REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

BACOLOD CITY COLLEGE

TEACHER EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

TOPIC: THE BASIS OF LIFE

GROUP II:
ALEGRE,KAREN MAE
MALARAS, PAMELA
TORMIS, REGIE
UNABIA, MAE ANN

INSTRUCTOR:
MR. RHOD G. TORBELA ,LPT MAED
 Most activities of the cell involve chemical changes. Small molecules may join
together to form larger ones, while complex substances may be broken down to their
smaller units. Materials are change from one form to another, used up or synthesized
during biochemical events occurring in cells.

ATOM- is the smallest unit of matter. Living and nonliving things contain atoms. Each
atom contains a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by more negatively
charged electrons. The charge of proton is +1 while electron is -1.

ELEMENT- is a substance with only one kind of atom. Carbon consists of atom and
oxygen has oxygen atoms only.

ISOTOPES- atoms of the same element are not identical. Atoms that have the same
number of protons but different number electrons are called isotopes.
Some isotopes with excess neutrons are unstable and tend to break down or decay to a
more stable isotope, usually of another element and these are called
RADIOISOTOPES.
BEHAVIOR OF ELECTRONS
In cell, the electrons and how they behave are of greatest biological interest. The
characteristic number of electrons in each atom determine how the atom reacts with other
atoms.
The atoms of a molecule are held together by forces of attraction called CHEMICAL
BONDS.

TYPES OF BONDS
COVALENT BONDS- involve sharing of electrons between atoms. When a pair of
electrons is shared between two atoms, the covalent bond is called single bond. When
two pairs of electrons are shared, the covalent bond is called as double bond.

IONIC BONDS- are formed when electrons are pulled completely from one atom and
transferred to the other. When atom gain or losses electrons , it becomes a charged
particle called ion.

HYDROGEN BOND -this is formed between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative

atom. These are weak bonds and are readily formed or broken .

CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN LIVING CELLS

Cell is like a chemical factory that uses elements present in the nonliving environment.

TYPES OF COMPOUNDS
INORGANIC COMPOUND- do not have the elements carbon and hydrogen in chemical
composition. The greatest percentage in cells are water, mineral salts, inorganic acids,
and bases.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS- chemical compounds present in living organisms contain
carbon.

MAJOR MACROMOLECULES WHICH ARE IMPORTANT IN LIVING

ORGANISMS

Carbohydrates- are composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the
ratio of approximately one carbon or two hydrogen and one oxygen.
Glucose- a monosaccharide molecule , is the basic unit of a carbohydrate structure. A
monosaccharide is a simple sugar fro which larger carbohydrate molecule are formed.
Lipids- are a heterogeneous group of compounds that have a greasy consistency and
are insoluble in water but readily soluble in organic solvents.
Steroids - are organic compounds whose multiple rings share carbons. Carotenoids are a
family light- absorbing pigments in planets and animals.
Proteins - are polymers that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually
sulfur. All proteins are formed from small monomer called amino acids.
Nucleic Acid- are macromacules formed from monomers called nucleotides. Are the
compounds that pass hereditary information from one generation to another, making
possible the continuity of life.

TWO TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID

 Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

CELL - is the basic unit of the structure and function in living things. It was discovered
in cork cells by Robert Hooke in 1665.Cells vary in size, shape, and function, yet have
common cell structures.
2 MAIN REGION OF CELL
 Outer cell body or cytosome - contains the cytoplasm
 Inner cell body or nucleus- containing nucleoplasm..

STRUCTURE OF A CELL

 PLASMA MEMBRANE AND CELL WALL

-the plasma membrane or plasmalema is a thin limiting membrane that
encloses the cell, defining the boundaries between extra-cellular and intracellular
spaces.
-the cell wall is the cellular structure found outside the cell membrane in many
organisms.

 CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES

-is the cytoplasmic ground substance or matrix. .
-it is here where food nutrients are received, processed, and used, and where
waste products are moved.

CONTAINS THE FOLLOWING:

a) Endoplasmic reticulum- is a winding network of membranes interconnected with
each other. It provides channels through which transport of materials can be made
effectively throughout the cytoplasm.
Two portions:
1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum- peppered with ribosomes which function
insynthesis of proteins.
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum- devoid of ribosomes but produces lipids
like cholesterol, and carbohydrates like glycogen.
b) Mitochondria - these are slender rods or filaments enclosed by two membranes--
the outer is smooth , and the inner forms are thrown into folds called cristae.
c) Golgi apparatus - these consist of flattened sooth-surfaced vacuoles stacked one on
top of the other.
d) Lysosome - these are vesicles present only in animal cells which are surrounded by
membranes and contain hydrolytic enzymes that break down large organic
molecules( proteins,lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids).
e) Centrioles - these are bodies located just outside the nucleus and are involved in the
movement of chromosome during sell division.
f) Plastids - occur as round or oval bodies that contain pigments and are absent in
animal cells.
1. Chloroplasts- contain green pigments( chlorophyll) which traps
light for photosynthesis.
2. Chromoplasts - contain red , yellow, and orange pigments
characteristics of carrots , flowers, tomatoes etc.
3. Leucoplasts - contain pigments for colorless appearance (starch,
grain in rice, potatoes, radish).
g) Vacuoles - are membrane -bound bodies containing various substances in dilute
solution for food storage(food vacuole) ,removal of waste(excretory vacuole), and
water storage in plants (central vacuole) that comprise almost 95%of cell for plants.
h) Microfilaments and microtubules- these are thread-like structure for support and
movement.

