international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

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Combustion efficiency measurements and burner

characterization in a hydrogen-oxyfuel combustor

Tom Tanneberger a, Sebastian Schimek a, Christian Oliver Paschereit a,

Panagiotis Stathopoulos b,*
a
€t Berlin, Müller-Breslau-Str.8, 10623 Berlin, Germany
Chair of Fluid Dynamics, Technische Universita
b
Chair of Unsteady Thermodynamics in Gas Turbine Processes, Technische Universita €t Berlin, Müller-Breslau-Str.8,
10623 Berlin, Germany

article info abstract

Article history: Energy generation from renewable sources in the power sector keeps constantly
Received 12 December 2018 increasing. This raises the demand for fast and flexible large-scale storage technologies.
Received in revised form Steam generation via stoichiometric combustion of hydrogen and oxygen within a steam
26 April 2019 cycle is a promising way to recombine both gases, which can be generated by electrolysis
Accepted 5 May 2019 utilizing excess renewable energy. At the same time, this technology could provide
Available online xxx balancing and spinning network reserves. A crucial parameter of this approach is the
combustion efficiency, since residual hydrogen or oxygen can damage downstream com-
Keywords: ponents of the power plant steam cycle. The current paper investigates the combustion of
Oxy-fuel combustion hydrogen and oxygen under steam diluted conditions. Flow field, mixing, flame types and
Hydrogen combustion efficiency are assessed. The combustion efficiency measurement is very
Steam dilution challenging in this case, as the combustor products consist mostly of pure steam and
Combustion efficiency cannot be dried for conventional gas analysis. This is solved by an in-situ measurement
Large scale energy storage method to quantify the combustion efficiency. Initial results of this approach are also
presented in the current work.
© 2019 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

maintain network frequency and voltage in the case of

Introduction
In order to reach the challenging commitments made at the
UN Climate Change Conference 2015 in Paris [1], greenhouse
gas emissions have to be reduced significantly. For that, the
utilization of renewable energy sources needs to be
expanded worldwide. In turn, this raises the problem of
power generation fluctuations due to the variable generation
of solar and wind energy. These fluctuations need to be
balanced and already activate a rising share of primary and
secondary control reserves, which are originally intended to
outages. In Germany, the demands for positive and negative
secondary reserve are expected to increase by 40% and 10%,
respectively. The demand for tertiary reserve will be even
higher and similar trends are expected for the European
market in the near future [2,3]. Hence, energy storage and
balancing technologies will very likely play a central role in
the energy production and management sector of the near
future.
Different energy storage solutions are already running or
are currently under development, but they all have certain

