. The volume of solid is 69 cm3 Find: 1) Volumetric water
content, 2) Total porosity and 3) Degree of Saturation and 4) moisture content.
Distribution of Pressure:
The force that balances the gravity force and holds water in equilibrium is,
∂P / ∂ z = - γ
P = - γz + C
Selecting water table as the datum, pressure above water table is negative and pressure
below is positive. One can ask how does water stay in voids and not drain. The answer
is because of Surface Tension.
Specific storage is the amount of water in storage (aquifer) that is released from a unit
volume of aquifer per unit decline of head. It has the dimension of (1/L). For two
dimensional aquifer analysis, a more useful storage parameter is the one that integrates
the storage over the depth of the aquifer. This is called storage coefficient. For confined
aquifers it is defined as the amount of water released from aquifer per unit area of
aquifer per unit decline of head:
S = SS b Vw/(VTx1/L)
Where b is the thickness of the aquifer. For unconfined aquifers, S is given the term
“specific yield", Sy. It is defined as the amount of water released from a column of
aquifer per unit area per unit decline of head. Sy is, therefore, a measure of how much
water can drain away from the rock when subjected to gravity force versus how much
water the rock actually holds. Since surface retention is proportional to the water-
holding capacity of soil particles, the grain size of the soil plays important role in
determining the magnitude of specific yield. The smaller the particle, the larger the
surface area, the larger the surface tension, the less the specific yield. This is the
reason why pumping from sandy aquifer yields more water than aquifers made of clay.
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Piezometric Surface 1
1.unit area
∆h
S Sy
Typical values of S: S ranges from 10-4 to 10-6 and Sy ranges from 0.2 to 0.3 (Bear ‘72)
EXAMPLE:
The average volume of a confined aquifer is 2.5 x 107 m3. The storage coefficient of the
aquifer at a location where the thickness b = 30 m is 0.005. Estimate the volume of water
recovered by reducing the pressure head by 20 meters.
Using the definition of storage coefficient S as the volume of water released from
storage per unit area of aquifer per unit decline of head :
Then Volume of water recovered Vv = S x AT x Δh =(0.005) (8.3 x 105) (20) = 8.3 x 104 m3.
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The French engineer Henry Darcy introduced Darcy’s Law in 1856 when he was
investigating flow under foundations in the French city of Dijon. The law is a generalized
relationship between the flow of fluid and the change in head in porous media under
saturated conditions. Darcy concluded that Q, measured in volume of water per unit
time, is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the porous medium
transmitting water, the difference in head between the entrance and the exit and
inversely proportional to the length separating the points. This law is valid for any
Newtonian fluid and, with some modification; it could describe flow in unsaturated zone.
Darcy’s Experiment:
In general, flow of pore water in soils is driven from positions of higher total head
towards positions of lower total head. The level of the datum is arbitrary. It is the
differences in total head that determines discharge. Introducing the hydraulic gradient
as the rate of change of total head along the direction of flow.
▼h= ∆h / L
∆h
hout
L
hin
Area Q (Discharge)
Porous Media
Porous Ceramic
For a one dimensional flow perpendicular to the cross sectional area, Darcy found that,
Q = - A K Δh / L
Where the minus sign is placed in the right side because the head loss (∆h = h2 – h1) is negative
and Q must be positive. In the equation, Q is the volumetric flow rate (measured in L3 / T), A is
the flow area perpendicular to the flow direction (m2 or ft2), K is the hydraulic conductivity of the
porous medium (measured in L / T), L is the flow path length (measured in L), h is the hydraulic
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head (measured in L) and ∆h is the change in h over the path L. The hydraulic head at a
specific point, h is the sum of the pressure head and the elevation, or
h = (p/γ + z)
q = -K ▼h
where ▼h (Del h) is (∂h/∂x) i + (∂h/∂y) j + (∂h/∂z) k and q is the vector velocity discharge
equal to Q/A.
K=kγ/μ
K=kν/g
Where K is the hydraulic conductivity (L/T), k is the intrinsic permeability, γ is the unit
weight of water and μ and ν are the dynamic kinematic viscosities of water. In the above
formula, it is apparent that K depends on both fluid properties (γ / μ ) and soil property
(k). Various formulas relate k to properties of porous medium. One of them is,
In the above equation, C is a dimensionless constant that varies from 45 for clay sand to
140 for pure sand. From the above definition, k has the dimension L2. Intrinsic
permeability pertains to the relative ease with which a porous medium can transmit a
liquid under a hydraulic gradient. It is apparent from the definition of k that it is a
property of the porous medium and is independent of the nature of the liquid or the
potential field, whereas the hydraulic conductivity K is dependent on both soil medium
(represented by k) and fluid properties (represented by viscosity μ & unit weight γ.