 NUCLEUS - is a specialized spherical central mass of protoplasm considered as one

of the most conspicuous structural area s of the cell . It plays the central role in
controlling and directing both biochemical reactions that occur in the cell and
reproduction if the cell.
THE SRTUCTURE OF DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA)-- is the stuff genes are made of.
4 Different kinds of nucleotide building blocks occur in DNA
1. Adenine
2. Guanine
3. Cytosine
4. Thymine
James D. Watson &Francis H.C. Crick - developed a model for the structure of the
DNA molecule by combining what was known about the chemical content of DNA
through earlier X-ray diffraction studies , and date on the distance between bonded atoms
in molecules, the angles between bonds, and the sizes of atoms.

Watson &Crick Model was first proposed in 1953, has been supported by the results of
later research and has been generally accepted. They’ve been awarded the NOBEL
PRIZE for their work.

PROKARYOTIC vs.EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotes - lack membrane -bound subcellular structures and includes bacteria and
blue- green algae.
Eukaryotes - contain subcellular structure enclosed by a membrane that seperates them
from the surrounding cytoplsm.

TYPES OF CELLS AND TISSUES

TISSUES - groups of cells performing special life functions.

ORGANS - consists of several different tissues working together.

TISSUES IN ANIMALS:
1. Epithelial tissues - are tissues made up closely packed cells arranged in flat sheets
form skin which covers the body. The skin protects the tissues under it from damage
caused by rubbing or scraping.
2. Connective tissues - hold parts of the body, such as bones, together. The long and
tough fibers that hold bones onto other bones called LIGAMENTS, while the
tissues which hold muscle to bone are called TENDONS.
3. Muscle tissues - are for movements for animals. Our body movement are not under
our conscious control--INVOLUNTARY. Some of our muscles are made up of
long .fibers and they move our bones are called VOLUNTARY.
CARDIAC MUSCLE - is a special type of muscle that makes up our heart.
4. Nerve tissues - receive and send sensations forward.

PLANT TISSUES - a tissue is composed of a group vegetative cells with one or more
specific functions.
2KINDS OF PLANT TISSUES
a. MERISTEMATIC TISSUES - tissues responsible for the production of new
cells.
b. PERMANENT TISSUES - tissues composed of mature and differentiated
cells.

*MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

 PASSIVE TRANSPORT - the movement of molocule s from greater to leser

concentration. This does not require metabolic energy to activate the transfer of
substance across the membrane.
*Parts of Solution
a. Solute - any substance, solid, liquid, or gas, dissolved in a medium
b. Solvent - any substance ,liquid or gas , that dissolves the solute.

DIFFUSION- is the movement of solute molecules from a region of greater /higher

concentration of solute to a region or area of lesser/lower concentration of solute until
equilibrium is attained.
OSMOSIS - the movement of solvent molecules from the region of greater /higher
concentration of solvent(lesser concentration of solute )to a region of lower
concentration of solvent (greater concentration of solute) through a semi- permeable
membrane.

 ACTIVE TRANSPORT - metabolic energy is required to activate transfer across

the membrane.

 ENDOCYTOSIS/ WHOLESALE INGETION - involves moving larger

molecules/particles into the cell.
1. PHYTAGOCYTOSIS - means “cell eating”
- this is the common method of feeding among protozoans, and is also the way white
blood cells engulf cellular debris and microbes in the blood.
2. PINOCYTOSIS - means “cell drinking”
- in this process, drops of fluid are the ones taken in. It requires metabolic energy.

EXOCYTOSIS - a process by which substance , after being acted upon by lysosomal

enzymes,are packed and discharged out of the cell.
- involves discharge of materials from the cell.

CELLULAR METABOLISM
Photosynthesis - is an anabolic process because it builds up organic molecules from
inorganic carbon dioxide and water.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION - involves a series of reactions that lead to the

breakdown of glucose , amino acids, and fatty acids.