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: stathopoulos@tu-berlin.de (P. Stathopoulos).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
0360-3199/© 2019 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
2 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx
disadvantages. Pumped hydro storage and compressed air
energy storage, for example, lack of geographical availability.
Batteries, on the other hand, suffer from limited load-unload
cycles, small power density, and high storage costs [4,5].
Using mostly existing infrastructure, power-to-gas might be
an easy solution for energy storage. Hereby, excess energy
from renewable energy sources, e.g. wind and solar, is used to
generate pressurized H2 from water. The H2 can be stored and
converted back to energy when needed. This conversion is
done today either by methanization, which is costly and
complex, or by fuel cells, which are also costly and have
limited capacity. A third opportunity is the direct use of H2 in
combustion processes. Several projects on the combustion of
hydrogen-rich fuels were initiated in the last years, for
example the Advanced Hydrogen Gas Turbine Development
Program by the American Department of Energy [6]. In April
2018, Obayashi Corporation and Kawasaki Heavy Industries,
Ltd. reported the first successful operation of a 100%
hydrogen-fueled gas turbine, which is incorporated in a
combined heat and power plant with 1 MW electricity output
in Kobe, Japan. The combustor is based on a dry low emission
micro-mix combustion approach [7]. However, these tech-
nologies still produce NOx and CO2 emissions due to the par-
allel utilization of air as oxidizer and natural gas in gas
mixtures.
The project, part of which is the current work, aims to
develop and investigate a zero-emission H2 combustion
technology, that burns H2 and O2 under stoichiometric con-
ditions. Such a combustor can be applied in two ways. In a
short-term, it can be installed in steam power plants as an on-
demand reheat stage. The power output of the plant is thus
temporally boosted to provide network services like primary
and secondary control reserves. This approach has been
thermodynamically and economically assessed by Statho-
poulos et al. [8] and it shows that the proposed system is a
viable alternative for energy storage and primary control
reserve. In the long term, fossil-fueled base load power plants
will be replaced by renewables. In such a case, a H2/O2
combustor could be a part of a zero-emission power plant.
While oxyfuel combustion of natural gas, coal and other fuels
for post-combustion carbon capture and storage (CCS) is
intensively investigated [9e14], there is only little research on
cycles with internal stoichiometric combustion of H2 and O2,
like the study of Cicconardi et al. [15].
In order to be utilized in a power plant, the exhaust steam
of such a combustor must fulfill very challenging specifica-
tions, since it must produce pure, high-temperature steam.
Considering a typical Rankine process, steam is generated in
an externally fired boiler, expanded in a turbine and subse-
quently condensed. The resulting condensate is then pres-
surized and evaporated again. If the combustor in question is
integrated into such a cycle [8], O2 and H2 residuals in its
exhaust stream can oxidize or decarbonize downstream metal
components. Moreover, these gases are non-condensable and
can increase the condenser pressure (thus reducing the cycle
efficiency). In the worst case scenario, these gases accumulate
in the condenser and are not vented, which may lead to an
explosive mixture. Hence, the combustion efficiency of such a
burner is of crucial importance in order to reduce their
concentration.
Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
Only a few attempts have been made to investigate the
internal combustion of H2 and O2. For instance, in the scope of
the Japanese WE-NET program [16,17], three H2/O2 combus-
tors were developed and tested with the aim to integrate them
in a hydrogen-fueled turbine based on the Rankine cycle [18].
The performed tests have demonstrated reliable ignition and
stable operation of such combustors. However, these at-
tempts did not manage to reach the aforementioned neces-
sary combustion efficiency. Flame quenching near the
combustor walls has been reported as the major reason for
this result. A second project on the topic was conducted by a
consortium of industrial partners and research institutes in
Germany. This project focused on developing a H2/O2 steam
generator as a steam cycle booster [19e23]. The combustor
was adapted from rocket combustion technology and showed
a very fast load availability, which is necessary to supply pri-
mary control reserve. Since the target combustion efficiency
could not be reached, the project was not followed up by the
time. However, Haidn et al. [24] concluded in 2009 that the
concept is viable under today's circumstances, which co-
incides with the aforementioned analysis of Stathopoulos
et al. [8]. Studies on a very similar combustion system have
also been carried out in Russia [25]. Borozenko et al. [26] re-
ported the measurement of very low hydrogen residuals in the
produced steam but without providing thorough data on the
uncertainty of their measurements.
In contrast to the aforementioned projects, our approach is
to apply the concept of steam-diluted (or wet) combustion.
The idea is to decrease NOx and CO emissions even at high
equivalence ratios, using high reactivity fuels like hydrogen
[27e29]. In the case of hydrogen oxyfuel combustion, where
none of these emissions are present, steam dilution is used to
control the combustion temperature. Thus, the thermal stress
of the combustion chamber can be reduced significantly
compared to rocket combustors. This results in less structural
complexity and less fatigue, which is crucial for the utilization
in power plants. The model burner design in the current work
builds upon an experimentally well-characterized design of a
swirl-stabilized burner for steam-diluted H2/air combustion
[30e33], which was equipped with additional O2 injectors.
Preliminary results on a first and a second generation of that
burner were reported by Schimek et al. [34] and Tanneberger
et al. [35].
In the present study, the burner is further characterized in
the sense of its isothermal flow field and mixing, as well as
flame shape and type. Moreover, the diagnostics are extended
by measurements of the combustion efficiency. Compared to
conventional combustion systems, e.g. natural gas burners,
the evaluation of the combustion efficiency is very chal-
lenging in the present case. The exhaust gas is pure steam
with little concentrations of H2 and O2, which cannot be reli-
ably sampled and dried for gas analysis. Instead, the residual
gas concentration needs to be measured directly in the pro-
cess. Even if combustion is complete (hc ¼ 100%), gas residuals
can appear due to small deviations from stoichiometry.
In order to tackle these challenges, the paper presents, for
the first time in hydrogen oxyfuel combustion, an in-situ
measurement technique for residual gas concentrations and
combustion efficiency. Additionally, the current work in-
troduces the novel concept of steam-diluted hydrogen oxyfuel
 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx 3

combustion. Thereby, two individually swirled steam stages

Table 1 e Burner configurations.
are applied in order to separate the reactants from each other
and protect them from the cold combustor walls. Configuration Inner swirler Outer swirler
blocking % blocking %
I 15 25
Experimental setup and measurement II 40 25
III 60 25
techniques
IV 80 25
V 60 50
The current project investigates a model combustor, which is
described in the first subsection. The development of the
combustor consists of several steps that include measure-
configuration number the swirl intensity is increased due to
ments in different types of test rigs. First, the flow field and
further blocking.
mixing properties of the burner are studied in a vertical water
H2 is injected as a non-swirling jet on the central axis,
tunnel. Subsequently, the burner stability maps, the various
surrounded by the inner steam stream (fed through the inner
flame shapes and their connection to the aforementioned flow
swirl generator). The O2 is not contained in the steam but
and mixing characteristics are investigated in an atmospheric
injected through 30 co-axial holes between the inner and
combustion test rig. Finally, the combustion test rig is
outer steam ducts. By this arrangement, H2 and O2 are not able
extended by the necessary diagnostics for the assessment of
to form a combustible mixture near the walls of the
combustion efficiency.
combustor. Instead, they are mixed inside the combustion
chamber and the risk of flashback is minimized.
Burner design