Units:
The standard unit used by hydrologists for hydraulic conductivity, K is meter per
day. In laboratory, the standard unit is in gallons per day through area of a porous
medium measured in ft2. In the field, hydraulic conductivity is measured as the
discharge of water through a cross-area of an aquifer one foot thick and one mile wide
under a hydraulic gradient of 1 ft/mile (Bear 1979).
The value of k in length units is very small. One practical unit employed to represent k is
Darcy, which is defined as,
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K = QL / ∆h
Constant Variable
Head Inflow Head inflow
dh
∆h
h0
h(t)
Soil Sample
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Q = - K Δh(t) / L
But: Q = a dh(t) / dt
t = - (a L / KA) ln h(t)||From h0 to ht
K = (a L / t A) ln[h0/ h(t)]
Darcy’s law shown above is limited to flow that is one–dimensional and
homogeneous incompressible medium. Introducing the concept of specific discharge q,
Darcy’s law becomes,
q = K Δh / L
In the above, q is also referred to as the Darcy flux. It is fictitious form of velocity
because the equation assumes that the discharge occurs throughout the cross sectional
area of soil in spite of the fact that solid particles constitute a major portion of the cross
sectional area. The portion of the area available to flow is equal to θA, where θ is the
porosity (as defined as the volume of pore relative to the total volume of the medium).
The average “real” velocity is, therefore is,
v=q/θ
V q
The energy loss Δh is due to the friction between the moving water and the walls of the
solid. The hydraulic gradient is simply the difference between the head at inlet and head
at the outlet divided by the distance between the inlet and the outlet. Note that the flow
prescribed by Darcy’s law,
1) Takes place from higher head to lower head and not necessarily from higher pressure to lower
one.
2) Darcy’s law specifies linear relationship between velocity and hydraulic head. This relationship
is valid only for small Reynolds number. At high Reynolds number, viscous forces do not govern
the flow and the hydraulic gradient will have higher order terms.
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Nonhomogeneous /
Homogeneous / Isotropic Isotropic
Homogeneous / Nonhomogeneous /
Anisotropic Anisotropic
Nonhomogeneouity:
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∂2h / ∂x2 = 0
Assume a flow situation shown below. The head upstream is H1 and the head
downstream is H2. The hydraulic conductivity is K and the length of flow is L. The
distribution of head as function of x is found using the above Laplace equation in x-
direction.
Piezometric head
Area = A
H1
H2
K
h =C1 x + C2
h = [(H2 – H1) / L] x + H1
Q = KA (H1 – H2) / L
Note that for flow in unconfined aquifer, there is no direct solution available even in one
dimension. The reason is that the water table is part of the unknown upper boundary
and the location of the water table is required (a priori) before one can proceed to solve
the equation. This would lead us to make further simplification to linearized the equation
that describes the flow in unconfined aquifers (Dupuit assumption).
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Dupuit Assumption:
The solution of the above equation yields the location of the water table h(x,y,z) which is
function of position and, for unsteady flow, a function of time. However, the location of
the water table is required (a priori) before one can proceed to solve the equation. The
difficulties associated with solution of this equation lead us to seek some
approximations. This is known as the Dupuit approximation.
qs
H1
H2
h = f (x)
h = f (x, z)
∂2h2/∂x2 = 0
h = H1 @ x = 0 & h = H2 @ x = L
-2 Q / K = [(H22 – H12) / L]
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Example:
The upstream elevation of the water-table of the unconfined aquifer shown below is 85
meters above horizontal impermeable boundary and the elevation of the downstream
water-table is 74 meters. The width of the aquifer is 200 meters, the length is 5 km, and
the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 8.357 m/day. Find the discharge across the
aquifer.
Water-table
74 m
Head h
5000 m
200 m
Solution:
Q = - K (h x b) dh / dx
= 292.33 m3/day
= 292.33 m3/day OK
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Figure below shows a well fully penetrating the saturated unconfined aquifer. The
assumption inherent here is that the aquifer is radially symmetric, homogeneous and isotropic.