STAGES:
1) GLYCOLYSIS - involves splitting of a 6- carbon glucose into two 3- carbon pyruvic
acid molecules. This occurs in the ground substance pf the cytoplasm of all plants
and animals cells.
2) KREBS CYCLE - named after Sir Hans Krebs, the Kreb’s cycle involves the
breaking down of pyruvate to carbon dioxide, and the release of more energy.
3) ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM - compounds that are produced during the
Kreb’s cycle are used to transport electron to the electron transport system.
CELL CYCLE - refers to the complete sequence of events involving inter-phase , cell
division, cell growth , cell senecene/aging and cell death.

a. INTERPHASE - this phased is called the metabolic stge of the cell cycle becais
although there are no signs of cell division at this stage, metabolism strictly taking
place.
b. CELL DIVISION - is the process that makes possible the multiplication of the cell
number and growth and development of a multi-cellular organism.
3 TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
a) Mitosis
b) Meiosis
c) Amitosis
MITOSIS - is a process of indirect cell division. Responsible for growth, development,
repair of damaged tissue and most important , for transmission of hereditary
characteristics of the organism by virtue of the presence of genes contained in the
chromosomes.
STAGES OF MITOSIS:
1. PHROPHASE - first stage of the mitosis , during which te chromosomes are
condensed and attached to the mitotic spindle.
*EARLY PROPHASE - the chromonemata still appears as one although it starts to
thicken and elongate.
*MIDDLE PROPHASE - each chromosomes visibly doubles and the chromatids
continue to thicken and shorten; centrioles(in animal cells) move farther apart fro
each other, reaching the opposite ends of the cell.
*LATE PROPHASE - chromosomes condense,the nuclear membrane fades,and
along with it the nucleolus.
2. MATAPHASE - this is the tge of chromosomes alignments at the metaphase plate.
*EARLY METAPHASE - chromosomes orient themselves along the metaphase
plate.
*LATE METAPHASE -chromosomes arrange themselves along the metaphase
plate.
3. ANAPHASE -is the stage of chromosome separation and migration to the opposite
poles.
*EARLY ANAPHASE - chromatid pairs split/separate fro ach other through the
pilling force of the spindles and begins to migrate to the opposite poles.
*LATE ANAPHASE - chromosomes from two distinct groups at each pole.
4. TELOPHASE -the stage of nuclear recognition , the start of cytoplasmic division.
*EARLY TELOPHASE - chromosomes have reached the opposite poles and lie
close to each other , forming a clump.
*LATE TELOPHASE - in animal cell, cell constriction deeper(cell furrowing)and a
centiole appears on one side of the nucleus.
 MEIOSIS - is a special type of cell division which produces eggs and sperms cell.
- is a reduce cell division because the number of chromosomes in each resulting
daughter cell is reduced be a half.
 THE MEIOTIC DIVISION OR REDUCTION DIVISION
- one cell which is diploid divides into two daughter cells, each of which is a
monoploid.
 SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION OR EQUATIONAL DIVISION
- he cintinuation of the fisrt phase , where each of the two daughter cells resulting
from the first place divides ,thus learning four cells, each having the same n
umber of chromosomes as their parent cells.

TWO TYPES OF GAMETOGENESIS

 SPERMATOGENESIS - this occurs in the male gonads/testes and involves steps
or change leading to the production of spermatids ,which differentiate into a mature
male gametes( sperm cell)
 OOGENESIS - the process occurs in the female gonads or ovaries. It is composed of
steps leading to the polar bodies and ootids.

PLANTS REPROCUCTIVE CELLS

 MICROSPOROGENESIS - involves meiosis of pollen mother or micro spore
mother cells to form haploid microscope s or pollen grains in the anther of a flower.
 MEGASPOROGENESIS - involves meiosis of mega spore mother cells or embryo
sac mother cells to form haploid mega spores or embryo sac initials.

AMITOSIS -is a direct type of cell division which involves the constriction of ghe
cytoplasm and of the nucleus into two or more parts r cell, with approximately equal
amounts of nuclear and cytoplasmic materials.

TYPES OF AMITOSIS
1. BINARY FISSION - the body of the parent is divided into two approximately equal
parts, each of which grows into an individual similar to the parent.
2. BUDDING - involves the unequal division of the organism. The new individual
arises as an outgrowth (bud) from the parent.
Form:
a. EXTERNAL BUDDING - the bud on the surface of the parent.
b. INTERNAL BUDDING - is formed within the parents body called
GEMMULES/ internal bud.
3. SPORULATION or MULTIPLE FISSION - an organism breaks into more than two
parts each capable of becoming a complete animal.
4. CONJUGATION
2 Phases:
a. ASEXUAL PHASE - two individuals fuse temporarily and exchange nuclear
materials.
b. SEXUAL PHASE- after nuclear exchange , two animals separate where each
divides into two to produce four offsprings.