Water tunnel test rig

The presented combustor design builds upon the experience
from swirl-stabilized gas turbine combustors. However, here
The isothermal PIV measurements of the flow field are carried
the main flow component is steam, which acts as a diluent for
out in a vertical water tunnel (Fig. 2) using a Nd:YAG laser with
the chemical reaction and also defines the flow field in the
a wavelength of 532 nm and hollow silver-coated glass
combustion chamber. In order to achieve aerodynamic flame
spheres as seeding. The water tunnel is also used to investi-
stabilization, an azimuthal component is imposed on the
gate the mixing properties by planar laser-induced fluores-
steam flow upstream of the combustion chamber. The current
cence (PLIF). Separate injection of Rhodamine 6G dye is used to
version of the burner utilizes two independently controllable
visualize first the O2 and H2 flow, respectively. The images are
swirl generators (inner and outer swirler in Fig. 1). This design
high-pass filtered at 590 nm to eliminate any impact of the
has been chosen to generate an outer swirled steam jet that
laser wavelength on the fluorescence signal. The parameters
protects the reactants from the cold combustor walls in order
of the water tunnel measurements are given in Table 2. The
to minimize its influence on combustion efficiency. The swirl
H2/O2 jet momentum ratio is approximately 0.2 for all cases.
generators consist of tangential slots between the plenum and
The total reactants-to-steam flow momentum ratio depends
two coaxial annular ducts that channel the steam into the
on the level of steam dilution, which further affects the flow
combustion chamber. The swirl intensity of each swirl
rate and the Reynolds number. Thereby the absolute mo-
generator can be adjusted separately by varying the blockage
mentum of all three flows was conserved with respect to a
of the tangential slots. As a result, two control variables are
reference combustion case with a thermal power of Pth ¼ 50
available to modify and optimize the flow field. The swirler
kW for comparability [36]. As a result of this condition, the
blocking values for the configurations investigated in this
Reynolds numbers of the fuel flows are not equal, but at the
work are given in Table 1. Please note that with increasing
same order of magnitude. In terms of the mixing in-
vestigations, the water flow underestimates the molecular

Fig. 1 e Drawing of the investigated generic burner. Fig. 2 e Water tunnel test rig for PIV and PLIF.

Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
4 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx
Table 2 e Boundary conditions of the water tunnel and
combustion test rig with Pth ¼ 50 kW.
H2 O2 Steam
Water tunnel
Flow rates 0.3 0.6 1.86e7.44 m3/h
Reynolds number 7100 2800 10 k-40 k e
Momentum ratio 0.2 e e
Combustion test rig
Flow rates 1.5 11.9 21e105 kg/h
Reynolds number 6100 4100 10 k-51 k e measurements.
Momentum ratio 0.2 e e
diffusivity of the reactants, especially of the hydrogen. Thus,
PLIF in the water tunnel predicts a slower and less homoge-
neous gas/steam mixing. However, this effect is rather small
due to the strong turbulent diffusion in the shear layers.
Combustion test rig
The combustion tests are conducted at atmospheric pressure
in the test rig depicted in Fig. 3. A steam generator delivers
super-heated steam to a plenum upstream of the burner at
temperatures between 375 K and 600 K. Downstream of the
burner an optically accessible combustion chamber made of
fused quartz is installed, followed by a water-cooled exhaust
tube. The combustion chamber has a diameter of 80 mm and a
length of 200 mm. By means of an orifice at the end of the first
exhaust tube section the exhaust gas is slightly pressurized to
direct it to a Lambda Sensor (LS) via a probe. The probe has
three inlets at different radial locations in order to generate a
representative sample (see the close up in Fig. 3). In the second
part of the exhaust section, the complete exhaust gas flow is
directed through the measurement tube of a Tunable Diode
Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (TDLAS) O2 sensor.
The measurement procedure for the reacting test is shown
in the flow chart in Fig. 4. The steam mass flow is set by a PID-
controlled valve to a user-defined value. Manual needle valves
are used to control the H2 and main O2 flows according to the
required level of thermal power. As a result, the oxygen mass
flow is set slightly below its stoichiometric value. An addi-
tional PID-controlled valve is used in the parallel, secondary
oxygen line. It is set by the LS output and controls the total
oxygen mass flow to reach stoichiometric conditions. This
condition is described by the equivalence ratio f ¼ 1.
Thereby, f is the H2/O2 ratio divided by its stoichiometric
Fig. 3 e Combustion test rig.
Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
Fig. 4 e Schematic of the combustion efficiency
value. The combustion efficiency is assessed using the LS and
the TDLAS sensor in the exhaust gas. For start-up, the TDLAS
measurement section can be bypassed. Both gas sensors are
described in detail in the following sections.
Pictures of the flame shape were taken by an intensified
camera at a frame rate of 125 Hz. A total number of 3640
frames per data point were taken. In order to cut off all light
except the desired OH* chemiluminescence, the UV trans-
parent camera optic is equipped with a band-pass filter (320/
40 nm, 60% transmission). The images are averaged and post-
processed using an inverse Abel transformation.
The boundary conditions of the reacting tests for a
reference case with Pth ¼ 50 kW are given in Table 2. The fuel
flow rates and Reynolds numbers change according to the
actual power level. The lower mass flow of the steam is
conserved for all tests, while the upper one is given by the
cold blow-off limit (see Fig. 9). In the measurements of the
combustion efficiency, the steam is super-heated to 573 K,
which slightly reduces the Reynolds numbers. Moreover, the
thermal power and steam mass flow rates are reduced for
these tests. The mass flows are measured by Coriolis and
swirl flow meters with an uncertainty of 0.5% of the mea-
surement value.
Lambda sensor
The Lambda Sensor (LS) is a stabilized ZrO2 oxygen sensor,
which is commonly used to monitor the air-to-fuel ratio in
internal combustion engines [37]. The ZrO2 ceramic is an
oxygen-ion-conducting electrolyte that generates a voltage
when in contact with gases of different O2 concentrations at
high temperatures. It is thus heated up to 1000 K, ensuring a
constant measurement gas temperature, and exposed to the
measurement gas on one side and atmospheric air on the
other side. Assuming complete combustion under perfectly
stoichiometric conditions, there is no O2 in the measurement
gas while the air has 20.9%vol O2. In this case, the sensor
generates a threshold voltage of U ¼ 0:18 V. In the case of re-
sidual O2 in the exhaust, the O2 difference between both sides
of the sensor and the corresponding voltage decreases. Addi-
tionally, the LS is also cross-sensitive to fuel gases. The fuel
gas concentration on the measurement side of the sensor
leads to a change of the inner material's charge density, which
enhances the oxygen-ion-conduction and thus results in an
increase of the sensor voltage above the threshold of U ¼ 0:18
V. This behavior is used to measure the concentration of H2
residuals in the exhaust gas. However, due to high-
temperature pre-oxidation of the stoichiometric parts in the
 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 5 e Calibration of the LS for O2 (left) and H2 (right).
Fig. 6 e Validation of the calibration of the LS and TDLAS
system for 30 kg/h (only TDLAS), 40 kg/h and 50 kg/h
steam.
Fig. 7 e Distance between burner exit and recirculation
zone.
measurement gas, solely the excess component, either H2 or
O2, gets in contact with the sensor. Therefore, the LS voltage
only depends on the concentration relative to the stoichio-
metric ratio.
In order to quantify the deviations from stoichiometry, the
relation between sensor voltage and concentration has been
modeled and calibrated. The voltage of the LS is sampled with
a sampling rate of fs ¼ 1 Hz and time-averaged over t ¼ 120 s. It
is then converted using the semi-empirical model in Eq. (1) for
Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
5
O2 and Eq. (2) for H2. The calculation switches automatically at
the threshold of U ¼ 0:18 V. F denotes the Faraday and R the
gas constant; U is the voltage and T the temperature of the LS;
c1 , c2 and c3 are semi-empiric model constants, which are
acquired by fitting the calibration data.
4FU
wO2 ¼ c1 e RT (1)
U
wH2 ¼ ec2 Tþc3 (2)
The calibration is conducted at a flow rate of 50 kg/h of
super-heated steam at approximately 600 K. The test gas is
injected far upstream to ensure optimal mixing prior to the
sensor. The mass flow of the test gas is set using a fine
metering valve with a maximum flow coefficient of cv ¼ 0:004.
In order to set different O2 concentrations in the calibration
procedure, the pressure loss over the valve is varied and
measured by a differential pressure sensor with an accuracy
of 0.1% of the measurement range (0  6 bar).
The LS models are shown in Fig. 5 (left) for O2 and Fig. 5
(right) for H2. In both cases, the models are in good agree-
ment with the calibration data.
Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy oxygen sensor
As stated before, the LS measures only residual gas concen-
trations relative to the stoichiometric ratio. However, O2 and
H2 might both be present in the exhaust steam due to com-
bustion inefficiencies. In order to quantify this stoichiometric
component of residual gases, we measure the absolute O2
concentration. A tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy
(TDLAS) O2 sensor is used to directly measure the O2 con-
centration in-situ in the exhaust stream. TDLAS systems
make use of the concentration-dependent line shape varia-
tions through light absorption at individual wavelengths for
each species. They are well suited for measurements in harsh
environments and were already deployed in fire suppression
tests with large fractions of water (vapor and drops) [38,39]
and in the high-temperature exhaust of the oxyfuel combus-
tion of methane in an O2/CO2 atmosphere [14]. In our partic-
ular case, we expect very small concentrations of O2 in the
exhaust gas. The commonly used direct TDLAS method
struggles at low gas concentrations due to low signal-to-noise
ratios [40]. Thus, the wavelength modulation spectroscopy
(WMS) technique is used, which modulates the laser wave-
length sinusoidally around the wavelength of the absorption
line [41]. The concentration is thereby derived from the
amplitude of the second harmonic of the modulation
6 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 8 e Contours of the combustion chamber with the flow coming from the burner exit on the left: Normalized axial flow
field from the water tunnel (left) and normalized OH* chemiluminescence intensity (right) of Configuration III at P ¼ 50 kW
with a dilution ratio of U ¼ 6:3 (top), U ¼ 4:3 (middle) and U ¼ 2:5 (bottom).

frequency. The applicability of this technique for O2 concen-
tration measurements has been validated by Neethu et al. [42].
However, the accuracy and lower detection limit of such a
sensor depend on the optical path length as well as the
exhaust temperature and pressure. Since the evaluation of the
combustion efficiency requires a high accuracy and a low
detection limit, the laser beam is not directed perpendicular
through the exhaust tube, which would lead to an optical
pathway of only l ¼ 0:1 m. Instead, the exhaust is guided into a
measurement tube parallel to the laser beam. This way, an
optical path length of l ¼ 1:24 m is reached. The measurement
tube is thermally insulated to provide a constant temperature
in the measurement section.
Under standard conditions (N2, 293.25 K, l ¼ 0:512 m), the
system shows a deviation from linearity of less than 0.1 %vol
O2, but at the actual conditions in high-temperature steam,
the TDLAS system requires a new calibration. For this cali-
bration, the same setup as for the LS calibration was used.
Since the output signal is linear with respect to the volumetric
O2 concentration, it only requires a two-point calibration (the
same method is applied by the manufacturer of the sensor).
This is done for 0 and 3.2 %vol O2. The steam temperature
during the calibration is somewhat lower than the exhaust
temperature expected during the combustion experiments.
Therefore, the temperature in the TDLAS measurement sec-
tion is measured and used to correct the concentration mea-
surement through a method integrated into the system and
validated by its manufacturer.
The signal of the TDLAS sensor is also sampled at fs ¼ 1 Hz
and time-averaged over t ¼ 120 s. Additionally, the trans-
mission of the laser is measured to assure correct measure-
ments. Even at the harsh conditions of the high-temperature
exhaust stream, the transmission of the laser is always larger
than 70%.
Validation of the calibrations
The LS and the TDLAS sensor are validated simultaneously in
the combustion test rig (without a flame but at 600 K) for
steam mass flows of 40 kg/h and 50 kg/h. Moreover, the TDLAS
system is tested for 30 kg/h steam, where the pressure is too
low to sample gas for the LS. The validation data is shown in
Fig. 6 and aligns well with the O2 concentration, which is set

Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx 7

Fig. 9 e Operational range (top) and exhaust temperatures (bottom) of Configuration III (left) and V (right) with swirl-
stabilized (dot) and jet (triangle) flames.

via the fine metering valve. The standard deviation from the
set value is approximately 0.05 %mass O2 for both sensors.
Burner characterization
The results are divided into two parts: The burner character-
ization and the evaluation of the combustion efficiency. The
burner is characterized in isothermal and reacting conditions
to gain insight into the flow field, the mixing quality and their
connection to the observed flame shapes and positions as well
as the burner operational maps.
Flow field
The burner Configurations I-IV are investigated in the water
tunnel for various steam flow rates in order to optimize the
flow field towards a large operational range. Thereby, higher
steam mass flows correspond to lower adiabatic flame tem-
peratures (Tad ) in the combustion test rig. Since Tad also de-
pends on the thermal power and preheating, the steam
dilution ratio is chosen as the describing parameter instead. It
is defined as the ratio of the steam mass flow rate to the sum
of H2 and O2 mass flow rates
m_ H2 O
U¼ (3)
m_ H2 þ m_ O2
For sufficient steam dilution, the swirling flow in the
combustion chamber causes vortex breakdown, which means
that the flow direction is inverted on the central axis due to
the positive pressure gradient over the area expansion. Thus,
a recirculation zone is formed in the combustion chamber.
The distance between the recirculation zone and the burner
exit is plotted for the different burner configurations in Fig. 7.
For all configurations, no recirculation zone is present for U < 5
because the tangential momentum is too weak to induce
vortex breakdown due to the low steam mass flow through the
swirl generator. Above this threshold, the axial position of the
recirculation zone's stagnation point xVB diminishes with
increasing steam dilution ratio. This means that the recircu-
lation zone is shifted upstream, i.e. closer to the burner exit,
due to the higher swirl intensity, which is caused by the
increased steam mass flow rate. The difference between the
several burner configurations is that the swirl intensity of the
inner steam passage is increased from Configuration I to IV
(Table 1). Hence, the recirculation zone moves closer to the
burner exit from I to IV. In Configuration IV xVB is the smallest
and constant for U > 7. But in case of lower U, the distance
increases rapidly due to the high-pressure loss in the inner
swirl generator at this configuration. Instead, Configuration III
demonstrates the optimal trade-off between swirl intensity
and pressure loss. It enables vortex breakdown at the lowest
steam dilution ratio of all configurations. For this reason,

Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
8 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx
Configuration III is further investigated in the following
subsections.
Flame shape and position
According to the PIV measurements, the flow field can exhibit
two fundamentally different modes. On the one hand, the
high swirling jet causes an inner recirculation zone in the
combustion chamber. On the other hand, the stable low swirl
jet does not lead to vortex breakdown. This results in two
different flame types, depending on the degree of steam
dilution, for Configuration III. Fig. 8 shows a swirl-stabilized
flame (top) for high and a jet flame (bottom) for low steam
dilution. In this figure, the axial velocity field, obtained from
water tunnel PIV measurements, and the flame shapes, ob-
tained from normalized OH* chemiluminescence in the
reacting tests, are depicted. Both contours are superposed by
two-dimensional flow vectors. At U ¼ 6:3 (top row of Fig. 8) the
axial flow is deflected towards the walls of the combustion
chamber due to vortex breakdown, while a recirculation zone
is established on the central axis. As expected, the flame is
stabilized in the shear layers of the flow. At lower steam
dilution, the flame is shifted downstream, while it is getting
stretched in the axial and more confined in the radial direc-
tion. It is interesting to observe that even though no backflow
is present at U ¼ 4:3, a divergence of the flow is still present
due to swirling effects. This enables a stable transition from
the swirl-stabilized to the jet flame type. The jet flame can be
seen at U ¼ 2:5 in the last row of Fig. 8. In this case, the steam
and fuel streams merge to a low swirling axial jet. The flame
stabilizes at the contact surface between the H2 and O2
stream. This type of flame can be characterized as a diffusion
flame. It has the longest stretch and the lowest spreading.
The flame shape and the flame position depend mainly on
the flame type but are only marginally affected by parameter
variations for the swirl-stabilized mode. Over the complete
swirl-stabilized range, the flame is only shifted downstream
by approximately 0:15D when reducing the dilution ratio. The
same shift can be observed in the recirculation zone. Thus the
flame is constantly located at a position corresponding to 25%
of the recirculation zone length for Configuration III, which
indicates that its position mainly depends on the underlying
flow field and not on the chemistry, even though the dilution
affects flame properties, i.e. flame temperature and speed.
These changes are compensated by the flame stabilization in
the strong shear layers of the recirculation zone.
Operational map
In order to quantify the boundaries of the two flame types, an
operational map is recorded for Configuration III with thermal
powers of P ¼ 20  70 kW. In the top row of Fig. 9, swirl-
stabilized and jet flames are marked with dots and triangles,
respectively. A slow but stable transition is observed between
the two flame types. The swirl-stabilized flame coincides with
the existence of vortex breakdown, which requires a certain
swirl number. The swirl number gives the ratio of the flow's
tangential to axial momentum and is a function of the steam
dilution. This means that the transition between the two
flame types should occur at a constant U for a constant burner
Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
configuration. However, Fig. 9 shows that it also depends on
the thermal power. For higher power levels the transition is
shifted towards lower U, which means that due to the heat
release of the flame a lower swirl number is necessary to
enable vortex breakdown in this flow regime. Thus the swirl-
stabilized flame regime is enlarged with increasing thermal
power and larger Tad can be reached with a swirl flame.
On the right-hand side, Fig. 9 additionally shows the sta-
bility map of Configuration V. This configuration features a
larger swirl intensity. Due to the increased azimuthal mo-
mentum, vortex breakdown in the combustion chamber is
already enabled at lower steam dilution ratios. This promotes
the swirl-stabilized flame to appear at even higher flame
temperatures.
The exhaust temperatures, measured downstream of the
fused quartz combustion chamber, are plotted in the bottom
row of Fig. 9. The exhaust temperatures are decreasing line-
arly with steam dilution in the swirl-stabilized range (dots).
The gradient of temperature is slightly steeper for Configura-
tion V, leading to higher exhaust temperatures at the point of
transition between the jet and the swirl-stabilized flame. On
the other hand, the cold blow-off of Configuration V already
appears at a lower steam dilution ratio.
Mixing quality
In order to achieve a high combustion efficiency, fast and
complete mixing of the reactants is of high importance. The
mixing process is analyzed in the water tunnel at the same
conditions as the PIV measurements. Since only one flow can
be visualized at a time, the mixing of O2 and H2 is investigated
in separate experiments, keeping all other parameters con-
stant. The instantaneous mixing of both gases with steam is
depicted in Fig. 10 (right) for low and Fig. 10 (left) for high
steam dilution. There is a clear difference in the evolution of
the mixing process in both cases. At low steam dilution, the H2
injection (top row) acts like a round jet, resulting in poor
mixing with the surrounding steam. The O2 jets are directed
inwards to the central axis where they interact with the H2 jet
at approximately x ¼ 0:5D. In the downstream part of the
combustion chamber the reactants, especially the O2 fraction,
show high local fluctuations.
In the highly diluted case, vortex breakdown appears,
changing the mixing behavior completely. The H2 jet penetrates
less into the combustion chamber and spreads much more,
leading to faster mixing with the surrounding steam. The O2 jets
are pointing outwards and are observed to break up in the shear
layers of the recirculation zone. Due to the recirculation zone,
the mixture cannot be convected downstream on the central
axis but is guided towards the walls of the combustion cham-
ber. Thus, the local fluctuations in the region of the recircula-
tion zone are low compared to the jet flame case. In the
combustion test rig, this region is filled with hot exhaust gas (i.e.
steam), which is recirculated to the flame zone.
Both mixing processes are evaluated in the combined
mixture fraction CMix , which is defined as shown in Eq. (4),
where CO2 is the mixture fraction of O2 in the water tunnel, i.e.
the Rhodamine concentration in the combustion chamber
normalized by the concentration at the injection. The same
applies to the H2 mixture fraction CH2 .
 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx 9

Fig. 10 e Instantaneous mixing fractions in the combustion chamber of H2 (top) and O2 (bottom) of Configuration III for low
(left) and high (right) steam dilution.

CMix ðx; yÞ ¼ CO2 ðx; yÞ þ CH2 ðx; yÞ (4)  2

In order to sum up the aforementioned results, CMix is
shown in Fig. 11, superposed by the stagnation line, i.e. the
contour line of zero axial velocity, and a contour of the Abel-
deconvoluted OH* intensity. The time-averaged mixing field
is in good agreement with the shape of the stagnation line of
the mean flow field in the highly diluted case. The flame is
compact in axial direction and located in the shear layer of the
inner recirculation zone. In the jet flame case, the flame is
much longer and stabilized in the mixing layer of the re-
actants. Please note, that there is only low OH* intensity on the
central axis where the H2 concentration is expected to be high.
The axial development of the mixing process is quantified
by the spatial and temporal unmixedness, defined in Eq. (6)
and Eq. (7).
 
s20 ¼ 〈CMix ðx; yÞ〉 , 1  〈CMix ðx; yÞ〉 (5)
 2
〈 CMix ðx; yÞ  〈CMix ðx; yÞ〉 〉
Us ðxÞ ¼ (6)
s20
〈 CMix ðx; yÞ  〈CMix ðx; yÞ〉 〉
Ut ðxÞ ¼ (7)
s20
where ð:Þ denotes the temporal average and 〈:〉 the spatial
average in y direction. Fig. 12 is showing a lower spatial
unmixedness for the swirl flame over the whole combustion
chamber and lower temporal mixture fluctuations in the
downstream part, which indicates a better mixing of the re-
actants in this case.
Conclusions on the burner characterization
In conclusion, two different flame types exist with the same
burner configuration by changing the steam dilution ratio. The
swirl-stabilized flame results in faster and more homoge-
neous mixing compared to the jet flame. At the same time, the
swirling flame is very compact in the axial direction and
located upstream of the point where ideal mixing is reached.
Due to incomplete mixing, local deviations from the stoi-
chiometric fuel/oxidizer ratio can appear, leading to pockets
of unburned gas. If these are convected away from the flame
zone into colder regions, they cannot be converted into steam.