Q Observation well
s r h
Assumed equipotential H
∆r
Surfaces (Dupuit
assumption)
Cylindrical Cut
Considering cylinder around the well extending from rw to R where rw is the radius of the
well and R is the radius of influence (which is defined as the distance from the well to
the point where drawdown is negligible), the linearized form of differential equation for
steady, radial flow in unconfined aquifers is defined from the following differential
equation:
∂2h/∂r2 + (1/r)∂h / ∂r = 0
Which is the radial form of Laplace equation ▼2 h = 0. The boundary condition can now
be stated as,
h = hw at: r = rw and: h = H at r = R
In the above: H is the static head before the start of pumping and R is the radius of
influence. From Darcy’s Law, the discharge across a cylinder (shown in the above
figure) becomes:
H2 – h2w = Q / π K ln (R/rw) = sw hw ≈ H
For small drawdown sw (drawdown at the well) , H2 – h2w = (H – hw) (H + hw) = sw (2H) The
Solution become,
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where T is the known as the coefficient of transmissibility KH. Note that the equation
can only be applied to aquifers that are infinite in their lateral extension. To find the
drawdown between two points in the aquifer, the equation become,
It is apparent from the above equation that, to obtain maximum discharge, the well
would have to penetrate to the impermeable boundary. However, this is not
economically feasible. Studies found that wells, which penetrate a depth greater than
two-thirds of the saturated zone, would not yield significantly more discharge.
H – h = Q/2πT ln (R/r)
Example:
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A 0.5 meter well fully penetrates an unconfined aquifer of 100 meters in depth.
Two observation wells located 50 and 100 meters apart have drawdown of 5 meters and
4.5 meters. If K is 5 meters per day what is the discharge?
Solution:
9025 – 9120.25 = Q / (π) (5) ln (50/100) Then Q = 9525 x π x 5 x 0.6931 = 2158.54 m3/day
PW OW 1 OW 2
100 m
h1 h2
Example:
A 0.5 meter well is pumping from confined aquifer of 50 meter in depth at a rate of 1000
m3 / day. After a long time of pumping, the drawdown at the well is 4 meters and the
drawdown at r = 10 m is 3 meters. Find the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer.
Solution:
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beyond the recharge source and no drawdown will take place beyond this point. The
drawdown at any point in the system is calculated by placing an imaginary recharge
(production) well pumping from an infinite aquifer and placed at the exact opposite
distance to the recharge source. The recharge well operates simultaneously and at the
same pumping rate as the real well. Remember that after this point in time, the flow into
the well is no longer radially symmetric because the source of water is the stream.
Qout
Drawdown
Due to pumping
with Cone of
Resultant cone Infinite aquifer Depression
Of depression (no Due to
Source) pumping
with
Infinite
aquifer (no
a Source)
-a
Recharge source
Recharge source
Water level
Static
Line
(non-
Pumping)
It is required to find the drawdown at any point in an aquifer for steady flow to a
well located at point P(x0,0). The line x = 0 is a contentious stream boundary infinite in
extent at y axis.
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(-x0 , 0) (x0 , 0)
Image Real
region region
The drawdown at any point in the real region in the aquifer P(x,y) is the sum of
drawdown of two wells, each operating in a fictitious infinite field. The equation of the
drawdown is the sum of the drawdown due to pumping well (+Q) and recharge well (-Q).
If r is the distance to the real well and ri is the distance to the imaginary well, then the
drawdown at any point is,
= (Q/2πT) ln (r i /r)
where R is the radius of influence of the well. Note that the assumption here is that R >
x0 otherwise the recharge boundary will have no effect on drawdown. The superposition
in side view is illustrated by the first graph in the previous page.
The procedure illustrated in the above example is known as the method of images. Note
that the gradient of the head (or drawdown) is zero at any point in the recharge
boundary (line x = 0). If more than one recharge boundary exists in the system, the
method of superposition still applies and the total drawdown will be the sum of all
drawdown due to imaginary wells with distances ri to the point in question and the
drawdown to the pumping well.
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Consider pumping around fully penetrating impermeable boundary. When pumping occurs,
the drawdown will increase and the cone of depression will expand until it hits the impermeable
boundary. At this point on, the cone of depression cannot spread beyond the impervious boundary
and the rate of drawdown accelerates. The drawdown is calculated by placing a fictitious pumping
(discharge) well placed at the exact opposite distance to the impervious boundary. The imaginary
discharge well operates simultaneously and at the same pumping rate as the real well. Remember
that, after this point in time, and just like the case in recharge boundary, the flow into the well is not
radially symmetric flow.
Impermeable Boundary
Water table
Static
Line
(no-
Pumping)
Impermeable
Boundary
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It is required to find the drawdown at any point in an aquifer for steady flow to a
well located at point P(x0,0). The line x = 0 is a contentious impermeable boundary
infinite in extent at y axis.
ri r
Image Real
region region
The drawdown at any point in the real region in the aquifer P(x,y) is the sum of
drawdown of two wells, each operating in a fictitious infinite field. The equation of the
drawdown is the sum of the drawdown due to pumping well (+Q) and recharge well (-Q).
If r is the distance to the real well and ri is the distance to the imaginary well, then the
drawdown at any point is,
Where R is the radius of influence of the well. Note that the assumption here is that R >
x0 otherwise the impermeable boundary will have no effect on drawdown. The
superposition in side view is illustrated by the first graph in the previous page.
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(+b, -a)3
b
IWX PW O
-Q +Q a
sP = sr + s1 – s2 – s3
= (Q/2πT) [ln ( R/r) + ln (R/ri1) – ln (R/ri2) –ln (R/ri3)
= (Q/2πT) {ln [(b+x)2 + (y+a)2]1/2 [(b+x)2 + (y-a)2]1/2 / [(x-b)2 + (a-y)2]1/2 + [(x-b)2 + (y+a)2]1/2
sP (x,y) = (Q/4πT) ln { [(b+x)2 + (y+a)2] [(b+x)2 + (y-a)2] / [(x-b)2 + (a-y)2] + [(x-b)2 + (y+a)2]}
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sP = sr – s1 + s2 – s3
sP = = (Q/2πT) [ln ( R/r) - ln (R/ri1) + ln (R/ri2) – ln (R/ri3)
sP = sr – s1 – s2 + s3
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Or, in short
s = Q/4πT W (u)
For small values of u (say u<0.01, i.e. for small r and/or large time), the W function can
be approximated by the first two terms and the equation can be approximated as,
The above equation approximates the drawdown in both confined and unconfined
aquifers with S represents storage coefficient for confined aquifers and apparent
specific yield for unconfined aquifers. In addition, T would be = b K for confined aquifers
and = ĤK for unconfined aquifers where Ĥ represents an “average” saturated thickness.
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s = Q/4 π T [W (u)]
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EXAMPLE
Well is being pumped at constant rate of 0.004 m3/s. The transmissibility of the aquifer is
0.0025 m2/s the distance to observation well is r = 100 meters and the storage coefficient
is 0.00087. Find the drawdown in the observation well after 20 hours of pumping using
the Theis well function and pseudo-steady state approximation and compare the
results.
Solution:
The two answers are approximately the same because u is very small.
EXAMPLE:
After 2 hours of pumping in an aquifer, it was observed that the radius at which
drawdown is negligible is 400 meters. At what radius would the drawdown be negligible
after 5 hours of pumping? Assume pseudo-steady state prevail.
EXAMPLE:
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drawdown at the well after 10 days of pumping. Assume R = 500 m and rPW = 0.5 m and
Sy = 0.1.
20m
PWi
Recharge Impermeabl
e
u = r2S / 4Tt,
sT = sPW + (- siRW20 - siRW40 + siPW60 + siPW80 )LEFT + ( siPW20 - iRW40 – iRW60 + siPW80 )RIGHT
= 0.1592 [13.03555-13.109+5.769]
Aquifer Tests
Aquifer tests are field tests that are performed to determine field data under
controlled conditions. The outcome of the field tests are the hydrologic parameters of
the aquifer such as storage coefficient, apparent specific yield, hydraulic conductivity
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and transmissibility of the aquifer. The obtained values of the tested aquifer can be used
for designing well field and predicting future drawdown. They can also be used for
assessing groundwater supply, and estimating inflow and outflow to and from
groundwater basins.
The outcome of aquifer properties obtained from field tests will eventually be compared
to the values obtained from theoretical considerations. For this reason, it is important
that elements such as boundary conditions, initial conditions and the physical
characteristics of the chosen sites match closely the ones assumed in theory. The other
important consideration is to minimize uncertainties associated with the selection of
pumping wells and the placement of observation wells. For example, data obtained from
partially penetrating wells are difficult and uncertain to analyze than the fully penetrating
wells. In addition, the proper choice of the number and the location of observation wells
would minimize uncertainties associated with measuring hydraulic parameters of the
aquifer.