Fig. 11 e Time-averaged mixture fraction CMix for Configuration III with the contour line of zero axial velocity (white) and the
flame shape (black).

Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
10 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 12 e Spatial (left) and temporal (right) unmixedness for Configuration III.
This would impair the combustion efficiency especially for
high dilution rates, where the flame and exhaust tempera-
tures are already low.
The jet flame is more stretched in axial direction and also
covers regions, where the spatial unmixedness saturates. In
the radial direction, the jet flame is very confined with low OH*
intensity on the central axis, which could lead to unburned
reactants. Moreover, the hot exhaust is not recirculated, so
unburned fuel can easily escape the combustion zone. How-
ever, for a constant burner configuration, the exhaust tem-
peratures are much higher for the jet flames due to the lower
steam dilution (Fig. 9). This is expected to support the fuel
burnout and, hence, improve combustion efficiency. The
lower flame temperature of the swirl-stabilized flame is
compensated by the recirculation of the hot exhaust gas, also
supporting the fuel burnout. The resulting combustion effi-
ciency is measured and discussed in the following section.
Combustion efficiency
In the following subsections, first, the measurement proced-
ure is explained in detail and second, the combustion effi-
ciency is discussed. In Fig. 9 the operational maps of two
configurations are shown. The analysis of the combustion
efficiency focuses only on Configuration V because it features
a larger range of swirl-stabilized combustion.
Measurement procedure of the combustion efficiency
As stated before, gas residuals in the exhaust can exist due to
two factors, i.e. combustion inefficiencies and equivalence
ratio deviations from stoichiometry. First, the deviation from
stoichiometric conditions is measured by the LS as the mass
fractions wO2 ;LS and wH2 ;LS . The voltage of the LS is converted to
mass fraction with Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) and subsequently time-
averaged for t ¼ 120 s in each data point. Thereby also tem-
porary appearances of O2 or H2 are recognized, which was
observed close to stoichiometric conditions. Thus one time-
averaged measurement point can contain both, H2 and O2
residuals, even though the LS only measures one or the other
at a given time. The obtained mass fractions are shown in
Fig. 13 as a function of the equivalence ratio, which is varied
manually here in order to demonstrate its influence on the gas
Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
residuals. As expected the LS detects O2 residuals under lean
and H2 residuals under rich conditions. The total amount of O2
in the exhaust gas is measured by the TDLAS sensor in terms
of the volumetric concentration fO2 . The mass fraction is then
calculated by Eq. (8). The difference between the O2 mass
fraction from the TDLAS and the LS yields the fraction of
unburned stoichiometric O2. Based on this value, the fraction
of unburned H2 can be directly derived using the stoichio-
metric ratio of 0.125. The mass fractions of H2 in the exhaust
gas is then calculated via Eq. (10) and shown in Fig. 14.
fO2 ;TDLAS ,rO2
wO2 ;ex ¼ (8)
fO2 ;TDLAS ,rO2 þ fH2 O ,rH2 O
1 1

wH2 ;ub ¼ wO2 ;ub ¼ wO2 ;ex  wO2 ;LS (9)
8 8
wH2 ;ex ¼ wH2 ;LS þ wH2 ;ub (10)
For low steam dilution, the appearance of O2 in the exhaust
gas at lean is evident as expected. The same counts for H2 in
the rich regime. In contrast, at high dilution, excess O2 is also
present at rich conditions, indicating an insufficient com-
bustion efficiency. The combustion efficiency is defined in Eq.
(11) as the ratio of burned stoichiometric H2 to the total
amount of H2:
m_ H2  wH2 ;ub ,m_ ex
hc ¼ (11)
m_ H2
This way, the combustion efficiency is corrected by any
deviation from stoichiometric combustion. Thus, even for
divergent equivalence ratios, a high combustion efficiency can
be reached. In Fig. 15 the combustion efficiency is shown for
variously set equivalence ratios. While for low dilution the
efficiency varies only slightly with the equivalence ratio, there
is a clear drop at rich and stoichiometric conditions for high
dilution ratios. However, even though the combustion effi-
ciency is not necessarily impaired at rich or lean conditions, a
deviation from stoichiometric conditions causes residual
concentrations of H2 respectively O2 in the exhaust (Fig. 14).
Consequently, the combustion efficiency must be investigated
at controlled stoichiometric conditions, which is done in the
following subsection.
Fig. 16 (left) shows the combustion efficiency of burner
Configuration V as a function of the steam dilution ratio. It is
 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx 11

Fig. 13 e Mass fractions of the deviation from stoichiometric conditions measured by the LS for 3 levels of steam dilution.