In order to ensure that the water level properly represents the average
piezometric head below water table, the casing in the observation wells should be
perforated and should penetrate the entire saturated zone. In confined aquifers,
piezometer should be sealed properly in order to ensure against water transport from
one stratum to another.
During aquifer test analysis, the number and the appropriate spacing of
observation wells play an important part to insure the integrity of data collected.
According to Walton (1987), no less than three observation wells should be selected and
spaced at one logarithmic cycle from one another. Because the radius of influence
expands more rapidly in confined aquifers than in unconfined aquifers, observation wells
should be placed at greater distances from each other than in unconfined aquifers.
When hydro geologic boundary is present, and in order to minimize their effect,
pumping well should be placed at least one saturated thickness away from the boundary. In
addition, the observation wells should be spaced along a line through the production well and
parallel to the boundary. This is made to minimize the effect of the boundary on distance-
drawdown data.
Finally, the hydrologic data collected for unconfined aquifers using aquifer test analysis
represent mean values of that portion of aquifer bounded by the initial saturated zone and the of
cone of depression and does not represent the entire saturated thickness. Furthermore, the best
estimates of the aquifer properties can be obtained from tests that are conducted over a long
time when delayed drainage is not a factor influencing the apparent specific yield.
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3. Super-impose the two plots data by keeping the coordinate axis of the two
curves parallel until best fit is obtained.
4. Select any arbitrary point in the graph. Read the values of W(u) *, u* and the
corresponding values of s* and (r2/t)*
5. The values of T and S are calculated using the formulas: T = Q W(u)*/4πs* and
S = 4Tu*/(r2/t)*
W(u) w(u*)*
s*
r2/t*
r2/t
u* u Log-Log Graphs
Plotting the drawdown s versus the logarithm of time t would form a straight line. The x
axis intercept is at t = t0 @ s = 0, therefore:
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S = 2.246Tt0 / r2
=1
and the slope over one cycle is:
s (r,t) 10t - s (r,t) t = ∆s = 2.303 Q/4πT log [(2.246T10t / r2S)/ 2.246Tt / r2S)]
Therefore:
T = 2.303 Q/4π ∆s
3. Find the slope by reading the difference between two points across one log
cycle ∆s*.
∆s
Semi-log graph
t t0
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Note that s versus t is a straight line as long as the assumption of small value of u is
still valid. However, it is apparent that when time is small, this assumption can no
longer be valid as shown in the above chart. It is also important to note that using
non-equilibrium equation is valid for unconfined aquifers as well as long as the
measured drawdown is small in relation to the overall saturated thickness of the
unconfined aquifer.
Example:
In order to Illustrate the use of the methods discussed above, the following is a data
collected from an observation well during a test in unconfined aquifer in Fort
Collins, Colorado (McWhorter & Sunada 77):
s (m) 0.025 0.050 0.055 0.110 0.170 0.180 0.220 0.300 0.370 0.450 0.53
r2/t 88.9 53.3 47.1 25.0 16.7 15.1 11.1 6.25 4.12 2.47 1.55
Plotting W(u) versus u, the coordinates of match point W(u) = 1.0 u = 0.1 s =
0.183 and r2 / t = 6.2 then T = (1.872)(1.0) / 4 π (0.183) = 0.814 m2/min and Sya =
(4) (0.814) (0.1)/ 6.2 = 0.053
1.0 W(u)
1.0
0.1
Match
Point
0.1
0.01
Example:
Data collected during a test of a confined aquifer by U.S. Geological Survey is as
follows:
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Time: (min): 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 50
DD s (m): 0.2 0.3 0.370 0.415 0.450 0.485 0.530 0.570 0.850
1.2
S
(m)
0.8
∆s = 0.4 m
Per Log
cycle
0.4
EXAMPLE:
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Calculate the limit of the pseudo-steady state region around the well if Q = 100 m3 / hr, S
= 0.09, T = 36 m2 / hr and t = 10 hrs.
r2 / 4αt = r2 / 4 (T/S)t
= 0.01 then
r = [(0.01)(4)(36/0.09)(10)]1/2
= 12.65 m.
Or, in general,
The equation states that the resulting drawdown is equal to the drawdown from t = 0 to t
= t2 with Q = Q1 plus drawdown resulting from an “imaginary” well pumping at a rate of
Q = ∆Q placed in the same position and pumping from t = t1 to t = t2.
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Q2
Q3
Q1
t2
t4
t’
t1 t’’ t’’’ t3
ti t
Buildup Recovery
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Example:
Solution:
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