Fig. 14 e Mass fraction of O2 in the exhaust measured by the TDLAS (left) and calculated for H2 (right) with 3 levels of steam
dilution.

observed that the combustion efficiency increases with ther-
mal power especially for high steam dilution. Steam dilution
lowers the adiabatic flame temperature and is leading to a
drop in efficiency above a certain level. At a steam dilution
ratio above U ¼ 8 cold flame blow-off appears. The main
parameter describing the decay of combustion efficiency is
the exhaust temperature, as shown in Fig. 16 (right), where the
efficiency curves coincide for different thermal power levels
when plotted against the exhaust temperature. The efficiency
is increasing with exhaust temperature up to 1100 K and sat-
urates afterwards close to hc ¼ 100 %. Within this saturated
range, the flame is slowly changing its shape from a jet to
swirl-stabilized flame as described in section Flame shape and
position. However, this transition seems to have no significant
impact on the combustion efficiency. In Section Conclusions
on the burner characterization, the advantages and disad-
vantages of both flame types are summed up regarding flow
field, flame shape, flame position and mixing in relation to the
combustion efficiency. Considering the efficiency measure-
ments, it seems that negative and positive features of each
flame type cancel each other for Configuration V, as long as
the flame temperature is high enough. The lowest measured
residual gas concentrations in the exhaust were wO2 ;ex ¼ 0:21
%mass O2 and wH2 ;ex ¼ 0:03 %mass H2 at Pth ¼ 30 kW and a
steam dilution of U ¼ 5.

Combustion efficiency at stoichiometric conditions

Please note that in contrast to section Operational map

where saturated steam was used, the steam for the effi-
ciency measurements is super-heated to avoid condensation
in the measurement equipment. However, the super-heated
test rig is much more limited in thermal power and steam
mass flow rate than the saturated steam test rig. Hence, not
all points of the operational map in Fig. 9 can be evaluated
Fig. 15 e Combustion efficiency of Configuration V with 3
regarding their combustion efficiency.
levels of steam dilution.

Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
12 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx
Figure 16 e Combustion efficiency of Configuration V under stoichiometric conditions.
Conclusions
In the present study, results of a fundamental investigation of
a steam-diluted H2/O2 combustion system are presented. The
results focus especially on the combustion efficiency, which
plays an important role for the industrial application of such a
combustion system. First, the model burner is characterized
in general by the means of PIV, PLIF and OH* chem-
iluminescence. Two distinct flame types are established,
depending on the underlying flow field. High steam dilution
ratios are leading to vortex breakdown in the combustion
chamber. This enables a swirl-stabilization of the flame,
which is therefore located in the shear layers between the
central and outer recirculation zones. Its shape is radially
distributed but axially focused. On the other hand, at low
steam dilution ratios, the tangential momentum of the steam
is not sufficient to generate vortex breakdown. The flow field
then consists of a H2 jet in a low swirling steam environment
enriched by co-axial O2 jets. Consequently, a typical jet flame
with dilution flame characteristics is established. It is radially
more confined and stretched in the axial direction. The mixing
investigation shows a more homogeneous distribution of the
reactants in the swirl-stabilized case, but the flame is located
upstream of the point of perfect mixing. Nonetheless the
swirl-stabilized flame profits from the recirculation of the
exhaust gases. The paper presents operational maps for two
burner configurations, showing the transition from the jet to
the swirl-stabilized flame. A general rule of thumb is that a
higher swirl intensity shifts the transition between the two
flame regimes towards lower steam dilution ratios. Moreover,
the onset of transition depends on the thermal power level of
the flame. This is somehow unexpected since it means that an
increased heat release reduces the swirl number that is
necessary to enable vortex breakdown. Thus, a higher adia-
batic flame temperature can be reached in the swirl-stabilized
mode at increased thermal power levels.
An in-situ measurement setup for the evaluation of the
combustion efficiency of a steam-diluted H2/O2 flame is devel-
oped, using a lambda sensor and a tunable diode laser absorp-
tion spectroscopy O2 sensor. The measurements show, that the
exhaust temperature is the governing parameter for the com-
bustion efficiency in this particular burner configuration. For
exhaust temperatures Tex > 1100 K the combustion efficiency is
constantly above hc ¼ 95 % and close to 100% for high thermal
Please cite this article as: Tanneberger T et al., Combustion efficiency measurements and burner characterization in a hydrogen-
oxyfuel combustor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.055
power. At lower exhaust temperatures, the combustion effi-
ciency drops significantly. This boundary corresponds to U  6
and should be avoided in technical processes.
For the first time, the jet and swirl-stabilized flame types
are compared in terms of combustion efficiency. It shows that
the combustion efficiency does not change significantly dur-
ing the transition between both types. However, the compar-
ison of both flame types is limited by the fact that (for a given
burner configuration) their combustion efficiency could only
be measured at different steam dilution ratios. Thus, the jet
flame exhibits a much higher power density and exhaust
temperature than the swirl-stabilized flame. In order to allow
for a fair comparison regarding their efficiency, they have to
be measured at the same dilution ratios. This will be incor-
porated in future studies, where more configurations of the
burner will be investigated in an optimized setup.
The steam dilution of the flame allows for a precise control
of the flame temperature. The most relevant range for tech-
nical applications is a ratio of U ¼ 4  6, leading to an adiabatic
flame temperature of approximately 1500 K. At a sufficiently
high thermal power (Pth  30 kW), this range is covered by a
stable, swirl-stabilized flame, which reaches a combustion
efficiency of nearly 100%. In conclusion, the results show that
swirl-stabilized hydrogen oxyfuel combustion is suitable for
technical applications even in closed cycles, since the re-
actants are almost completely converted.
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